Wireless Communication Security E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 401

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SECURITY Presenting the concepts and advances of wireless communication security, this volume, written and edited by a global team of experts, also goes into the practical applications for the engineer, student, and other industry professionals. Covering a broad range of topics in wireless communication security and its solutions, this outstanding new volume is of great interest to engineers, scientists, and students from a variety of backgrounds and interests. Focusing on providing the theory of wireless communication within the framework of its practical applications, the contributors take on a wealth of topics, integrating seemingly diverse areas under one cover. Wireless Communication Security has been divided into five units. The first unit presents the different protocols and standards for developing a real-time wireless communication security. The second unit presents different widely accepted networks, which are the core of wireless communication security. Unit three presents the various device and network controlling methodologies. Unit four presents the various high performance and computationally efficient algorithms for efficient and scalable implementation of network protocols, and the last unit presents the leading innovations and variety of usage of wireless communication security. Valuable as a learning tool for beginners in this area as well as a daily reference for engineers and scientists working in these areas, this is a must-have for any library.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

1 M2M in 5G Cellular Networks: Challenges, Proposed Solutions, and Future Directions

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Literature Survey

1.3 Survey Challenges and Proposed Solutions of M2M

1.4 Conclusion

References

2 MAC Layer Protocol for Wireless Security

2.1 Introduction

2.2 MAC Layer

2.3 Functions of the MAC Layer

2.4 MAC Layer Protocol

2.5 MAC Address

2.6 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

3 Enhanced Image Security Through Hybrid Approach: Protect Your Copyright Over Digital Images

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Literature Review

3.3 Design Issues

3.4 A Secure Grayscale Image Watermarking Based on DWT-SVD

3.5 Experimental Results

3.6 Conclusion

References

4 Quantum Computing

4.1 Introduction

4.2 A Brief History of Quantum Computing

4.3 Postulate of Quantum Mechanics

4.4 Polarization and Entanglement

4.5 Applications and Advancements

4.6 Optical Quantum Computing

4.7 Experimental Realisation of Quantum Computer

4.8 Challenges of Quantum Computing

4.9 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

5 Feature Engineering for Flow-Based IDS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 IP Flows

5.3 Feature Engineering

5.4 Classification of Feature Selection Technique

5.5 Tools and Library for Feature Selection

5.6 Literature Review on Feature Selection in Flow-Based IDS

5.7 Challenges and Future Scope

5.8 Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

6 Environmental Aware Thermal (EAT) Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Motivation Behind the Work

6.3 Novelty of This Work

6.4 Related Works

6.5 Proposed Environmental Aware Thermal (EAT) Routing Protocol

6.6 Simulation Parameters

6.7 Results and Discussion

6.8 Conclusion

References

7 A Comprehensive Study of Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Configuring IDPS

7.3 Literature Review

7.4 Conclusion

References

8 Hardware Devices Integration With IoT

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Literature Review

8.3 Component Description

8.4 Case Studies

8.5 Drawbacks of Arduino and Raspberry Pi

8.6 Challenges in IoT

8.7 Conclusion

8.8 Annexures

References

Additional Resources

9 Depth Analysis On DoS & DDoS Attacks

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Literature Survey

9.3 Timeline of DoS and DDoS Attacks

9.4 Evolution of Denial of Service (DoS) & Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)

9.5 DDoS Attacks: A Taxonomic Classification

9.6 Transmission Control Protocol

9.7 User Datagram Protocol

9.8 Types of DDoS Attacks

9.9 Impact of DoS/DDoS on Various Areas

9.10 Countermeasures to DDoS Attack

9.11 Conclusion

9.12 Future Scope

References

10 SQL Injection Attack on Database System

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Objective and Motivation

10.3 Process of SQL Injection Attack

10.4 Related Work

10.5 Literature Review

10.6 Implementation of the SQL Injection Attack

10.7 Detection of SQL Injection Attack

10.8 Prevention/Mitigation from SQL Injection Attack

10.9 Conclusion

References

11 Machine Learning Techniques for Face Authentication System for Security Purposes

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Face Recognition System (FRS) in Security

11.3 Theory

11.4 Experimental Methodology

11.5 Results

11.6 Conclusion

References

12 Estimation of Computation Time for Software-Defined Networking‑Based Data Traffic Offloading System in Heterogeneous Network

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Analysis of SDN-TOS Mechanism

12.3 Materials and Methods

12.4 Simulation Results

12.5 Discussion

12.6 Conclusion

References

About the Editors

Index

Also of Interest

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 QoS class types for M2M communications [40–42].

Table 1.2 Optimization of low-cost and low-power M2M devices [43, 45, 46].

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 PSNR values for the Cameraman and Lena image.

Table 3.2 NC values for the Camraman and Lena image.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Simulation parameters for environmental influence on sensor nodes.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Comparison of conventional intrusion detection techniques.

