Young Voices Unheard: Children’s Views from Scotland and Greece on Education E-Book
Evanthia Synodi
36,31 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Für Kinder und Jugendliche
- Sprache: Englisch
Young Voices Unheard: Children’s Views from Scotland and Greece on Education is a compelling exploration of the perspectives of five to six-year-old children in Greece and Scotland regarding various aspects of their school experiences and their awareness of children's rights. This enlightening book aims to uncover which rights children prioritize and value most in their educational environment, shedding light on critical issues related to their schooling.
The book divides its content into two main parts. The theoretical section offers a comprehensive overview of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and its implications for children's education, emphasizing the importance of respecting children's rights. The author also provides an overview of schooling models for young children.
The empirical research section employs a meticulous methodology, involving focus group sessions with 56 children from both Greece and Scotland. Through these sessions, the book captures children's views on three distinct school models, each representing a different degree of adherence to children's rights. The data analysis reveals that young children prioritize rights such as the right to play, safety, consultation, and education.
In essence, Young Voices Unheard offers a unique and valuable perspective on children's rights in education. By giving voice to young children and considering their views on educational practices and provisions, this book contributes to the ongoing dialogue about creating more inclusive and rights-respecting educational environments around the world. It serves as a valuable resource for educators, policymakers, and researchers seeking to better understand and enhance the educational experiences of young children.
Audience
Educationalists, policymakers, teachers and researchers.
Das E-Book können Sie in Legimi-Apps oder einer beliebigen App lesen, die das folgende Format unterstützen:
Seitenzahl: 478
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
Ähnliche
![Tintenherz [Tintenwelt-Reihe, Band 1 (Ungekürzt)] - Cornelia Funke - Hörbuch](https://legimifiles.blob.core.windows.net/images/2830629ec0fd3fd8c1f122134ba4a884/w200_u90.jpg)
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
This is an agreement between you and Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. Please read this License Agreement carefully before using the ebook/echapter/ejournal (“Work”). Your use of the Work constitutes your agreement to the terms and conditions set forth in this License Agreement. If you do not agree to these terms and conditions then you should not use the Work.
Bentham Science Publishers agrees to grant you a non-exclusive, non-transferable limited license to use the Work subject to and in accordance with the following terms and conditions. This License Agreement is for non-library, personal use only. For a library / institutional / multi user license in respect of the Work, please contact: [email protected].
Usage Rules:
All rights reserved: The Work is the subject of copyright and Bentham Science Publishers either owns the Work (and the copyright in it) or is licensed to distribute the Work. You shall not copy, reproduce, modify, remove, delete, augment, add to, publish, transmit, sell, resell, create derivative works from, or in any way exploit the Work or make the Work available for others to do any of the same, in any form or by any means, in whole or in part, in each case without the prior written permission of Bentham Science Publishers, unless stated otherwise in this License Agreement.You may download a copy of the Work on one occasion to one personal computer (including tablet, laptop, desktop, or other such devices). You may make one back-up copy of the Work to avoid losing it.The unauthorised use or distribution of copyrighted or other proprietary content is illegal and could subject you to liability for substantial money damages. You will be liable for any damage resulting from your misuse of the Work or any violation of this License Agreement, including any infringement by you of copyrights or proprietary rights.Disclaimer:
Bentham Science Publishers does not guarantee that the information in the Work is error-free, or warrant that it will meet your requirements or that access to the Work will be uninterrupted or error-free. The Work is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either express or implied or statutory, including, without limitation, implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to the results and performance of the Work is assumed by you. No responsibility is assumed by Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products instruction, advertisements or ideas contained in the Work.
Limitation of Liability:
In no event will Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors, be liable for any damages, including, without limitation, special, incidental and/or consequential damages and/or damages for lost data and/or profits arising out of (whether directly or indirectly) the use or inability to use the Work. The entire liability of Bentham Science Publishers shall be limited to the amount actually paid by you for the Work.
