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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering
- Sprache: Englisch
Introduces advanced high-capacity data encoding and throughput improvement techniques for fully printable multi-bit Chipless RFID tags and reader systems The book proposes new approaches to chipless RFID tag encoding and tag detection that supersede their predecessors in signal processing, tag design, and reader architectures. The text is divided into two main sections: the first section introduces the fundamentals of electromagnetic (EM) imaging at mm-wave band to enhance the content capacity of Chipless RFID systems. The EM Imaging through Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) technique is used for data extraction. The second section presents a few smart tag detection techniques for existing chipless RFID systems. A Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output (MIMO) based tag detection technique improves the spectral efficiency and increases data bit capacity. The book concludes with a discussion of how the MIMO approach can be combined with the image based technique to introduce a complete solution with a fast imaging approach to chipless RFID systems. The book has the following salient features: * Discusses new approaches to chipless RFID tags such as EM imaging, high capacity data encoding, and robust tag detection techniques * Presents techniques to enhance data content capacity of tags and reliable tag detection for the readers at unlicensed microwave and mm-wave 2.45, 24 and 60 GHz instrumentation, scientific and medical (ISM) frequency bands * Includes case studies of real-world applications
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Seitenzahl: 426
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT
DEDICATION
PREFACE
REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
PART I: EM IMAGE-BASED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BARCODES AS IDENTIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
1.2 RFID SYSTEMS
1.3 BARCODES VERSUS RFID
1.4 CHIPLESS RFID TAG FOR LOW-COST ITEM TAGGING
1.5 CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEMS
1.6 SPATIAL-BASED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM
1.7 BOOK OUTLINE
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2: EM IMAGING
2.1 EM-IMAGING FUNDAMENTALS
2.2 RANGE RESOLUTION
2.3 CROSS-RANGE OR AZIMUTH RESOLUTION
2.4 SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (SAR) NECESSITY
2.5 EM IMAGING FOR CONTENT CODING
2.6 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 3: TINY POLARIZERS, SECRET OF THE NEW TECHNIQUE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 SWEETNESS OF DIFFRACTION
3.3 STRIP-LINE POLARIZER
3.4 MEANDER-LINE POLARIZER
3.5 MULTIPLE POLARIZERS
3.6 POLARIZER FABRICATION
3.7 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 4: ATTRIBUTES OF EM POLARIZERS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 SUGGESTED STRUCTURES AS EFFECTIVE EM POLARIZERS
4.3 CROSS-POLAR WORKING BASIS
4.4 EFFECT OF HIGHLY REFLECTIVE ITEMS
4.5 SECURE IDENTIFICATION
4.6 BENDING EFFECT ON TAG PERFORMANCE
4.7 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5: SYSTEM TECHNICAL ASPECTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THE MM-BAND OF 60 GHZ
5.3 READER ANTENNA
5.4 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 6: SAR-BASED SIGNAL PROCESSING
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 SAR MODES OF OPERATION
6.3 SAR BLOCK DIAGRAM
6.4 SAR-BASED SIGNAL PROCESSING
6.5 TAG IMAGING RESULTS
6.6 SYSTEM DOWNSIDES
6.7 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7: FAST IMAGING THROUGH MIMO-SAR
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 CONVENTIONAL PHASED ARRAY ANTENNA
7.3 MIMO-SAR SYSTEMS
7.4 OPTIMIZATION
7.5 MIMO-SAR RESULTS
7.6 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
PART II: ADVANCED TAG DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 8: INTRODUCTION
8.1 RFID SYSTEMS
8.2 REVIEW OF CHIPLESS RFID TAG DETECTION TECHNIQUES
8.3 MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD DETECTION TECHNIQUES
8.4 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9: CHIPLESS RFID TAG DESIGN
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 SISO TAG DESIGN
9.3 MIMO TAG DESIGN
9.4 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 10: ML DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR SISO CHIPLESS RFID TAGS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 SYSTEM MODELS–TIME DOMAIN
10.3 SYSTEM MODELS–FREQUENCY DOMAIN
10.4 SIMULATIONS
10.5 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
10.6 RESULTS
10.7 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11: COMPUTATIONALLY FEASIBLE TAG DETECTION TECHNIQUES
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 BIT-BY-BIT DETECTION METHOD
11.3 TRELLIS-TREE-BASED VITERBI DECODING
11.4 SIMULATION SETUP
11.5 RESULTS
11.6 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 12: SIGNAL PROCESSING FOR MIMO-BASED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEMS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.2 MIMO DECOMPOSING TECHNIQUES
12.3 TAG DETECTION IN MIMO
12.4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
12.5 SIMULATIONS
12.6 RESULTS
12.7 CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
CHAPTER 13: CONCLUSION FOR PART II
13.1 SUMMARY OF THE PROPOSED TECHNIQUES IN PART II
13.2 LIMITATIONS OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM
13.3 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
13.4 FUTURE WORK AND OPEN ISSUES
REFERENCE
INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
PART I: Em Image-Based Chipless Rfid System
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1 Application areas of identification systems.
Figure 1.2 Data encoding limitation of a 1D barcode tag due to diffraction effect.
Figure 1.3 RFID general system structure.
Figure 1.4 Expected tag volume versus tag cost.
Source
: IDTechEx [1].
Figure 1.5 General classifications of chipless RFID systems.
Figure 1.6 Working basis of the frequency-domain chipless RFID systems.
Figure 1.7 Phase-domain-based chipless RFID tags.
CHAPTER 2: EM IMAGING
Figure 2.1 The precision comparison of two imaging systems: (a) conventional radar and (b) optical camera.
Figure 2.2 Reader footprint on tag structure.
Figure 2.3 Range resolution concept.