Table 7.2 Summary of literature review.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 A comparison among previous studies and the components used by thos...

Table 12.2 Parameter values used in the computation model.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Cases for M2M connectivity. (a) Basic M2M connectivity, (b) M2M in ...

Figure 1.2 Applications of M2M communications [9].

Figure 1.3 Radio resource allocation in existing mobile standards [23].

Figure 1.4 Resource scheduling supports M2M communication [28].

Figure 1.5 Clustering mechanism [36].

Figure 1.6 Represents the diverse types of attacks likely to occur while M2M c...

Figure 1.7 Probable solutions for M2M security issues.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 OSI model representing MAC layer.

Figure 2.2 Sub-layer of data link layer.

Figure 2.3 Classification of MAC layer protocols.

Figure 2.4 Pure Aloha.

Figure 2.5 Slotted Aloha.

Figure 2.6 Assume A station communicated data but collided, wasting 2Tp in the...

Figure 2.7 Five stations and slot reservation frame.

Figure 2.8 Polling process.

Figure 2.9 Token passing process.

Figure 2.10 48-bit MAC address structure.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Classification of information hiding methods.

Figure 3.2 Difference between steganography, cryptography, and digital waterma...

Figure 3.3 Breaking watermarking system by possible attackers.

Figure 3.4 An example of LSB Spatial Domain Watermarking [69].

Figure 3.5 The flowchart of proposed algorithm.

Figure 3.6 (a) Original host image Cameraman, (b) Original host image Lena, an...

Figure 3.7 (a) Watermarked Cameraman image and extracted watermark when non-at...

Figure 3.8 (a) Blurring attack on Lena image, (b) cropping attack on Lena imag...

Figure 3.9 PSNR values for the results obtained by the method proposed in [7, ...

Figure 3.10 PSNR values for the results obtained by the method proposed in [7,...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Quantum satellite transmission [Bacsardi

et al

., [4].

Figure 4.2 Configurations of satellite communication [Marshall

et al

., [6].

Figure 4.3 Vertical and horizontal polarization [1, 9].

Figure 4.4 Representation of vector of different polarizations (photon) [1] Sa...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Intrusion detection system classification [1].

Figure 5.2 Architecture of IP flow flow-based IDS [6].

Figure 5.3 Flow-based wireless intrusion detection systems [10].

Figure 5.4 Feature engineering in machine learning workflow [13].

Figure 5.5 Curse of dimensionality [14].

Figure 5.6 Classification of feature selection.

Chapter 6

Fig. 6.1 Routing protocol used in wireless sensor network.

Fig. 6.2 Single path communication protocol.

Fig. 6.3 Communication failure due to node head heating.

Fig. 6.4 Shortest path established between source and destination for data tr...

Fig. 6.5 Node failure in established routing path with data transmission loss...

Fig. 6.6 Data transmission through an alternative path.

Fig. 6.7 Environmental aware thermal (EAT) routing protocol.

Fig. 6.8 Temperature variation of sensor node at different time.

Fig. 6.9 Average power consumption for different data rate.

Fig. 6.10 Lifetime analysis for all three cases.

Fig. 6.11 Delivery delay analysis over temperature.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Intrusion detection working.

Figure 7.2 (i) IDS, and (ii) IPS.

Figure 7.3 A typical IDPS Architecture.

Figure 7.4 NIDS.

Figure 7.5 HIDS.

Figure 7.6 Signature-based technique.

Figure 7.7 Anomaly-based technique.

Figure 7.8 Architecture of hybrid-based methodology.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Arduino UNO board.

Figure 8.2 Raspberry Pi 4 board.

Figure 8.3 Connections of ultrasonic sensor for measuring distance.

Figure 8.4 Distance readings.

Figure 8.5 Connections for measuring temperature and humidity.

Figure 8.6 Output measurements in Arduino IDE.

Figure 8.7 Working diagram of weather monitoring.

Figure 8.8 Flow chart.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 DDoS using zombie network [13].

Figure 9.2 Average annual cost of cyberattack by its type (2018 costs about US...

Figure 9.3 Size of DDoS attack in Gb/s [5].

Figure 9.4 Classification of DDoS attacks by degree [15].

Figure 9.5 TCP 3-way handshake [17].

Figure 9.6 UDP header [29].

Figure 9.7 DDoS attacks types [5].

Figure 9.8 TCP SYN flood [3].

Figure 9.9 UDP flood [21].

Figure 9.10 Smurf attack [20].

Figure 9.11 Ping of death [20].

Figure 9.12 HTTP flood attack [21].

Figure 9.13 DOS attack in vehicle-to-infrastructure communications [23].

Figure 9.14 DOS attack in vehicle-to-vehicle communications [23].

Figure 9.15 Countermeasures to DDoS attack [27].

Chapter 10

Figure 10.3.1 Flowchart of SQL injection attack.