General:
Any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims) will be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of Singapore. Each party agrees that the courts of the state of Singapore shall have exclusive jurisdiction to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims).Your rights under this License Agreement will automatically terminate without notice and without the need for a court order if at any point you breach any terms of this License Agreement. In no event will any delay or failure by Bentham Science Publishers in enforcing your compliance with this License Agreement constitute a waiver of any of its rights.You acknowledge that you have read this License Agreement, and agree to be bound by its terms and conditions. To the extent that any other terms and conditions presented on any website of Bentham Science Publishers conflict with, or are inconsistent with, the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement, you acknowledge that the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement shall prevail.Bentham Science Publishers Pte. Ltd. 80 Robinson Road #02-00 Singapore 068898 Singapore Email: [email protected]
PREFACE
This book is dedicated to some young children’s views on a variety of aspects of school provision and school practices that have been in place or advocated for young children. I related these provisions to children’s rights in terms of whether they indicate respect to or violation of children’s rights. Then, children’s views and preferences on school provisions and practices are discussed in connection with the children's rights as defined in the Convention on the Rights of a Child (United Nations [UN], 1989). This way it was ascertained which educational provisions and practices young children prioritized and consequently which rights they favored or not.
What is it about?
I undertook this study because I wanted to record the views of children aged five to six years in Greece and Scotland on three different types of school provision and practice arranged for young children over the years. The three different models of schooling selected for children to discuss were analyzed in order to show which of the children’s rights pertaining to their education they reflected and which they violated. The first model of schooling is the teacher-centered school, which shows no respect for children’s rights except perhaps partly their right to education (article 28.1 of the Convention). This is how I shall refer to the Convention on the rights of the child (United Nations, 1989) henceforth). The next school model is based on traditional developmental psychology and it allows adults the scope and potential to respect some of the children’s rights, such as play (article 31), but neglects or ignores others, such as freedom of conscience or religion (articles 14 & 30). The last model of school is the rights-based school, which fully respects all children’s rights pertaining to their attending school.
The special contribution of such a study is that it reveals some young children’s voices in multiple ways. First, young children were given the opportunity to discuss specific education practices, which have been implemented over time in early year’s classes. This way I was able to produce data on the same topics but from children living in two different countries, national cultures and education provision. These children also had the opportunity to describe their ideal school for a child of their age, in the form of suggestions for establishing a school for Wilson, who did not want to go to school. In this case too, the children who offered their ideas came from Scotland and Greece and from different cultures and schooling. Subsequently, this data, e.g. children’s suggestions, thoughts, and ideas, is related to their rights so as to show which ones the participants themselves prioritized. The differences in priorities were explained based on children’s experience of schooling and their national cultures.
Why Children’s Rights?
Greece ratified the Convention on the rights of the child in 1992, whereas the UK, part of which is Scotland, in 1991. As a result, legislation pertaining to children in both countries is to conform to what is foreseen by the Convention. Some of the rights children have, according to the Convention, are not so easy to inform changes in the existing legislation due to the varieties of cultural perspectives of citizens in both countries on childhood, children, and their rights. For example, both countries have a mandatory curriculum, which means that some of its aspects, such as the goals of learning that children must achieve, cannot be negotiated or omitted to suit children’s interests or choices in accordance with article 12 of the Convention.
This phenomenon is recorded in many countries, since their cultures are in juxtaposition with some of the children’s rights in the Convention, especially those of child participation (Frost, 2011, as cited in Jones & Walker, 2011, p. 53; Kanyal & Gibbs, 2014; UN General Comment 7, 2005; Welsh, 2008, as cited in Jones & Walker, 2011). Many adults, regardless of their background, hold different perspectives on childhood and the immaturity that characterizes young human beings from the perspective on which the Convention is based (e.g. Cunningham, 2005, 2006). Therefore, some adults think that children lack maturity, abilities, and reason in absolute terms, so they treat them with less respect and dismiss them and their views (Archard, 2004; Cunningham, 2005). However, according to the Convention, adults, including teachers and parents, have the responsibility of giving children direction and guidance in relation to exercising their rights (article 5 of the Convention). This means that adults must help children find the place they are entitled in society, rather than allow the dominant culture in any society to give children a predetermined position, which may not always correspond to all children’s potential.
Why Young Children?
Children need to be given a voice, to be able to have a say in the provision adults make for their education. This is something I believe in and is in accordance with article 12 of the Convention. Article 12 defines children’s right to express their ‘views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child’.