Figure 2.4 Slant- and ground-range resolutions.
Figure 2.5 Ground- and slant-range resolutions of the millimeter-wave chipless tag.
Figure 2.6 Required 3-dB beamwidth of reader antenna versus reading distance.
Figure 2.7 Antenna aperture size for 1° beamwidth.
Figure 2.8 Evolution of conventional radar toward SAR system through array antenna concept.
Figure 2.9 Azimuth resolution and required synthetic aperture length.
Figure 2.10 Pixelated tag and two different reading scenarios.
CHAPTER 3: TINY POLARIZERS, SECRET OF THE NEW TECHNIQUE
Figure 3.1 Reflection strength based on terrain roughness in earth imaging system [1].
Figure 3.2 Initial proposed tag structure based on earth imaging concept.
Figure 3.3 Backscattered signals from different types of strips; simulation result.
Figure 3.4 Geometry of diffraction by conductive strip on dielectric slab.
Figure 3.5 Copolar and cross-polar components of diffracted signals, linear scale.
Figure 3.6 Strip orientation for creating cross-polar components,
L
= 1.45,
w
= 0.2,
ϵ
= 2.55,
h
= 0.0127, all in millimeters.
Figure 3.7 Simulated copolar /cross-polar components of backscattered signal, single strip line,
L
= 1.45,
w
= 0.2,
ϵ
= 2.55,
h
= 0.0127, all in millimeters.
Figure 3.8 Meander line as transmission EM polarizer.
Figure 3.9 Multilayer meander-line structure for reflection EM polarizer.
Figure 3.10 Simulated copolar/cross-polar component of single-layer strip line and meander-line structure.
Figure 3.11 Final tag structure for data encoding purpose.
Figure 3.12 (a) Five strip lines with same length and (b) simulated copolar/cross-polar backscattered signals.
Figure 3.13 Simulated copolar/cross-polar components of backscattered signal.
Figure 3.14 Fabricated EM polarizers through photolithographic process.
Figure 3.15 (a) SATO printer, (b) printed strip lines, (c), and (d) printed meander lines.
CHAPTER 4: ATTRIBUTES OF EM POLARIZERS
Figure 4.1 System measurement setup: (a) printed strip lines, (b) printed meander lines, (c) whole system, and (d) reader antenna.
Figure 4.2 Measurement result for photolithographic fabricated tags.
Figure 4.3 Measurement result for printed tags with SATO.
Figure 4.4 Schematic block diagram of the chipless RFID system.
Figure 4.5 (a) Severe multipath interference scenario and (b) high clutter for the reading process.
Figure 4.6 Measurement result for multipath and high-clutter situations.
Figure 4.7 (a) Printed meander line tags attached to a plastic bottle of water and (b) measurement result.
Figure 4.8 An etched-out printed meander line tag attached to an aluminum can and (b) measurement result.
Figure 4.9 (a) NLoS reading scenario and (b) measurement process.
Figure 4.10 Measurement results for NLoS scenarios with pictures of some barriers.
Figure 4.11 Expected bending on tag length.
Figure 4.12 Different paper tubes with varying radii.
Figure 4.13 Relation between arc angle of attached tag and radius of objects.
Figure 4.14 System structure for bending effect measurement.
Figure 4.15 Measurement result based on different tag bending scenarios.
CHAPTER 5: SYSTEM TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Figure 5.1 Specific attenuation due to atmospheric gases [1].
Figure 5.2 Tag frequency versus skin depth in microns for various materials [9].
Figure 5.3 Kurz SECOBO® antennas [10].
Figure 5.4 Required
HPBW
of the antenna.
Figure 5.5 Design flowchart for array of DSPDs.
Figure 5.6 (a) Layout of a sample SIW resonator with via holes [24] and (b) photograph of prototype SIW resonator [33].
Figure 5.7 Printed dipole's structure and its dimensions,
W
f
= 0.37,
F
L
= 1.05,
F
a
= 0.55,
W
a
= 0.19,
L
a
=1,
C
d
= 0.2 and
h
= 0.127 (all dimensions in millimeters).
Figure 5.8 Chamfering effect on the impedance matching.
Figure 5.9 (a) Embedded dipole with tapered GND and (b) effect on impedance matching.
Figure 5.10 CST-generated 3D radiation pattern of double-side printed dipole (DSPD) antenna.
Figure 5.11 Simulated radiation pattern (E- and H-planes) of DSPD.
Figure 5.12 Simulated cross-polar level of single dipole (DSPD).
Figure 5.13 T-junction power divider.
Figure 5.14 T-junction power divider with (a) V-notch and (b) reactive stub.
Figure 5.15 Complete corporate feeding network of array.
Figure 5.16 The
S
-parameter of the corporate feeding network of array.
Figure 5.17 Transmission phase of different output ports (
S
21
and
S
31
) versus frequency.
Figure 5.18 (a) Two adjacent dipoles for mutual coupling measurement and (b) simulation result.
Figure 5.19 Comparing physical sizes of the array antenna and V-type connector.
Figure 5.20 Extended CPW feedline and final array structure.
Figure 5.21 (a) Array and V-type connector for simulation and (b) reflection coefficient.
Figure 5.22 Percentage of errors in fabrication process.
Figure 5.23 Five DSPD arrays and highlighted parametrized sections of array.
Figure 5.24 Simulated
S
11
and five measured return losses of sample arrays.
Figure 5.25 System setup for radiation pattern measurement.
Figure 5.26 Measured and simulated E-plane radiation pattern, co- and cross-polar radiation.
Figure 5.27 (a) Measurement setup for 1° accuracy and (b) measured and simulated
HPBW
of E-plane.