Figure 10.5.1 Code for filtered incorrectly escape characters [2].

Figure 10.5.2 Malicious attack by replacing the “username” in incorrect way [2...

Figure 10.5.3 Multiple SQL queries attack by attacker [2].

Figure 10.5.4 Conditional response [2].

Figure 10.5.5 SQL injection and DNS attack [2].

Figure 10.6.1.1 Student table creation and insert the values [4].

Figure 10.6.1.2 Access the table [4].

Figure 10.6.1.3 Unauthorized table access using 1=1 sql statement [4].

Figure 10.6.2.1 Student table creation and insert the values [4].

Figure 10.6.2.2 Access the table [4].

Figure 10.6.2.3 Unauthorized table access using ‘’’’=’’’’ sql statement [4].

Figure 10.6.3.1 Student table creation and insert the value [4].

Figure 10.6.3.2 Access the table [4].

Figure 10.6.3.3 Modify table content using batched sql statement [4].

Figure 10.6.3.4 Delete table content using batched sql statement [4]

Figure 10.6.3.5 Drop table using batched sql statement [4].

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Architecture of convolutional neural network.

Figure 11.2 Summary of convolutional neural network.

Figure 11.3 Compilation of convolutional neural network.

Figure 11.4 Summary and Hyperparameters of K-Nearest Neighbor classifier.

Figure 11.5 Summary and Hyperparameters of support vector machine classifier.

Figure 11.6 Summary and hyperparameters of Naive Bayes classifier.

Figure 11.7 Summary and hyperparameters of Logistic Regression classifier.

Figure 11.8 Summary and hyperparameters of Decision Tree classifier.

Figure 11.9 Accuracy comparison between convolutional neural network (CNN) and...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 The system architecture of Software-defined network-based data tra...

Figure 12.2 Overview of Wi-Fi Mininet emulator including LTE network and Wi-Fi...

Figure 12.3 Time computation model for SDN-based data traffic offloading (SDN-...

Figure 12.4 The overview of centralized SDN controller with three major sub-co...

Figure 12.5 Effect of computational data traffic (θ

I

) on the total response ti...

Figure 12.6 Effect of computational data traffic (θ

I

) on the total response ti...

Guide

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

About the Editors

Index

Also of Interest

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

Pages

ii

iii

iv

xii

xiv

xv

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

253

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Advances in Data Engineering and Machine Learning

Series Editor: Niranjanamurthy M, PhD, Juanying XIE, PhD, and Ramiz Aliguliyev, PhD

Scope: Data engineering is the aspect of data science that focuses on practical applications of data collection and analysis. For all the work that data scientists do to answer questions using large sets of information, there have to be mechanisms for collecting and validating that information. Data engineers are responsible for finding trends in data sets and developing algorithms to help make raw data more useful to the enterprise.

It is important to have business goals in line when working with data, especially for companies that handle large and complex datasets and databases. Data Engineering Contains DevOps, Data Science, and Machine Learning Engineering. DevOps (development and operations) is an enterprise software development phrase used to mean a type of agile relationship between development and IT operations. The goal of DevOps is to change and improve the relationship by advocating better communication and collaboration between these two business units. Data science is the study of data. It involves developing methods of recording, storing, and analyzing data to effectively extract useful information. The goal of data science is to gain insights and knowledge from any type of data — both structured and unstructured.

Machine learning engineers are sophisticated programmers who develop machines and systems that can learn and apply knowledge without specific direction. Machine learning engineering is the process of using software engineering principles, and analytical and data science knowledge, and combining both of those in order to take an ML model that’s created and making it available for use by the product or the consumers. “Advances in Data Engineering and Machine Learning Engineering” will reach a wide audience including data scientists, engineers, industry, researchers and students working in the field of Data Engineering and Machine Learning Engineering.

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Wireless Communication Security

Edited by

Manju KhariManisha Bharti

and

M. Niranjanamurthy

This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Wiley Global Headquarters111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 9781119777144

Cover image: Worldwide Communication, Pop Nukoonrat | Dreamstime.comCover design by Kris Hackerott

Preface

This book is written to provide the reader with an in-depth understanding of all the security issues for wireless networks. The wide scope of knowledge that this book contains will help the researcher to become acquainted with the various aspects of wireless communications. This book discusses the security issues in wireless networks for research development. It will enable readers to develop solutions for the security threats and attacks in wireless communication systems and networks. The book provides the most cost-effective solutions to deploy wireless across a large enterprise. It discusses financial and technical controls to mitigate the effects of any unforeseen risk involved in a large wireless project.

In Chapter 1, “M2M in 5G Cellular Networks: Challenges, Proposed Solutions, and Future Directions,” 5th Generation wireless networks (5G) are defined to meet the requirements of high data rates for thousands of users, synchronized connections for vast wireless sensor networks, improved coverage area, efficient signal processing, low latency and enhanced network spectrum as compared to the 4th Generation wireless networks (4G).