As Allison James (2007, p. 262) explains, however, ‘giving voice to children is not simply or only about letting children speak: it is about exploring the unique contribution to our understanding of and theorizing about the social world [part of which is school] that children’s perspectives can provide’. This is even more true for younger children for whom the provision and protection rights tend to be favored by adults over their participation rights. Young children are considered immature by many people and thus their opinions are not valued or sought (Archard, 2004). This has led the United Nations to issue General Comment No. 7 (2005) on early childhood to clarify that all children regardless of their age have all the rights foreseen by the Convention.
Why these countries?
Greece and Scotland have certain features, which enable a meaningful comparison (Clarkson, 2009). These countries offer different educational provisions to children aged five to six years both in terms of the type of school (preschool education in Greece and primary education in Scotland) and of financial aid to schools (Scotland devotes a larger part of its budget to education than Greece1 does). The dominant cultural perceptions of children’s and people’s rights are also different, if not opposite, in these two countries. Children in Scotland are taught to be independent of the beginning of their lives, whereas in Greece, the children’s environment in family and school is overprotective and collectivist (e.g. Farlane, 2018).
On the other hand, both countries have populations mainly Christian, White and European, which means that they share some common ideas about childhood and young children’s education. Therefore, there exists a fruitful balance of similarities and differences between Scotland and Greece to justify their selection for a study in Comparative Early Childhood Education.
How was the research conducted?
Apart from this study being comparative in nature, it is also qualitative with data produced through focus group sessions with young children. The novelty of this research, on top of it is a comparative one, is that its participants are young children aged 5 to 6 years and that its method of data production is focus group; a not so usual way of researching on children (Gibson, 2007).
What is the value of this study?
As an educator I think five to six year old children in schools can be offered more opportunities to learn (a) what their rights are according to the Convention, which both Scotland and Greece have ratified, and (b) how to act as right holders. In accordance with articles 5 and 29 of the Convention, people who are responsible for children, which includes teachers, have the responsibility to teach them about their rights and facilitate them in exercising them.
With this study adults involved in young children’s education gain insight into the matter of how children feel about certain practices and provisions. Such insight can be considered when defining and determining good practices in schools for five-year-old children in Greece and Scotland in general. This insight is also valuable when considering how teachers can better cater to article 5 of the Convention, especially at the initial teacher education level. Furthermore, in an age of education leadership, regardless of whether it refers to headteachers / principals or teachers themselves (Leithwood, 1992; Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008; Smylie & Eckert, 2018), such studies can contribute to the improvement of young children’s education and to a school life respectful of children’s rights.
What is the structure of this book?
In the first chapter of this book, the Convention is presented. Particular consideration is given to the rights that apply to children’s education in school together with the relevant to children’s education General Comments (General Comment 7, 2005; General Comment 1, 2001; General Comment 12, 2009 and General Comment 14, 2013) issued by the United Nations. These documents are selected because they are what Scotland and Greece committed to abide by in relation to the educational provision for their young children.
The second chapter is about the models of education that are known and have been partly or full implemented in the Western world. The models are embodied in the authoritarian school, the school based on traditional developmental psychology and the rights-based school. These models of schooling for young children are related to the rights foreseen by the Convention for the children in order to determine which rights they respect and facilitate and which they violate. Aspects of these models were discussed by the children who participated in this study. The next chapter is dedicated to the methodology of the research undertaken. 56 children from Scotland and Greece participated in two focus group sessions in groups of 4. In the first session, children discussed three models of education that have been advocated for them. I chose some of the features of each of the three conceptualizations of school and made them features of three plans for the best school ever, which children discussed. In a second session with each group, children were read the beginning of the book Whiffy Wilson: The wolf who wouldn’t go to school and asked to describe the features of a school that would make Wilson want to attend. Both of these sessions were followed by children drawing aspects of what they discussed.
In the empirical part of the study, the data are analyzed in four chapters. In the first chapter of the data analysis part, the data about the plan for an authoritarian school are discussed, and in the second one, the data about the plan for a school based on traditional developmental psychology. In the third chapter, children’s views on the plan for a rights-based school are analyzed whereas in the fourth chapter, the data about a perfect school for Wilson. The analysis of the data from both focus group sessions showed that children prioritized children’s right to play, safety, consultation and education. In the final chapter of this study, the conclusions of the study are presented together with recommendations for further research.