Figure 5.28 Measured gain and simulated feedline loss of array.
CHAPTER 6: SAR-BASED SIGNAL PROCESSING
Figure 6.1 SAR modes of operation: (a) spotlight mode and (b) strip map mode.
Figure 6.2 General block diagram of typical SAR-based system [2].
Figure 6.3 Image formation processing using RMA [2].
Figure 6.4 Photograph of 4-bit printed tag.
Figure 6.5 Raw SAR signal for a tag with (a) “1001” and (b) “1011.”
Figure 6.7 Image of 4-bit tags with 22 cm aperture size, (a) “1001” and (b) “1011.”
Figure 6.6 Four-bit printed tag and received cross-polar signals after signal processing.
Figure 6.8 EM image of the tag “1011” with (a)12 cm and (b) 17 cm aperture size.
Figure 6.9 Final and fundamental aperture length.
Figure 6.10 Eight-bit tag and its related signals, aperture size 24 cm.
Figure 6.11 Cross-polar EM image of tag with (a) 11 bits of data and aperture size 25.5 cm and (b) 17 bits of data and aperture size 29 cm.
Figure 6.12 Handheld reader with mechanically moving antennas.
Figure 6.13 Tag orientation: (a) correct angle of 45° and (b) misoriented tag angle of
θ
°.
Figure 6.14 Effect of tag orientation on received signal level.
Figure 6.15 System degradation due to tag misorientation effect.
CHAPTER 7: FAST IMAGING THROUGH MIMO-SAR
Figure 7.1 System structure of the proposed spatial-based approach.
Figure 7.2 MIMO-based antenna system and the equivalent sparse array antennas.
Figure 7.3 MIMO-based antenna and its equivalent virtual array antenna.
Figure 7.4 Relative phase shift between one particular Tx antenna and all Rx antennas.
Figure 7.5 MIMO-based antenna and its equivalent virtual array.
Figure 7.6 Conventional SAR and MIMO-SAR in a glance.
Figure 7.7 MIMO-based antenna for EM-image-based chipless RFID system.
Figure 7.8 Photographs of (a) printed 6-bit tag, (b) tag image through normal SAR, and (c) tag image through MIMO-SAR technique.
Figure 7.9 General block diagram of the GA.
Figure 7.10 Sample chromosome for the MIMO-SAR optimization, red values relate to Rx and black numbers show the Tx array.
Figure 7.11 Structure of population in GA.
Figure 7.12 Selection operator based on roulette wheel approach.
Figure 7.13 Suggested formula by Rahmat-Samii and Michielssen [15] for selection operator.
Figure 7.14 Suggested formula for selection operator with best result.
Figure 7.15 Multipoints crossover operator.
Figure 7.16 Final virtual array with 28.2 cm length and one missing element.
Figure 7.17 Final virtual array with 28.6 cm length and two missing elements.
Figure 7.18 Simulated received signal and the tag's image for (a) conventional SAR technique and (b) optimized MIMO system with 25 elements.
Figure 7.19 Simulated received signal and the tag's image for (a) conventional SAR technique, optimized MIMO system of (b) Sample 1 and (c) Sample 2.
CHAPTER 8: INTRODUCTION
Figure 8.1 A typical RFID system.
CHAPTER 9: CHIPLESS RFID TAG DESIGN
Figure 9.1 Tag types used in SISO and MIMO detection algorithm developments.
Figure 9.2 Printed tag.
Figure 9.3 Experimental setup.
Figure 9.4 Magnitude of the tag response for tag [1111].
Figure 9.5 T-junction power divider. (a) CST design; (b) fabricated power divider.
TLX8 substrate with
,
and
mm
.
Figure 9.6 S-parameters of the power divider.
Figure 9.7 Monopole antenna. (a) CST design; (b) fabricated monopole).
Figure 9.8 Return loss of the monopole antenna.
Figure 9.9 Simulated radiation pattern of the monopole antenna.
Figure 9.10 Realized gain of the monopole antenna.
Figure 9.11 Spiral resonators. (a) CST design; (b) fabrication.
Figure 9.12 CST-generated resonator response.
Figure 9.13 Fabricated MIMO tag.
Figure 9.14 MIMO tag experiment.
Figure 9.15 Tag response for [1010].
CHAPTER 10: ML DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR SISO CHIPLESS RFID TAGS
Figure 10.1 RFID system models.
Figure 10.2 Overview of chipless RFID system.
Figure 10.3 Proposed signal models.
Figure 10.4 Flowchart of the MATLAB simulation in conjunction with CST full-wave EM solver simulation.
Figure 10.5 A chipless tag coded with bits .
Figure 10.6 Experimental setup.
Figure 10.7 Interrogating signal in time and frequency domain.
Figure 10.8 Tag responses for with a guard-band.
Figure 10.9 Tag responses for without a guard-band.
Figure 10.10 DER versus SNR for 4-bit tag with 60 MHz guard-band.
Figure 10.11 DER versus SNR without a guard-band between resonator frequencies.
Figure 10.12 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 1.
Figure 10.13 Real and imaginary samples of the tag response [1111].
Figure 10.14 Frequency signature of tag type [1111].
Figure 10.15 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 2 with the presence of a guard-band.
Figure 10.16 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 2 without a guard-band.
Figure 10.17 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 2.
Figure 10.18 DER comparison for 8-bit tags.
Figure 10.19 DER verus SNR for ML decoder 3 with the presence of a guard-band.
Figure 10.20 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 3 without a guard-band.
Figure 10.21 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 3.
Figure 10.22 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 4 with the presence of a guard-band.
Figure 10.23 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 4 without a guard-band.
Figure 10.24 DER versus SNR for ML decoder 4.