Chapter 2 discusses Media access control (MAC), one of the sub-layers of the data link layer (Layer 2) in OSI (open systems interconnection) model. MAC layer provides a unique id and controls the access mechanism of channels in order to interface with other nodes over shared channel by using MAC protocol. MAC address is very helpful for delivering a data packet over an electronic network, which is not possible in the case of postal address.

Chapter 3 is “Enhanced Image Security through Hybrid Approach: Protect Your Copyright over Digital Images.” The security of the watermark against unauthorized detection is a major point of concern. If some illicit user can detect the watermark from the watermarked image then he can very easily remove that watermark by making the image copyright-free or he may also remove the originally embedded watermark and insert his watermark.

Chapter 4 discusses Quantum Computing. Quantum computers can bring about development in various fields like science and medicine that could save lives. Quantum computing can be instrumental in the advancement of machine learning so that illness can be diagnosed very quickly. With its help, materials can be discovered so that efficient structures and devices can be made. It helps to bring about development in financial strategies so that one could lead a better life in retirement.

Chapter 5, “Feature Engineering for Flow-based IDS,” discusses Network Security, Intrusion Detection System, Feature Engineering, Feature Selection, Net flow, Flow-Based Intrusion Detection System, and IP flow.

Chapter 6, “Environmental Aware Thermal (EAT) Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks,” discusses Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) as one of the emerging technologies of the 21st century due to its growing demand in automation. WSNs are organized in large environmental areas and there are more chances for the sensor nodes to get affected because of external temperature. As the environmental temperature rises, the lifetime, quality of service and temperature of sensor nodes are easily influenced. Thus Environmental Aware Thermal (EAT) routing protocol is introduced to minimize the issue. In this protocol, the incoming data signals are assigned with normal, abnormal and critical priority levels. It consists of three potential fields such as environment, energy and quality of service.

Chapter 7 “A Comprehensive Study of Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems,” presents the following: A computer network is simply an interconnection of several computers that follow common communication protocols. As network intrusion has been increasingly affecting organizational systems and crucial data, it is imperative that there exists an effective network security system in place. This is where the role of a sound intrusion detection system becomes important in an era where attempts at unauthorized access have become the norm rather than the exception.

Chapter 8, “Hardware Devices Integration with IoT,” discusses the BLE, LPDDR, REST, HTTP, WiMAX, and GPIO.

Chapter 9 is “Analysis on Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks and Their Countermeasures.” Denial of Service (DoS) are some of the most expensive and threatening cyberattacks that exist on the internet. Their main aim is to restrict the users/victims’ access to a specific resource. This chapter comprises all ideas, classification, and solutions to the DoS attack. DoS compromises the availability goal of the CIA triad. Topics discussed are DoS, CIA triad, TCP SYN, UDP, Zombies, VANET, IoT, and Post-Attack Forensics.

Chapter 10, “A Practical Implementation of SQL Injection Attack,” discusses SQL Injection, and SQL Injection Vulnerability.

Chapter 11 is “Machine Learning Techniques for Face Authentication System for Security Purposes.” The modern world is rapidly revolutionizing the way things work. Everyday actions are being handled electronically. Based on this, a sub-division of application in recognition, specifically face recognition, emerged. Face recognition is a technology capable of verifying the identity of an individual using their face from a digital frame against a database. It has been one of the most captivating and prime research fields in the past few decades. The motivation came from the need for automated recognition and verification. Compared with traditional biometric systems, i,e., fingerprint recognition, iris recognition, face recognition has numerous advantages, not just limited to “no-contact” and “user friendly”.

Chapter 12, “Estimation of Computation Time for Software-Defined Networking-based Data Traffic Offloading System in Heterogeneous Network,” notes that the approach of data traffic offloading methodologies is likely to improve the quality of mobile service to address the issue of insufficient bandwidth due to the rapid growth of cellular data traffic. To measure the real-time performance of Software-defined networking (SDN) based offloading systems, computing the response time is essential to consider.

1M2M in 5G Cellular Networks: Challenges, Proposed Solutions, and Future Directions

Kiran Ahuja1* and Indu Bala2

1Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar, India

2School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

Abstract

Fifth-generation wireless networks (5G) are defined to meet the requirements of high data rates for thousands of users, synchronized connections for vast wireless sensor networks, improved coverage area, efficient signal processing, low latency and enhanced network spectrum as compared to the fourth-generation wireless networks (4G). These networks were initially envisioned for efficient and fast mobile networks along with converged fiber-wireless networks. However, with the explosion of smart devices and emerging multimedia applications the need to roll out 5G networks to meet the demands both at the consumer and business end became necessary. Therefore, to create a network with faster speed, the 5G networks have initiated a new basis for communication, which consists of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine-to-Machine communication (M2M). The IoT and M2M have been able to overcome the major limitations of 5G to initiate multiple-hop networks, making available high data rates to peers between several base stations and thereby reducing costs and initiating reliable security standards. Such a major deviation from the conventional design to involve large networks to support massive access by machine-type devices (MTDs) sets special technical challenges for M2M. This chapter offers an outline of the main issues raised by the M2M vision along with a survey of the common approaches proposed in the literature to enable the coexistence of M2M devices and the challenges which need to be investigated.