Note:
Even though Greece has double the population of Scotland for the year 2022, for example, Greece allocated 4.943.012£ (5.841.100 €) to education and Scotland 4.207.700£ according to their official budget sites. (Hellenic Republic, 2021 and Scottish Government, 2021).
THEORETICAL PART
In this part of the study, its theoretical underpinnings are analyzed in two chapters. In the first chapter, the rights of children entitled according to international legislation are analyzed as well as how their implementation changes the power balance in the relationship between adults and children. In the second chapter, three conceptualizations of education for children are examined in relation to whether they respect, promote and facilitate the implementation of children’s rights. These three models of schooling are the teacher-centered, the traditional developmental psychology based and the rights-based, which children discussed in the empirical part of this study.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child
Evanthia SynodiAbstract
In this chapter, children’s rights as defined by the Convention on the rights of the child are analyzed, since the Convention has been ratified by Scotland and Greece. According to the Convention, children have protection, provision, and participation rights. Some of the General Comments issued by the United Nations on children’s rights are discussed as they are related to young children’s education. It is evident that participation rights are more difficult to implement, as they imply more power for the children and acknowledgement of their competency.
Introduction
In this chapter, the rights of children according to the Convention and other relevant documents by the United Nations are presented and analyzed. However, before discussing the literature on children’s rights, the definition of rights must be clarified. A right ‘is something you should always be able to do, to have, to know, to say or to be protected from’, according to Jones (2011a, p. 4). However, one must not forget that rights come with responsibilities, which are ‘something you should do for other people, for society or for the environment’ (Jones, 2011a, p. 4).
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations [UN], 1989) foresees rights for all children that must be respected and implemented by every country, which has ratified the Convention. These rights have been grouped in various ways. The International Save the Children Alliance (2007), for example, discusses children’s rights in terms of the four general principles of the Convention:
1. Article 2 and children’s right not to be discriminated.
2. Article 3 and children’s right to their best interest being the primary concern in all actions concerning children.
3. Article 6 and children’s right to live and develop.
4. Article 12 and children’s right to participation in all matters affecting them and their right to be heard (International Save the Children Alliance, 2007).
Jones and Welch (2018) categorize the rights defined in the Convention into liberty rights and welfare rights of children. Liberty rights are based on the notion that people have the right to live and act freely, to be free and to look out for their interests. In such a case, the state intervenes only ‘with the will of the people’ (Jones & Welch, 2018, p. 42). Each individual is considered to be autonomous and responsible for themselves, their family and their property. However, not all people have the same start in life or equal capacities, therefore, they cannot make a good life for themselves and their families. This means that there must be some provision in place so as to help everybody ‘make the best use of their liberty rights’ (Jones & Welch, 2018, p. 44). This provision is made available by the state in the form of welfare rights, such as healthcare and education (Jones & Welch, 2018).
Others, such as Te One (2011) and Alderson (2008), group the rights of the Convention into three categories. According to them, the Convention includes rights of protection, provision and participation for all children and clarifies that all types of rights should be implemented in combination and not in isolation (UN, 1989, Preamble; General Comment 7, 2005, article 3; Te One, 2011).
The protection rights children are entitled to are the right of children to be protected from any kind of discrimination (article 2), children’s right to have adults act in the children’s best interest (article 3), the right to be protected from any kind of abuse (articles 19, 33 and 34), to be protected from exploitation (articles 32, 35, and 36), to be protected from injustice (article 40) and from war dangers (article 38) (Alderson, 2008; Archard, 2004; Te One, 2011).
The rights regarding the quality of family life children are entitled (articles 5, 18 and 27), children’s right to health, safety and education (articles 24, 26 and 28), children’s right to provision for their general development in education (article 29), for their physical and special care (articles 6 and 23) and for play, spare time, fun and children’s culture (article 31) are considered to be provision rights for children (Alderson, 2008; Archard, 2004; Te One, 2011).
The participation rights that children are entitled to are children’s right to their identity (articles 7, 8 and 30), their right to be consulted, and their views considered in accordance with their age and maturity when decisions about their lives are made (article 12), their right to access information (article 17), children’s right to freedom of speech, expression and thought (articles 13 and 14) and their right to a private life (article 16) (Alderson, 2008; Archard, 2004; Te One, 2011).