Figure 10.25 Channel estimation samples when a guard-band is presented.
Figure 10.26 PDF of channel estimation when a guard-band is presented.
Figure 10.27 Channel estimation samples without a guard-band.
Figure 10.28 PDF of channel estimation without a guard-band.
Figure 10.29 DER comparison with a guard-band.
Figure 10.30 DER comparison without a guard-band.
Figure 10.31 Magnitude of the tag response for tag [1111].
Figure 10.32 DER versus SNR for likelihood-based detector 5 for 21–27 GHz backscattering tag.
CHAPTER 11: COMPUTATIONALLY FEASIBLE TAG DETECTION TECHNIQUES
Figure 11.1 Bit-by-bit detection for a tag having [1111].
Figure 11.2 Flowchart of bit-by-bit detection technique.
Figure 11.3 Operation of Trellis-tree-based Viterbi detection technique.
Figure 11.4 Viterbi decoding in a trellis tree.
Figure 11.5 Flow chart of trellis-tree-based Viterbi decoding.
Figure 11.6 Flowchart of the MATLAB simulation.
Figure 11.7 DER comparison for 10-bit tags.
Figure 11.8 Computation complexity comparison.
CHAPTER 12: SIGNAL PROCESSING FOR MIMO-BASED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEMS
Figure 12.1 MIMO-based chipless RFID system.
Figure 12.2 MIMO tag.
Figure 12.3 MIMO tag operation overview.
Figure 12.4 MIMO tag experiment.
Figure 12.5 Tag response for [1010].
Figure 12.6 Flowchart of the MATLAB simulation.
Figure 12.7 Flowchart of the MATLAB simulation.
Figure 12.8 Interrogating signal in time domain.
Figure 12.9 Two-sided PSD of the interrogating signal.
Figure 12.10 Received signal at the tag.
Figure 12.11 Filter response of a spiral resonator.
Figure 12.12 Two-sided PSD of the tag-modulated signals (Tx1 and Tx2).
Figure 12.13 Tag-modulated signals (Tx1 and Tx2) in time domain.
Figure 12.14 Channel realizations.
Figure 12.15 Received signals at the two Rx antennas of the reader.
Figure 12.16 Actual and the estimated Tx1.
Figure 12.17 Actual and the estimated Tx2.
Figure 12.18 Combined tag response.
Figure 12.19 Combined tag response for 100 iterations.
Figure 12.20 BER of the proposed system versus SNR.
Figure 12.21 Noise performance of the proposed system versus SISO counterpart.
Figure 12.22 CST-generated tag response for a branch having [1111] tag bits.
Figure 12.23 Comparison of DER performances for 6 bit tags.
List of Tables
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Table 1.1 Barcode, QR codes, and RFID [8, 9]
CHAPTER 4: ATTRIBUTES OF EM POLARIZERS
Table 4.1 Multiple Barrier
Table 4.2 Dimensions of Paper Tubes and Some Well-Known Items
CHAPTER 5: SYSTEM TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Table 5.1 Available Spectrum on 60 GHz Band
Table 5.2 Technical and Operational Requirements of the Reader Antenna
Table 5.3 Summary of Dielectric Parameters of TLX-8
Table 5.4 3-dB Beamwidth of a Single DSPD in H-Plane
Table 5.5 Fabrication Variation
Table 5.6 Simulated and Measured
HPBW
in E-Plane
CHAPTER 6: SAR-BASED SIGNAL PROCESSING
Table 6.1 Synthetic Aperture Size and Image Resolution
CHAPTER 7: FAST IMAGING THROUGH MIMO-SAR
Table 7.1 The MIMO-Based Advantages
CHAPTER 8: INTRODUCTION
Table 8.1 Comparison of Communication System with a Chipless RFID System
CHAPTER 9: CHIPLESS RFID TAG DESIGN
Table 9.1 Simulation Parameters
Table 9.2 Tag Types Given by Resonator Combinations
CHAPTER 10: ML DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR SISO CHIPLESS RFID TAGS
Table 10.1 Simulation Parameters
Table 10.2 DER Comparison for Different Detection Methods
Table 10.3 Likelihood for each tag type
CHAPTER 11: COMPUTATIONALLY FEASIBLE TAG DETECTION TECHNIQUES
Table 11.1 Simulation Parameters
CHAPTER 12: SIGNAL PROCESSING FOR MIMO-BASED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEMS
Table 12.1 An Example of a Table
Table 12.2 Simulation Parameters
Table 12.3 Simulation Parameters
CHAPTER 13: CONCLUSION FOR PART II
Table 13.1 Technical Specifications of Raspberry Pi 2 Model B
Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering
Editor: Professor Kai Chang, Texas A&M University
The Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering publishes authoritative treatments of foundational areas central to Microwave and Optical Engineering as well as research monographs in hot-topic emerging technology areas. The Series was founded in 1988 and to date includes over 100 titles.
A complete list of the titles in this series appears at the end of this volume.
ADVANCED CHIPLESS RFID
MIMO-Based Imaging at 60 GHz-ML Detection
By
NEMAI CHANDRA KARMAKAR
MOHAMMAD ZOMORRODI
CHAMATH DIVARATHNE
Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Karmakar, Nemai Chandra, 1963- author. | Zomorrodi, Mohammad, 1973- author. | Divarathne, Chamath, 1983- author.
Title: Advanced chipless RFID : MIMO-Based Imaging at 60 GHz- ML Detection / by Nemai Chandra Karmakar, Mohammad Zomorrodi, Chamath Divarathne.
Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2016] | Series: Wiley series in microwave and optical engineering ; 1187 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016014411 | ISBN 9781119227311 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Radio frequency identification systems. | MIMO systems.