Keywords: Machine-to-Machine, Internet of Things (IoTs), 5G

1.1 Introduction

Every five years or so, enormous changes occur in cellular networks with the already existing generation networks in order to fix the faults of its predecessor networks. The 4G network was needed to make consuming data less of an unpleasant experience. However, it had its flaws, which were fixed by the emergence of 5G, which created a big change in the mobile networks. With the ever-growing count of wireless users, telecom technologies continued to develop speedily, supporting the growth of service capacity and coverage to fulfill user demand for higher data. But the concerning issue with current network standards is a serious lack of bandwidth which limits support of higher data networks. Due to this issue, radio spectrums on which the 4G networks operate are overcrowded and thereby are predicted to increase mobile traffic between 2010 and 2020 [1]. This being one of the major challenges, the telecom businesses are depending on 5G as an existence investor considering growing marketplace overthrow via internet groups. Attempts are being made via the telecom companies to outline 5G technological know-how that gives record transmission velocity of 10 gigabytes over the air [2], latency in the order of 1ms [3] and IoT units which run on a battery lasting for up to 10 years [4, 10].

In contrast to the 5G network, the contemporary vision of communication systems in the new business areas like car–satellite communications, home automation, health security remote controlling, smart cities, Mobile POS, etc., require complete automated communication without human intervention. Such a novel form of communication is referred to as M2M communications. M2M visualizes a scenario where equipment on both sides have tens or hundreds of antennas or even more that renders better data rates for users with efficient energy and spectrum. It serves as the key element in the emerging of Internet of Things and Smart City models [5] and [6], which are planned to provide solutions to present and upcoming socioeconomic necessities for tracking and monitoring services, as well as for novel applications and advanced business setups [7].

The basic idea of M2M is to enable direct communication between users and the devices without the occupancy of the core network elements which requires offloading of the networks thereby exploiting the physical proximities of the terminals. Even with the call for such solutions, the potential of M2M can be set free only if the connectivity of the Machine-type Devices (MTDs) is probable everywhere without employing additional devices and without (or with minimal) configuration. In this point of fact, the ideal situation should be such where the MTDs are ready to be connected with the rest of the world by placing it in the favorable position. Figure 1.1 describes the ways of connectivity in the M2M communication with three cases.

With specific instances of M2M connectivity new applications with international offerings are connecting a number of kinds of embedded Wi-Fi machines/devices to create an unexpectedly developing IoT which guarantees to expand boom and income possibilities for modern-day carriers in the facet of waning margins in hooked up strains of business. Including the IoT applications, the M2M links the networks in many ways, providing an optimal form of connectivity with the Machine-Type Communications (MTCs), enabling: faraway industrial manage structures (ICS); security metering monitoring of transportation; third-party video streaming and gaming content; voice signaling; e-healthcare emergency monitoring and metering; domestic and industrial automation and a lot more. Figure 1.2 indicates a range of functions of the M2M conversation at a variety of grounds of growing a big ad hoc network permitting close by units to connect.

Unfortunately, due to the massive accesses and high user demands the technologies that are supposed to carry out MTC are somewhat not capable to meet the demands for ubiquitous coverage of M2M communications. This ubiquitous access offered by satellite connections has prohibitive costs, posing major challenges when used in indoor environments. This therefore calls for the radio technologies which are capable of making available extensive coverage area with low power consumption and reduced cost. At the same time operation of such a new infrastructure network at a diverse scale makes it an economically challenging task, thus making it necessary to add the MTC devices in the services of the existing communication networks.

Figure 1.1 Cases for M2M connectivity. (a) Basic M2M connectivity, (b) M2M in which a single application shares information with of group of similar devices, and (c) M2M communication using the gateway device [8].

Figure 1.2 Applications of M2M communications [9].

Consumer attitude to usage of internet is altering due to the alteration in the tendencies. Such user demands can only be fulfilled by the widespread mobile network supporting the M2M communication offering higher efficiency, security and robustness. Current standards being designed to provide access to only a small count of devices are likely unable to cope with the expected growth in the traffic of the M2M communication networks, thereby becoming a major challenge for the 5G networks [8]. Due to this reason the major focus is to enforce the M2M services as shown in Figure 1.2, which involve myriad devices generating efficient periodic transmissions of short data, predicted to play a major role in the future networks.