Even though all rights apply to all children at all times and are interconnected, some of the articles of the Convention are clearly related to education and how schools should operate. These articles are:
1. Article 2, which states that children are not to be discriminated against for any reason. The grounds for discrimination forbidden by the Convention are children’s or their parent's / guardian's ‘race, color, sex, language, religion, political opinion, national, ethnic, or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status’.
2. Article 3, which states that in all actions concerning children (some of which are related to their education) the best interests of the child should be a primary consideration.
3. Article 5, which defines that people legally responsible for a child, who include their teachers, need to provide them with guidance and direction in the exercise of their rights.
4. Article 13 and children’s right to freedom of expression. This includes schools where children seek, receive and impart information and ideas in ways they choose, except if they are against the law or violate other people’s respective rights.
5. Article 14, which states that the child’s right to freedom of ‘thought, conscience and religion’ shall be respected, except if it is against the law or violates other people’s respective rights. This kind of respect is expected, therefore, by schools and teachers.
6. Article 23, which refers to the right to an effective access to education and to providing education for the mentally or physically disabled children. Such education should ensure their dignity, self-reliance and their active participation in society, part of which is a school.
7. Article 24, which refers to children’s right to education on health issues, hygiene and prevention of accidents.
8. Article 28, which refers to all children’s right to education. Primary education must be compulsory for all, whereas all types of secondary education must be developed and available to all children free of charge. Measures must be taken to minimize the number of children dropping out of school as well as to provide education ‘on the basis of equal opportunities’ (article 28.1). School discipline is linked to respecting children’s dignity and all of their rights included in the Convention.
9. Article 29, which further explains the type of education children are entitled. Children have a right to an education that develops their ‘personality, talents’ and potential, cultivates their ‘respect (a) for human rights’ and freedoms, (b) for their parents, for their cultural identities, ‘language and values’, (c) for the ‘national values’ of their country of origin and of residence and (d) for other ‘civilizations’. Such education also teaches children to respect the natural environment and to lead a responsible life, when they are adults, with understanding, tolerance and friendship and without discrimination towards others either in their country or in other places of the world.
10. Article 30, which refers to the children of ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities in any country. These children have the right to enjoy their ‘language, culture and religion in community with other members of their group’, which applies to school, as well as other institutions children with such background may find themselves.
11. Article 31, which refers to children’s right to play, leisure, recreational, cultural and artistic activities. These types of activities form part of school life too, and not only of children’s social and family life.
12. Children’s protection from any kind of physical and mental harm (article 19) also applies to schools. Schools must protect children from economic exploitation (article 32) and substance abuse (article 33).
13. As protection from sexual exploitation (article 34) or other harms that may come to children (article 36) are children’s rights, too, schools have an obligation to uphold these rights.
Explanatory Documents
The need for clarification on children’s rights in general and in relation to school led to the issuing of General Comments by the United Nations, four of which are relevant to this study.
General Comment No 7 (2005): Implementing Child Rights in Early Childhood
The United Nations published General Comment number 7 (UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2005, henceforth GC 7, 2005) regarding children from birth to the age of 8 years (GC 7, 2005, article 4). This age range includes children aged five to six years who are at the center of this study. The main message of the Comment is that younger children have the same rights the Convention declares as older children (GC 7, 2005, articles 1 and 3).
The document paints the profile of the young child, which is relevant to the staff working in schools with children, as it interferes with the respect, protection and fulfillment of children’s rights in school (GC 7, 2005, articles 2 and 8). Young children, too, are persons who are to be respected, who have their interests, views and concerns and who are active members of society (GC 7, 2005, article 5). The document clarifies that early childhood is not ‘a period for the socialization of the immature human being’ one must go through in order to become mature and adult (GC 7, 2005, article 5).