Classification: LCC TK6570.I34 K364 2016 | DDC 621.3841/92- dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016014411
The book is dedicated to our families.
Shipra, Antara, and Ananya Karmakar Fathemeh Sajjadidokht, Mohammadkasra, and Zoha Zomorrodi Navarathne Banda and Dayani Chandramali
PREFACE
The author's group has developed various chipless RFID tags and reader architectures at 2.45, 4–8, 24, and 60 GHz. These results were published extensively in the form of books, book chapters, refereed conference and journal articles, and finally, as patent applications. However, there is still room for improvement of chipless RFID systems. In this book, we proposed advanced techniques of chipless RFID systems that supersede their predecessors in signal processing, tag design, and reader architecture.
The book introduces a few novel and advanced-level high-capacity data encoding and throughput improvement techniques for fully printable multibit chipless RFID tags and reader systems, respectively. These techniques enhance data content capacity of tags and perform reliable tag detection for readers at the instrumentation, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands 2.45, 24, and 60 GHz. First, a comprehensive review of existing chipless RFID tags provides the state of the art in the field and exposes impediments for commercial success. The limiting factors for commercialization of reported chipless RFID tags are (i) printing errors, (ii) degradation of tag performance on low-grade laminates, (iii) low data capacity, (iv) errors in tag reading in industrial environment, (v) reading reliability, and (vi) read range. This book addresses these limitations and provides solutions with an image-based tag design and advanced signal processing techniques.
The book provides the details of the new approaches – electromagnetic (EM) imaging, high-capacity data encoding, and robust tag detection techniques. In the introduction chapter first, a comprehensive review of the available and reported chipless RFID systems is presented. Then, their above-mentioned impediments for commercial success are analyzed. The analysis shows that the conventional techniques used for chipless RFID tag encoding and detection do not address the challenges imposed by commercial grade tags and reader systems. This encourages the researchers for new techniques and approaches in this field.
The book is divided into two main parts. Part I of the book, “EM Image-Based Chipless RFID System,” introduces the novel EM imaging concept for data extraction from a 60-GHz chipless RFID tag. Part II “Advanced Tag Detection Techniques for Chipless RFID Systems” presents smart tag detection techniques for existing chipless RFID systems and an innovative MIMO-based tag detection technique for high content capacity and zero guard-band tag detection. These approaches have been fully developed and tested in Monash Microwave, Antenna RFID and Sensor Research Group (MMARS) at Monash University.
In Part I of the book, the fundamental of EM imaging at millimeter-wave band 60 GHz for data extraction is introduced followed by the EM imaging through synthetic aperture radar (SAR) technique. It is shown that the millimeter-wave EM imaging has significant potentials for commercialization of chipless RFID. The EM imaging technique exploits advantages of RFID systems including their flexible non-line-of-sight (NLoS) operation and high data capacity benefit. Moreover, the proposed EM imaging technique inherits low-cost advantages and fully printable features of the barcodes on low-grade packaging materials. The downside of the conventional SAR-based EM imaging technique, requirement for physical movement of the reader antenna, is addressed by the new idea of MIMO-SAR technique. With the proposed MIMO-based EM imaging, no relative movement of the reader and tag is required hence very fast tag imaging is achievable. Finally, the MIMO approach is optimized through global genetic approach for minimum hardware complexity and to introduce a complete solution for chipless RFID system. In this pursuit, the system elements and technical requirements are discussed in details. The proposed approach to the EM imaging technique enhances the content capacity of the chipless systems to a commercial level, for example, EPC Global Class 1 Generation 2 with 64 data bits.
The main emphasis for Part II of the book is to introduce a few new smart tag detection techniques for chipless RFID systems. Researchers were mainly focusing on improving the RFID reader architecture [1, 2] and the chipless tag design in conventional approaches [3] and paying less attention to signal processing. As a result, most signal processing techniques being used in chipless RFID systems are primitive and should further be investigated. The first part of Part II focuses on advanced signal processing techniques that significantly improve the tag detection rate and tag reading range for the existing reader architecture [1] and tag design [4]. In addition, the proposed techniques allow removing the guard band presented in frequency-domain tags allowing the spectral efficiency to be improved. As a result, data capacity of the frequency-domain tags can be improved. Maximum-likelihood (ML)-based detection techniques have shown improved performances in communication systems compared to reported techniques such as threshold-based detection techniques [5]. The motivation for this work is to apply the ML detection techniques for chipless RFID tag detection so that the existing RFID system would perform better. One limitation of likelihood-based techniques is its exponential increase in computation complexity with higher number of data bits. Two computationally feasible tag detection techniques have been introduced to overcome this challenge. With these new tag detection techniques, computation complexity only increases linearly with the number of data bits. The second part of Part II presents a novel MIMO-based chipless RFID system and required tag detection techniques that can be used to improve the spectral efficiency, hence increasing data bit capacity.
We hope that the book will contribute significantly to the field of chipless RFID removing many practical barriers for commercialization of the technology.
Nemai Chandra Karmakar Mohammad Zomorrodi Chamath Divarathne Melbourne November 2015
REFERENCES
1. N.C. Karmakar, R. Koswatta, P. Kalansuriya and R. E-Azim,
Chipless RFID Reader Architecture
, Artech House Publishing, 2013.
2. R.V. Koswatta and N.C. Karmakar, “A Novel Reader Architecture Based on UWB Chirp Signal Interrogation for Multiresonator-Based Chipless RFID Tag Reading,”
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques
, vol.
60
, no. 9, pp. 2925–2933, 2012.
3. R. Rezaiesarlak, and M. Manteghi,
Chipless RFID, Design Procedure and Detection Techniques
, Springer, USA, 2015.