This chapter surveys the major challenges presented to the wireless cellular network standards by the massive M2M services. Section 1.2 is the literature survey giving the current standards for enabling the M2M services. Section 1.3 addresses in greater detail the challenge of the same with their proposed solutions to fill the gaps in the future to fully support M2M. Section 1.4 concludes this chapter with the final reconsiderations.

1.2 Literature Survey

Researchers have predicted that more than a billion devices will connect with the M2M communications through mobile networks by 2020. Statistics show that the world cellular site visitors will experience increase around 70% with 26% smartphones accountable for 88% of whole cell facts visitors [9]. The current 4G mobile structures fail to aid this huge scale of information utilization when you consider that they had been in the beginning deliberate to keep up to 600 RCC related customers per cell [10, 11]. Relatively M2M communications and IoTs subsidize thousands of linked devices in a one cell. This makes the aforementioned essential to support the standards to enable the M2M communications.

The authors in [12] differentiated the M2M communications from mobile Human-based (H2H) because the H2H traffic (browsing, file transferring, video streaming) cannot be directly applied to the M2M [12, 13], mentioning the M2M traffic direction as uplink whereas the H2H traffic direction as downlink. The M2M applications duty-cycled with short connection would promise fast access to the M2M network, resolving major traffic problems in the M2M communications due to H2H traffic.

Due to increased H2H and M2M traffic, the Wi-Fi communications can’t chorus from dealing with the new challenges of radio spectrum congestion. In [14], the authors surveyed to provide complete investigation of the M2M fading channels in coordinated and cooperative networks under the propagation conditions of the line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS). The survey evaluated the performance of dual-hope-relay-systems with equal gain combining which improved the overall system performance of LOS components in the transmitting links [14]. Apart from the radio spectrum congestion, current research studies defined the problems faced by means of M2M gadgets such as channel instabilities [13–15] and noise acquaint with coordination uncertainties in the media access. Researchers explained that this unreliable processing and transmissions in the communication medium leads to data loss causing a major M2M failure, thereby stating reliability as an unresolved challenge for the M2M standards [16].

Also, with the rapid rise in the number of wireless users there is a notable increase in the concurrent accesses, making simultaneous access increase, causing extra packet collisions due to interference resulting in data loss. Thus, maximizing the uplink channel and optimizing the radio aid allocation elevated the overall performance with environment friendly Quality of Service (QoS). Along with dependable QoS, M2M units are designed in such a way that they are normally less expensive and small in dimension with energy, bandwidth and different storage constraints to communication. The networks on which these M2M units work provide extensive insurance areas with excessive statistics charges and diminished latency, however, in spite of the certain advantages. There are many more challenges to the M2M networks which have been specified in [15, 17]. The study in [18] testified that the M2M traffic in the presence of 4G traffic is not to be considered negligible, hence degrading the performance of the 4G networks in terms of QoS. Thus, the operation of M2M has to be seamless, i.e., besides human intervention stopping occasional physical attacks [15, 16, 19, 20]. This attainable success of the M2M functions overcoming all these challenges can promise to extend the miscellany and wide variety of the units to be related and the visitors in the upcoming years. So, the present research is focusing on enhancing the overall performance and the performance of the system, both in phases of energy consumption, affectivity or delay.

Moreover, further improvements supporting the M2M communications have been stated by the authors in [21] analyzing sensor-to-gateway communications in terms of delay and energy efficiency in wireless M2M introducing the contention-based MAC protocols. The study defined the use of gateways in the wireless M2M network driving a large number of devices that regularly wake their radio interfaces to the gateway carrying out high data rates with low latency. This use of gateways is supposed to reduce the number of devices to be accessed, thereby making the transmission less complex and reducing interference with increased efficiency.

Other authors in [22] have explained the idea of Clone-to-Clone (C2C) to solve the issues obstructing the development of the next generation applications by reducing the traffic, recovering overall network performances and mitigating the power consumption of the devices. The concept of Energy Efficient and Reliable (EER) and Green Allocation with Zone Algorithm (GAZA) to achieve overall power and energy efficiency, for reliable M2M communication has also been stated in [23].

With the sudden advancements in user-supported communication including E-health, security and surveillance, industrial and energy, one of the crucial areas in need of the M2M devices’ communication is the intelligent transportation systems (ITS). The key component of ITS, the Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETS), are created and connected by the mobile and hoc networks (MANETS) for the impulsive creation of the wireless networks for data sharing. Emphasis on the same has been made to define the M2M vehicular networking with the standardization of communication interfaces as a major challenge with high mobility and variability of components [24]. Furthermore, the data aggregation strategies which can be delivered for channel get admission to enhancements in M2M communications for mobile networks, mentioning the use of prolong to enhance uplink transmission affectivity, has been described in [25]. In addition to this, the world extend would reduce with the acceleration in quantity of the M2M devices. An extra scheme being cited to decrease extend or to acquire greater power and energy consumption affectivity is the transmission scheduling method [26]. The overview of the already existing scheduled airliners as relays between ground devices and satellites offering a new M2M infrastructure has been discussed in [27].