Young children grow quickly in every aspect of development and actively learn with other children and adults about ‘the physical, social and cultural’ environment (GC 7, 2005, article 6(d)). What they require from their caregivers is ‘nurturance, care, guidance and protection, in ways they are respectful of their individuality and growing capacities’ (GC 7, 2005, article 6(b)). They make relationships with other children through which they learn and develop social and citizen skills, such as how to negotiate, share, resolve conflicts, take responsibility and strike agreements (GC 7, 2005, article 6(c)). Children’s learning and development are influenced by the children’s own ‘nature’ (GC 7, 2005, article 6(f)), their sex, family and school, health and care conditions (GC 7, 2005, article 6(f)) and beliefs about their capacities, needs and position in society (GC 7, 2005, article 6(g)). Variations in beliefs about their capacities, needs and position in society are to be respected in school, too, unless they are in disagreement with children’s rights as determined in the Convention (GC 7, 2005, article 2(e) and 8).
In the General Comment 7, discrimination in early childhood is further explained. The document defines ways that discrimination against young children is expressed, which apply to schools, too (GC 7, 2005, article 11). Discrimination against children is expressed in the form of ‘reduced levels of nutrition; inadequate care and attention; restricted opportunities for play, learning and education (GC 7, 2005, articles 11 and 34); inhibition of free expression of feelings and views … harsh treatment and unreasonable expectations, which may be exploitative or abusive’ (GC 7, 2005, article 11). The Comment also mentions that children can be victims of multiple discrimination.
The Comment declares that all children regardless of their age are entitled to be consulted whether as individuals or as a group (GC 7, 2005, article 14). This means that the right defined in article 12 of the Convention is to be respected and implemented, even when it comes to young children. That is so, because young children are not ‘undeveloped’ but able to understand, communicate in a variety of ways and make choices (GC 7, 2005, article 14). The document repeats that it is the adults who need to learn how to consult children especially before children can speak or write (GC 7, 2005, article 14; see also Alderson, 2008; Jones & Welch, 2018). It recommends their teachers (a) adopt a child-centered approach, (b) listen to children, and (c) respect their dignity and their views (GC 7, 2005, article 14(c)). The Comment shows that article 12 of the Convention also applies to education in general, and to the education of young children in particular.
Moreover, the document analyzes article 29 of the Convention and children’s right to education further. Article 28 of the General Comment explains that one of the aims of preschool education is to empower children by developing their skills, learning, potential, sense of dignity and self-esteem in child-centered ways. It also defines that young children should have education as well as care with three features. This educare for young children should (a) respect all their human rights, (b) be child-centered and (c) teach children about human rights and how to respect and assert them (GC 7, 2005, article 33). Therefore, article 33 of GC 7 2005 requires that human rights become part of preschool education both as content and as practice.
Out of the four General Comments relevant to this study, this is the only one which describes children as social actors (articles 2 and 8) and as agents (articles 14 and 16) without ever defining the terms. In its articles 2 and 8, it is clarified that the purpose of GC 7 2005 is to encourage people to see children as social actors. Even though it does not define what this means, it gives details of the social actor’s life. The survival, well-being and development of these social actors depend on their close relationships with other people. According to the document, young social actors also have vulnerabilities, interests and capacities and require protection, guidance and support to exercise their rights.
In its articles 14 and 16, the document characterizes young children as social agents who need protection, nurturance and understanding from their family, again, for their survival and well-being. However, these articles draw attention to how children’s agency is sometimes ignored because of their age and immaturity.
According to GC 7 in general, young children, then, are capable as well as vulnerable, in need of close nurturing relationships with other people and of help to learn how to exercise their rights.
General Comment No. 1 (2001), Article 29 (1): The Aims of Education
The General Comment No. 1 (UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2001) adds some more clarification on the education of children in general, which by default applies to the education of young children [GC 1, 2001 henceforth]. The document clarifies that their education must promote children’s enjoyment of their rights in terms of the provided curriculum, methods, educational processes and environment with particular reference to the disciplinary proceedings (GC 1, 2001, article 8).
Schools are also linked to ‘the struggle against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia’ and intolerance (GC 1, 2001, article 11). They are, furthermore, perceived as institutions cultivating and actively teaching about education for peace, tolerance and respect for the natural environment (GC 1, 2001, article 13), human rights (GC 1, 2001, articles 15 and 20) and international humanitarian law and actively involving children in such learning. Schools must fight ‘ignorance, unfounded fears of racial, ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic or other forms of difference’, prejudices or distorted values with ‘respect for differences’ and accomplish that by challenging discrimination and prejudice within the community each school caters for (GC 1, 2001, articles 11 and 19).