4. S. Preradovic and N.C. Karmakar,
Multi-Resonator-Based Chipless RFID
, Springer, USA, 2012.
5. R. Koswatta and N.C. Karmakar, “Moving Average Filtering Technique for Signal Processing in Digital Section of UWB Chipless RFID Reader,”
Proc. 2010 Asia Pacific Microwave Conference
, Yokohama, Japan, December 7–10, 2010.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The book is the outcome of two PhD level thesis works under the supervision of the first author. The PhD scholarship was supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Project grant DP110105606: Electronically Controlled Phased Array Antenna for Universal UHF RFID Applications. Therefore, the support from ARC is highly acknowledged. The editor-in-chief of Wiley Mr. Brett Kurzman, Editor, Global Research, Professional Practice and Learning, Wiley and Mr. Alex Castro, Senior Editorial Assistant of Wiley were very supportive from the inception of the book project to the end of production. Their support is highly acknowledged. The two student authors were cosupervised by Professors Jeff Walker and Jamie Evans of Monash University. Their valuable suggestions and technical assistance are also acknowledged. During the course of the research work, the team members of the authors' research group, Monash Microwave, Antenna, RFID, and Sensor (MMARS) Laboratory of Monash University, were very supportive to the PhD projects. The supports from the electronics and mechanical workshops of ECSE department of Monash University were instrumental for the research outcomes that are produced in the book.
The family members of the Authors had to endeavor their absence during this research. Their support and companionship are gratefully acknowledged.
Nemai Karmakar Mohammad Zomorrodi Chamath Divarathne Melbourne November 2015
PART IEM IMAGE-BASED CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
The area of contactless identification systems is growing rapidly into a multibillion dollar market. It covers a broad range of applications including supply chain management, manufacturing, and distribution services. Examples of these applications include consumer packaged goods, postal items, drugs, books, airbag management, animal tracking, pharmaceuticals, waste disposal, clothes, defense, smart tickets, people tracking such as prisoners, hospital patients, patients in care homes, and leisure visitors as shown in Figure 1.1. Tough trading conditions due to the global competition strive industries to attain more process efficiencies. Therefore, effective goods tracking systems are required to assist the implementation of the modern management system.
Figure 1.1 Application areas of identification systems.
In general terms, any application that involves object identification, tracking, navigation, or surveillance would benefit from an identification system. Several hundred billion tags per year are required by this wide area of applications [1].
In this market, every application has its own technical and financial specifications. Main applications, those that need a huge number of tags, require high data encoding capacity and survive only with a very cheap tag solution. For others, secure identification and antitheft tagging is more important. In some cases, the tag size is a key factor and for some others proper identification of highly reflective items such as liquid containers or metal objects is of more importance. Reading range would be another imperative factor for many applications.
Irrespective of all priorities, there are two main factors that significantly matter in all applications: the data encoding capacity and the system cost. For applications with millions of items for tagging, high data capacity of the identification system is a must. For applications with a limited number of objects, high data encoding capacity would be also beneficial to secure the identification process or provide higher reading reliability by sacrificing some of the available bits. The cost reduction is the main initiative for the usage of identification systems in industry; hence, the cost of the identification system and its tagging price must be low and competitive enough to initiate the request for the system. Otherwise, there would be no demand for such systems.
The cost of identification systems, like any other broadcasting service, has two parts: the reader and the tag. The reader cost is normally a fixed cost irrespective of the number of tags. However, the price of the tag attached to every individual item is the most costly part of the whole system. Specifically when the number of items is in the order of millions, the tag price plays a major role in the system's total cost. For such applications, a tag price of only $1 would increase the total cost of the system to a level that restricts the usage of identification systems. Therefore, the tag price should be kept as small as possible to offer a reasonably low identification system cost.
1.1 BARCODES AS IDENTIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
Barcode is an optical-based, machine-readable technique for identification purposes. It has been established in various industries for many decades with proven applicability. Barcode provides an extremely low-cost solution for identification of items to which it attaches. Originally, barcode are comprised of many parallel printed dark lines. The tag's data are systematically represented by varying the widths and spacing of those parallel lines. This type of barcode, dominant in many applications, is normally referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D) barcode. Data encoding capacity of the barcode tag is restricted by the diffraction of light through the edges of the lines, the reader sensitivity, and the reading distance, as shown in Figure 1.2. Diffraction restricts the minimum detectable line width as well as the minimum distance between two adjacent lines. This means that for increasing the data encoding capacity of the barcode, the only way is to increase the length of the tag. As the data encoding capacity of barcodes is proportional to the tag's size, it may result in an unreasonable tag size for many applications. This issue is considered as the main limitation of the barcode systems. The 1D barcodes have evolved into rectangles, circles, dots, hexagons and other two-dimensional (2D) geometric patterns to enhance the data encoding capacity. This has resulted in new machine-readable optical labels known as quick response (QR) code. QR codes use four standardized encoding modes to efficiently store data. The maximum storage capacity of QR codes can be up to 7000 characters, which is better than that of barcodes [2]. However, barcodes and QR have many operational limitations. They are very labor intensive as every tag needs to be read/scanned individually. Moreover, being an optical-based system, a clear line-of-sight (LoS), known as optical LoS, is also necessary for proper reading. This means that the tag shall be always printed and exposed on the products and the scanner requires clear optical LoS to read the barcodes or QR codes. Barcodes inside clear polyethylene bags cannot be read due to the light reflection of the bags. Any damage or dirt on the barcode results in improper reading. The reading distance between the optical scanner and the tag is also limited when considering the light dispersion/attenuation in free space and diffraction effect on the tag surface. Normal reading distance in optical systems is limited to few centimeters. Moreover, barcode is not a secure means of communication as tags can be easily reproduced by a cheap inkjet printer. The reading errors of barcodes depend on applications and many industries lose billions of dollars as compensations and damages each year. For example, optical barcode-based luggage handling has approximately 20% reading errors and airlines are paying more than $2 billion/year as compensations to passengers.