M2M communications cannot be reliable if the mobility, delay patterns and most specifically energy efficiency is not met [16]. This is usually at the time of using radio technologies for communications due to lower available bandwidth, higher link failure, and higher energy consumption. Finally, the future works will likely be to combine a range of strategies (transmission scheduling schemes, data aggregation, gateways) to minimize the quantity of indispensable records to be transmitted. Managing security and privacy in such a vivid network (M2M) obviously requires good attention, making M2M communications more efficient.

Summarizing the current M2M standards that have supported to enable the M2M communications, the next section describes the challenges which need to be overcome along with their proposed solutions.

1.3 Survey Challenges and Proposed Solutions of M2M

With the explosion of M2M and IoT applications, large tech companies are jumping on board with devices ranging from wearable to beacon modules. There are many considerations which need to be taken into account for the deployment of M2M and IoT technologies. So it becomes mandatory to study the challenges and the interference from each aspect, from cost and power to long-term product life cycle of the M2M devices. The challenges to enable the M2M communications include small-sized data transmissions supported by larger value of devices after regular and irregular intervals; high reliability, low latency and low energy consuming mobile profiles assuring that regular H2H traffic is not disturbed by the M2M traffic.

1.3.1 PARCH Overload Problem

The Random Access Channel (RACH) process is one of the key challenges [28] for M2M. This is because of the traffic load caused by a rapid rush of myriad M2M devices trying to access the base station at the same time. According to the latest M2M traffic surveys, approximately 3.2 billion cellular-based M2M devices are expected to join the network in 2024 [29] making Quality of Service (QoS) provisioning an important challenge [30] for the M2M communications.

The rush to access Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) resources are likely to debase the M2M services. The enormous access calls by M2M devices burden the PRACH, resulting in access delay and failure rate. This traffic load can be reduced by multiplying the number of access devices scheduled per frame, but this further introduces a new challenge of reduced capacity for the devices. Thereafter, it becomes important to deduce schemes to overcome this overload problem. The author in [10] has forwarded various methods which include the isolation of the M2M and Human-2-Human (H2H) services by simply splitting the two or by making the two services share the same resource, giving them a combined name of Hybrid schemes. Apart from this, there are various other approaches that have been put forward to offset PRACH overload [31].

Pull-based scheme

:

This is a central scheme which permits the MTDs to access the PRACH paged by the eNode (eNB) [

31

] keeping an account of the network load conditions to prevent overloading problems. With this approach the network channels can be managed having regular traffic patterns using a single server. However, being managed by a single M2M server the scheme cannot deal with unexpected flow of MTD access requests.

Resource separation

:

The Resource separation scheme provides the simplest and most instant way to protect H2H devices from the risk of collisions due to diverse MTC requests by assigning orthogonal PRACH resources to H2H and M2M devices. The separation of resources can be done either by splitting the H2H and MTC devices into groups, or by simply allocating them different RA time/frequency slots [

31

]. To get a better effect, coupling with mechanisms which dynamically shift the resources among the two classes in accordance to the required access request rates is mandatory.

Back-off tuning

:

Another scheme

t

o clear the congestion caused by the traffic of requests in a smooth way is by assigning the back-off intervals to the MTDs which fail the transmission in RACH procedures [

31

]. Though the collisions between H2H and M2M devices can be improved efficiently, due to instability issues initialized by the ALOHA-like mechanisms this scheme is really not effective when dealing with stationary MTDs massive access.

Access Class Barring (ACB)

:

The above stated back-off tuning mechanism is a generalization of the Access Class Barring (ACB) method. The ABC scheme has each class allotted with an access probability with a barrier time [

31

] making it possible to define several access classes with dissimilar access probabilities. The access of the device is debarred, making the device wait for a random back-off time when the Message transmitted in the RA slot is larger than the access probability factor. Another scheme of Extended Access Barring (EAB) was projected that can withstand longer access delays [

31

], hence barring the device without the need of any new access class. This technique makes it possible for the MTDs to mitigate the massive access issue by simply labeling them as an EAB device. Thus ACB can prove to be quite useful in avoiding the overload problem but only with respect to longer access delays for the MTDs, whereas it fails in the case of contention-based access events like fire alarms due to power failures or any other unexpected event which require short time intervals.

Self-Optimizing Overload Control (SOOC)

:

In [

28

] the authors presented a complex scheme, i.e., SOOC, to offset PRACH overload by simply merging the pull-based, back-off, ACB, including the resource separation scheme. The primary feature of this scheme is the implementation of the control loop to collect information for overload examining at every RA cycle. Basically, the device enters the overload control mode and the classical p-persistent mechanism is applied for the regulation of RA cycles when it is not able to receive an access grant at the first attempt. Also, to differentiate between time-tolerant MTDs and time-sensitive MTDs, two access classes, namely low access priority and high access priority have been added in this scheme for the M2M devices. Though handling high traffic loads can be attained using this scheme the author in [

28

] has not provided enough evidence relating to the performance of this scheme.