GC 1 2001 clarifies that a school where children experience ‘excessive burden of work’ and competition among them can harm children’s fullest potential of their abilities (GC 1, 2001, article 12). Finally, it recommends children as well as teachers being enabled to report shortcomings (GC 1, 2001, article 22) and lodge complaints (GC 1, 2001, article 25) on how aspects of children’s right to education (article 29 of the Convention) are not fulfilled at school.
General Comment No. 12 (2009): The right of the Child to be Heard
The General Comment No. 12 (UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2009) analyses children’s right to be heard [GC 12, 2009 henceforth]. The document explains that even the youngest children hold this right defined in article 12 of the Convention and it is the adults who need to learn how to consult children (by analyzing, for example, children’s glances, gestures, and language). It clarifies that article 3 of the Convention (the best interests of the child are the priority for each decision affecting their lives) and article 12 of the Convention are complimentary. According to GC 12 2009, article 12 of the Convention is related to its articles 13 about children’s right to freedom of expression (GC 12, 2009, articles 68 and 80-81), to article 17 about children’s right to access to information (GC 12, 2009, articles 70-74) and articles 28-29 about children’s right to education (GC 12, 2009, articles 105-114). All the above rights, i.e. children’s right to express their views freely in all matters affecting their lives (article 12 of the Convention), to freely express themselves (article 13 of the Convention) and to have access to information (article 17 of the Convention), are clearly related to all matters schools (articles 28 and 29 of the Convention) have to handle and provide for (GC 12, 2009, article 49).
General Comment No. 14 (2013) on the Right of the Child to have his or her Best Interests taken as a Primary Consideration (art.3, para. 1)
General Comment 14 (UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2013), refers to the best interests of the child (GC 14, 2013 henceforth). It repeats and explains the complementary relationship between article 3 and article 12 of the Convention further (GC 14, 2013, articles 43 and 89-91) and clarifies that these two articles are relevant to education (GC 14, 2013, articles 32-35 and 79). Article 3 of the Convention explains that children have the right to their best interests being the primary consideration in all actions concerning them and, in this particular document, education is distinctly included in these actions (GC 14, 2013, articles 19, 26, 30, 32, 71, 84, 94, 95).
Article 79 of this Comment undoubtedly relates article 3 of the Convention to early childhood education. According to article 79, early childhood education needs to be of quality and free of charge and provided by ‘well-trained teachers’, in ‘a child-friendly environment’ and with ‘appropriate teaching and learning methods’. The purpose of early childhood education is twofold; early childhood education is an investment as well as an opportunity for ‘joyful activities, respect, participation and fulfillment of ambitions’. In schools, children’s best interests are ensured if children are helped to overcome their vulnerability. To overcome their vulnerability, children must be offered all the above as well as responsibilities in school.
Interpretations of Children’s Rights
There exist three theses that interpret the role of adults in relation to the rights children have and to the adults’ perceptions of what a child and childhood are. These thesis's are (a) the thesis of children’s interests or protection, (b) the thesis of provision for the children and their rights and (c) the thesis of children’s choices or children’s participation (Te One, 2011).
According to the first position, children are not capable of exercising their rights and they need adults to do that for them. This position prioritizes certain rights, the protection rights of the Convention, which children have, over the rest. So, even though children are recognized as rights holders, there is still some influence of other perceptions of children such as the innocent child (Rousseau, n.d., as cited in Teasar, 2016) in need of protection from the evils and the corruption of society (Archard, 2004; Blenkin & Kelly, 1997; MacNaughton, Hughes, & Smith, 2007).
According to the provision rights thesis, children cannot exercise their rights mainly because they cannot make choices and decisions (Te One, 2011). Therefore, the provision rights are prioritized and adults decide for children (MacNaughton, Hughes & Smith, 2007). This interpretation of children’s rights echoes the model of the child as deficient (Archard, 2004; Bruce, 1997), since the emphasis is on the adult whom the child will become. It is also influenced by the model of the child as an empty vessel (Locke, n.d., as cited in Tesar, 2016) who needs to be taught by adults and by the model of the child as evil (Hobbes, n.d., as cited in Tesar, 2016) who needs adults to teach them how to find their place in society.