Figure 1.2 Data encoding limitation of a 1D barcode tag due to diffraction effect.
To address positive aspects of barcodes, no doubt a very cheap tag solution and proven applicability in identification systems are the most important factors. Its few cents tagging solution is very attractive for many applications, specifically for industries with millions of products. Being accepted globally for almost half a century also provides it a unique superior opportunity that makes it very difficult for other technologies to compete. The globally accepted international barcode quality specification standards, ISO/IEC-15416 (linear) and ISO/IEC 15415 (2-D) [3], and no privacy issues involved with the barcodes usage are highly regarded by many users.
Moreover, barcode systems provide a fairly good reading accuracy that is almost comparable with what other new techniques are offering [3]. Another good aspect of the barcode is that the accuracy of the reading process is almost independent of the items on which tags are placed.
1.2 RFID SYSTEMS
The usage of light waves as communication mean in the barcode systems causes many technical and operational limitations as discussed before. As an alternative approach, the use of EM waves for identification and tracking of objects was first proposed by Watson-Watt in 1935 [4] and coined as the radio frequency identification (RFID) system. In an RFID system, the reader sends an electromagnetic (EM)-wave interrogating signal toward the tag. This signal is then processed by the tag's microchip unit and backscatters the signal toward the reader. This backscattered signal carries the tag identification information and is received and processed by the reader to retrieve the data.
Figure 1.3 shows the generic configuration of the RFID system. As the EM wave is not obstructed by barriers, the system does not need a LoS link between the reader and tag. This provides a number of opportunities for an RFID system. For example, the tag may hide inside the item and not necessarily be exposed on the object as the barcode system does. Moreover, many reader antennas are omnidirectional; hence, they can detect tags irrespective of their position with respect to the reader. Multiple tag reading is also feasible in an RFID system, bulk detection scenario. The RFID reading distance may be much greater than that of barcodes as the EM waves are much less attenuated in free space than light waves. The more attractive part of an RFID system is its higher data encoding capacity, which is not comparable to the barcode, as the data are encoded by a microchip. Moreover, many security codes can be easily manipulated inside the microchip to provide more secure communication.
Figure 1.3 RFID general system structure.
1.3 BARCODES VERSUS RFID
Optical-based identification systems, barcodes and QR codes, and RFID systems all have their own advantages and limitations. This means that each system would be suitable for different purposes and under different circumstances. Although the majority of users still consider barcode systems as the most cost-effective way to handle the circulation and inventory management of equipment, the indication of changing market occurred in 2003, when Walmart adopted and mandated RFID tagging for all its suppliers. Walmart's motto of mandating RFID is to obtain seamless information from the manufacturing point to the ends of sales when the goods are sold and the boxes are crashed. There are numerous discussions and studies in industry and academia about the suitability of these three systems [5–9]. It is almost agreed that there is no clear superiority of one technology over others when both the cost and operational flexibility are considered simultaneously. In general, it is upon each specific industry to select the most suitable technology based on their needs and budgets. The benefit of barcode technology comes from their low-cost implementation. It is well established in industry and has fairly enough content capacity for many industrial and commercial applications. QR codes offer higher data encoding capacity while working almost on the same basis as barcodes. RFIDs are popular and more appropriate technology than barcodes for many industries as it can provide higher content capacity and much more operational flexibilities. For example, Cisco recently announced its new idea of Internet-of-everything (IoE) based on RFID systems [10]. However, conventional RFID systems are associated with limitations too. The main issue for RFID is that many industries cannot afford the system cost. To mitigate the potentials of RFID systems to compete with optical barcodes and being accepted by more applications, it is required to reduce the cost of the RFID tag to a level similar to optical barcodes, say less than a cent. A fully printable tag that is still able to provide the same or higher data encoding capacity compared to 1D barcodes with more operational flexibility would be highly welcomed by industries. A fair comparison among barcode, QR codes, and RFID systems is provided in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1Barcode, QR codes, and RFID [8, 9]
Data Capacity (max)
Tag Cost (¢)
Reading Speed
Unique Advantage
Operational Limitation
Reading Distance
Barcodes
20 bits
0.5–1
Relatively quick
Cheap and accurate
Optical LoS
Few centimeters
QR codes
7000 characters
1
Relatively quick (depends on device)
Versatile
Optical LoS
Few centimeters
RFID
4 million characters
>30
Very fast
Many technical superiorities
EM LoS or NLoS
Tens of meters
1.4 CHIPLESS RFID TAG FOR LOW-COST ITEM TAGGING
As addressed in the previous section, RFID systems show many technical and operational superiorities over barcodes and, therefore, are suggested as the most promising technique for barcode replacement. However, to date, this has not happened for main applications with billions of yearly tag requirements because of the higher cost of the RFID system. The RFID system cost mainly depends on its tag expense like any other broadcasting system. The total cost of identification system is mainly governed by the tag's cost only when the tag number is significant. Normally, the reader system does not contribute significantly in operational cost as it is a fixed cost.