Bulk MTC signaling scheme

:

Another scheme in [

32

] provided a further solution to overload problems by enabling bulk MTC signal handling stating lack of mechanisms while handling overheads generated from collective MTDs. This overhead can be reduced at the Base Station by making use of bulk processing (collecting signal data coming from MTDs before accelerating them to the core network). As an illustration for this scheme, consider a group of MTDs which are triggered to send Tracking Area Update (TAU) where the Base Station has to wait for a default timeout interval or awaiting the time it has gathered enough information to forward a message towards the Mobility Management Entity (MME). Since the MTDs are linked to the same MME, the TAU messages are going to be different on the MME Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (M-TMSI). A situation where an average of 20 TAU msg/sec with a period of 10 s, 200 TAU messages can be combined in a single 1211 bytes/msg in contrast to which an individual message would acquire up to 4500 bytes of space. Hence the approach in this scheme can reduce the intensity of traffic produced by large channel access.

1.3.2 Inefficient Radio Resource Utilization and Allocation

The existing cellular standards are not capable of handling large number of devices with small small-sized payloads, leading to network congestion. This makes it important for the existing mobile networks to be amended for supporting diverse M2M devices ensuring efficient allocation and utilization of the radio resources. Hence, novel methods are introduced to manage the overload issues such as back-off adjustment, M2M prioritization, etc. In radio access network and existing networks need to be improved to guide various M2M gadgets in the future [19]. The reality is that cell radio sources are narrowly accessible and an environment-friendly operation of such radio resources for M2M desires would be guaranteed. This environment-friendly utilization of confined radio assets has to be executed or the overall performance of M2M will probably degrade. Therefore, this theme needs vital attention to keep away from the congestion troubles in the M2M offerings effectively. Figure 1.3 suggests the instance of the useful resource allocation in present-day cell guidelines that are neither meant successfully to manipulate small statistics contents nor can take care of myriad gadgets concurrently [23].

Figure 1.3 Radio resource allocation in existing mobile standards [23].

The main issue in the case of dissimilar traffic is the management of interference, which needs a complex resource partitioning mechanism. A coordinated radio resource allocation is being enabled by partitioning among different devices which reduces the congestion problems to some extent. A number of scheduling algorithms were proposed by authors to estimate the performance in terms of throughput and equality between the mobile users [27]. Figure 1.4 represents the resource scheduling mechanism which supports M2M communication.

The aforementioned proposed approaches consisting of the self-organizing mechanisms with minimal phone transmitting strength to make use of frequency reuse patterns offer a solution for interference as properly as most useful frequency reuse [28]. To guide the M2M traffic [29] different scheduling schemes have been additionally advised which think about the community environments as properly as delay limitations, maximizing the count of sustained units per cell. Henceforth, performances of the aforementioned mechanisms are fairly favorable at the stake of immoderate signaling overhead [30] which will be the one of the most tedious issues in the future too.

Figure 1.4 Resource scheduling supports M2M communication [28].

1.3.3 M2M Random Access Challenges

Non-wired access might also be dependent totally on restricted wireless networks (ZigBee, Wi-Fi, etc.) or inclusive range cell networks (GSM, GPRS, UMTS, and LTE). Even though wired access strategies are extra regular in originating much less prolonging and supplying greater throughput, these methods honestly are no longer appropriate for all M2M purposes which are brought about by using elements such as mobility, scarcity of scalability and price competence. Hence these are the instances where non-wired networks play a necessary part. The different non-wired admittance is employed for constrained vary hyperlinks which are now not expensive, accessible, and consume much less energy. However, these hyperlinks are inappropriate for M2M communications because of low statistics rates, excessive interference, weaker security, and much lower mobility.

Quality of Service:

Interference is probable to take region so the M2M and H2H site visitors contest for PRACH resources. Though, the overall performance of H2H visitors ought to now not be affected; therefore M2M/MTC visitors have to meet QoS. Also, most promising decision of transmission mode is need of appropriate QoS which must have small delays mainly in emergency and greater data charges, e.g., surveillance applications.

Cognitive M2M communications:

Primary challenge is constantly growing signaling overhead due to the fact of giant consumer connectivity with M2M units per cellphone inflicting bandwidth issues. This bandwidth trouble on the other hand should be resolved via common strategies, i.e., by growing the range of eNBs. Another associated difficult project is the interference in the middle of the MTC and non-MTC units which ought to be extended with the aid of centralized coordination; however, this will increase the common complexity. Thus, the exceptional ideal approach would be imposing allotted supply administration which may additionally become what may be useful for lowering the interference between positive gadgets [

33