The third position on the rights of the child, i.e. choice or participation thesis, is based on the rationale that adults must accept that children have the right to make choices as well as a developing capacity to make choices. Children’s participation rights are based on a perception of children different from the perceptions widely known, and discussed above. They are based on the perception that children are capable to learn, to form opinions, to think for themselves and about their lives so that they have a say in them (Hedegaard, 2008; Smith, Duncan, & Marshall, 2005). Additionally, more and more indications and evidence are accumulated that children do and can do much more either at a developmental level or at exercising their rights than traditionally believed and advocated (Alderson, 2008; Hall & Kofkin Rudkin, 2011; Jones & Walker, 2011; Vasquez, 2004).
The rationale behind the perceptions of the child which prioritize the protection and provision of rights seems to maintain an imbalance in terms of power between adults and children (e.g. Devine, 1999). In my view, the rights of provision and protection of children are rights that do not collide with the culture of many adults nowadays (see also Jones, 2011b). Many adults want to protect children and decide what is best for them. They want children to be healthy and educated, protected from abuse, exploitation and all sorts of discrimination. These rights do not collide with the power and control adults have over children and their lives. On the contrary, they enhance the power and control adults have if children’s participation rights are not taken into consideration. Children’s participation rights limit the control adults have over every aspect of their lives and thus cause some adults’ reactions (Te One, 2011).
Children’s participation rights seem to cause a lot of problems, because some adults find it difficult to respect, protect and fulfill children’s rights, in accordance with the definition of these terms by the organization International Save the Children Alliance (2007). Some adults do not acknowledge children as human beings with rights or with participation rights in particular, which they do not respect. Not all adults can protect children from other people who do not respect children’s rights, therefore, children’s participation rights are not always protected. Finally, many adults do not help children learn about their rights and how to assert them, so children do not fulfill their participation rights.
One of these participation rights is children’s right to express their views and for them to be heard when decisions are made which affect children’s lives (UN, 1989, article 12). Some adults do not consult the children they are responsible for. Others do not use or are hindered from using their consultations with children, as the steps of a variety of participation theories exemplify (Arnstein, 1969; Cornwall, 2008; Francis & Lorenzo, 2002; Kanyal, 2014; Percy-Smith, 2010). Even if they are aware of and respect children’s right to be consulted, a lot of people cannot balance its importance with that of article 3 of the Convention (Archard & Skivenes, 2009) and the responsibility of adults to do the best for children. This is problematic for many people of all cultures, western or not, as various authors have shown (e.g. Alderson, 2008; Archard, 2004; Kaime, 2011).
Teachers themselves are some of the adults who find it challenging and problematic to allow children to exercise all of their rights at school or for themselves to implement and respect children’s rights at work. Children’s right to tell their opinion and for their opinion to be seriously considered when forming any decision or policy for children seems to create some problems when it comes to their education. Their right not to be discriminated against is not respected many times by adults in school, because of children’s young age, which is linked to immaturity and its negative connotations and not necessarily because of proof of children’s incapacity to form opinions or make decisions. The above can cause problems with young children’s education because the adults involved in children’s lives, education and care may have a perspective on matters different from the children’s.
State-run education, if not education in general, aims at changing people, including children, towards an end (Quennerstedt & Quennerstedt, 2014). This implies that children’s desires and wishes, which affect their choices, decisions and motivation to learn, cannot all of them be afforded and facilitated at school if the school aims are to be achieved. While this is easily understood, this end to which education aims is not defined and determined in consultation with children or even with the majority of adults. This means that participation in decision-making about what takes place in school is limited both for children and for professionals. What serves the best interests of children in school is determined by central governments and is not negotiated with teachers or children. New managerial policies predetermine the areas and their boundaries of issues to be negotiated between teachers and children (e.g. Hartley, 1993; Lynch, 2014). The power imbalance between teachers and children is thus exacerbated by the state-imposed, compulsory rules, regulations, curricula and practices. The imposition of ways of working with children makes it difficult for teachers to always offer a child-centered education based on consultation with the children they are responsible for in accordance with the Convention (Osler & Starkey, 1998; Percy-Smith, 2009; Te One & Dalli, 2013).