In RFID systems, every tag needs a silicon chip to encode data. This results in an RFID tag cost that is many times more expensive than the barcodes. Significant investments and research have been spent on lowering the price of microchips to less than a cent and thus make it comparable to that of barcodes. However, the application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC or IC for short) design and testing along with the tag antenna and ASIC assembly still result in a costly manufacturing process [11–13]. Furthermore, as the price of every silicon chip directly depends on its size on the wafer, the minimum predictable cost of an RFID chip with the quantity of billion cannot be less than 5¢, which is still not competitive with 1¢ tag price of barcodes [11, 14]. Despite all recent improvements in silicon chip technology, silicon chips remain too expensive to be part of every RFID tag [15]. Considering the minimum predictable cost of a chipped tag, the total cost of an RFID system in applications with millions of tagging requirements would be much higher than that of barcodes. Therefore, the price of chipped RFID tags remains as the first and foremost hurdle for their deployment in applications with low product costs, for example, groceries. Based on the company's potential and system affordability, the relation between the tag cost and its volume is shown in Figure 1.4 [1]. Based on this model, the RFID tag cost would be a large barrier in organizations with high tagging requirements. Therefore, RFID tags without a chip, named as chipless tags, appear to be necessary for the commercialization of RFID systems in main applications with billions of yearly tag requirements [1]. As shown in Figure 1.4, the chipless tags are necessary to satisfy the requirements of medium- to large-sized organizations, with a tag price to be down to 1¢. Although the chipless tags eliminate the need for the silicon chip, the most expensive element of the tag structure, there are other factors that may surge the tag cost. The tag fabrication process, the requirement of tag to be affixed with other costly elements rather silicon chip, and their installation procedure may elevate the tag cost higher than the targeted value of 1¢, radiofrequency surface acoustic wave (RFSAW), for example [16]. Therefore, based on the worldwide well-accepted model, the main stream industries with billions of yearly tag requirements will only be satisfied through a fully printable chipless tag structure. Any technique or suggested solution for a chipless RFID system must consider this critical point of the industries for a printed tag; otherwise, the proposed technique finds no place in the identification market or at least in main stream industries.
Figure 1.4Expected tag volume versus tag cost. Source: IDTechEx [1].
However, the way the data can be encoded in a fully printable chipless tag is a big challenge that opens a new area of research. To date, many techniques and approaches have been proposed for a data encoding scheme in a chipless tag structure [11, 17–19]; however, very few products are available on the market.
1.5 CHIPLESS RFID SYSTEMS
Reducing the RFID tag price to below 1¢, printable chipless tags appear to be the only solution. There are many proposed techniques in the open literature on designing a chipless and passive tag structure with the mandated data encoding capability for identification purposes. This section mainly focuses on reviewing those techniques and approaches and exploring their potential advantages and limitations.
The communication between the RFID reader and the tag is accomplished through the use of EM waves. For the RFID chipless systems, the tag does not require any processor unit; hence, all the reading and coding processes are accomplished in the reader. The basis of the chipless system is that the reader receives the tag's backscattered signal in different domains and processes the signal in different domain to retrieve its encoded data. This leads to the time-domain-based, frequency-domain-based, phase-based, or hybrid systems [20–22]. Figure 1.5 shows the classifications of the chipless RFID systems that are reviewed in this section.
Figure 1.5 General classifications of chipless RFID systems.
1.5.1 Time-Domain-Based Chipless RFID Systems
In a time-domain-based system, the reader interrogates the tag with a series of pulses [23, 24]. The tag then retransmits the signal as a train of echoes with some time delays with the data encoded in the delayed responses. Manipulation of the delays can be handled directly on the EM waves domain. It is possible to convert the EM wave to another type of medium, acoustic wave, for example, and then delays are deployed in the signal. After manipulation of the data as delayed responses, the EM wave is retransmitted to the reader. When an alternative medium is used for data encoding purposes other than the EM wave, extra elements are needed for conversion [25]. For instance, in the surface acoustic wave (SAW) technique, the interdigital transducer element is used to convert an electromagnetic wave into a mechanical wave, which travels much slower than EM waves. This surface acoustic wave propagates through a piezoelectric element and then it is reflected back by a number of reflectors toward the reader. The requirements for extra elements in the SAW system elevate the tag price. Lowering the tag cost in time-domain-based systems mandates a printable tag structure without conversion of EM waves to other types of media. In this approach, the tag operates on the time-domain reflectometry (TDR) principle. The TDR tag normally consists of different types of transmission lines with multiple discontinuities [23, 24, 26–28]. Every discontinuity creates a reflection in the passing signal that shall be detected by the reader as the encoding technique. This approach provides the planar version of the tag structure; hence, a very low tag cost expectation through direct printing is claimed to be feasible. There are, however, some basic limitations that restrict their usage in real scenarios. Considering the much higher speed of EM waves than mechanical/acoustic waves, the required circuit size is remarkably large in creating detectable delays in the backscattered signal. For example, almost an 80 × 30 mm2 board size is required to encode only 4 bits of data, with the tag size rapidly increasing with a higher amount of data [24]. Moreover, the claimed 4-bit capacity is also based on the fabricated tag structure with PCB technology, and no information on the printed tag using conductive ink on paper were declared. The structure also includes some via holes that are not possible to mount on the commercial tag structure that is fully printable. In another work, the use of a transmission line of 2 m is reported to have a 4-bit coding capacity [29], which results in a tag size of 112 × 53 mm2 while the FR9151, Dupont was used as the substrate. The tag also includes the ground plane that increases the tag cost. No information was revealed on the performance of such a printed tag. There are some techniques proposed by other researchers to decrease the tag size in time-domain-based systems; however, the total performance of the system was significantly degraded [30, 31].
In summary, it can be concluded that the time-domain-based systems have major limitations in tag cost reduction and on providing enough data encoding capacity in a reasonable tag size. Although SAW tag, the most successful chipless RFID product available in the market [32], is time domain based, it appears that the main application of RFID systems will not be solely satisfied by the time-domain-based approaches.
