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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
The new edition of the leading textbook for English applied phonetics and phonology A leading textbook for English Phonetics and Phonology, the fourth edition of Applied English Phonology is an accessible, authoritative introduction to the English sound system. Providing clear explanations and numerous illustrative examples, this new edition has been fully updated with the latest research and references. Detailed discussions of fundamental concepts of applied English phonology cover phonetic elements, phonemics, English consonants and vowels, stress and intonation, structural factors in second language phonology, and much more. Designed for students and professionals in both theoretical and applied linguistics, education, and communication sciences and disorders, this textbook contains new material throughout, including a new chapter introducing typical phonological development, patterns of simplification, and disordered phonology. Expanded sections explore topics such as contracted forms, issues in consonant and vowel transcription conventions, and regional dialects of American English. The essential introduction to phonetics and phonology, this textbook: * Presents new and revised exercises, references, and recommended readings * Covers developmental disorders relevant to the field of speech pathology * Includes end-of-chapter passages that help students check their phonetic transcriptions * Features an enhanced companion website which contains instructor resources and sound files for transcription exercises Written by an internationally recognized scholar and educator, Applied English Phonology, Fourth Edition is essential reading for anyone in applied phonetics and phonology courses, as well as students and practitioners in areas of language and linguistics, TESOL, and communication sciences and disorders.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface to Fourth Edition
Note to the Instructor
About the Companion Website
Abbreviations
1 Phonetics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Phonetic Transcription
1.3 Description and Articulation of Sounds of English
1.4 Additional Sounds
1.5 Cardinal Vowels
1.6 Syllables and Suprasegmentals
Summary
Exercises
2 Phonology
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Complementary versus Overlapping Distribution
2.3 Phonemic Analysis: A Mini‐Demo
2.4 Free Variation
2.5 Morphophonology
2.6 Practical Uses of Phonological Analysis
Summary
Exercises
3 English Consonants
3.1 Stops
3.2 Fricatives
3.3 Affricates
3.4 Nasals
3.5 Approximants
3.6 Sociophonetic Variation
Summary
Exercises
4 English Vowels
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Vowel Set of American English
4.3 Front Vowels
4.4 Central Vowels
4.5 Back Vowels
4.6 Diphthongs
4.7 Sociophonetic Variation
4.8 Non‐US Varieties
4.9 Full Vowels–Reduced Vowels
4.10 Full (Strong) Forms versus Reduced (Weak) Forms of Function Words
Summary
Exercises
5 Acoustics of Vowels and Consonants
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Spectrographic Analysis
5.3 Vowels and Diphthongs
5.4 Consonants
5.5 Putting it Together
5.6 Waveform Analysis
5.7 Context
5.8 Practical Applications: Some Examples
Summary
Appendix
Exercises
6 Syllables
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Number of Syllables
6.3 Sonority
6.4 Syllabification
6.5 English Syllable Phonotactics
6.6 Written Syllabification
6.7 Syllable Weight and Ambisyllabicity
6.8 Practical Applications
Summary
Exercises
7 Stress and Intonation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Noun and Adjective Stress
7.3 Verb Stress
7.4 Secondary Stress
7.5 Affixes
7.6 Stress in Compounds
7.7 Differences between American and British English
7.8 Intonation
7.9 Variations among the Varieties
Summary
Exercises
8 Phonology of L1
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pre‐linguistic Stage
8.3
Babbling to the first words
8.4 First 50 words
8.5 Systematic Development and patterns of erroneous productions
8.6 Optimality Theory
8.7 Implications for Clinical treatment
Summary
Exercises
9 Structural Factors in Second Language Phonology
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Spanish–English Mini Contrastive Analysis
9.3 Differential Treatment of Mismatches
9.4 Markedness
9.5 Ontogeny Phylogeny Model (OPM)
9.6 Optimality Theory (OT)
9.7 Perception
9.8 Bilingual Phonology
9.9 Loan Phonology
Summary
Appendix A
Turkish–English
Greek–English
Arabic–English
Korean–English
Portuguese–English
Appendix B
Exercises
10 Spelling and Pronunciation
10.1 Irregularity of English Spelling
10.2 Phoneme–Grapheme Correspondences in English
10.3 Morphological Basis of English Spelling
10.4 American English vs. British English
Summary
Exercises
Recommended Readings
Chapter 1: Phonetics
Chapter 2: Phonology
Chapter 3: English Consonants
Chapter 4: English Vowels
Chapter 5: Acoustics of Vowels and Consonants
Chapter 6: Syllables
Chapter 7: Stress and Intonation
Chapter 8: Phonology of L1
Chapter 9: Structural Factors in Second Language Phonology
Chapter 10: Spelling and Pronunciation
Appendix: List ofSound FilesAppendix: List ofSound Files
Glossary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 English consonant and vowel symbols with key words.
Table 1.2 Consonants of English.
Table 1.3 Active and passive articulators for different places of articulatio...
Table 1.4 Consonants (English and other languages).
Table 1.5 Stops made with pulmonic and non‐pulmonic airstream mechanisms.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Comparison of the vowels and diphthongs of American English with th...
Table 4.2 Vowel and diphthong variations before /r/, and the [i – ɪ], [ә – ʌ] va...
Table 4.3 Comparison of the vowels and diphthongs of American English with those...
Table 4.4 Vowel and diphthong variations before /r/, and the [i – ɪ], [ә – ʌ]...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Frequencies of the first three formants in ten American English vow...
Table 5.2 Comparisons between men, women, and children in ten vowels.
Table 5.3 Mean durations of English vowels in stressed and unstressed syllabl...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 English double onsets.
Table 6.2 English double codas.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The vocal tract.
Figure 1.2 View of larynx, looking down.
Figure 1.3 Configuration for voiceless sounds.
Figure 1.4 Configuration for voiced sounds.
Figure 1.5 VOT continuum.
Figure 1.6 English vowels.
Figure 1.7 Cardinal vowels.
Figure 1.8 Realizations of /œ/ in Cantonese, Dutch, and French.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Flowchart for discovering the distribution of two or more phonetica...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 American English vowels.
Figure 4.2 Vowels before the tautosyllabic //.
Figure 4.3 American English diphthongs.
Figure 4.4 Northern Cities Shift.
Figure 4.5 Southern Shift.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Spectrogram of sit.
Figure 5.2 Spectrogram of beat and bet.
Figure 5.3 Formant chart with frequency of F
1
(vertical axis) plotted against ...
Figure 5.4 Spectrogram of Brian Boitano bowed.
Figure 5.5 Spectrograms of [bᴂb], [dᴂd], and [gᴂg].
Figure 5.6 Spectrogram of speak.
Figure 5.7 Spectrograms of peak, keen, and cake.
Figure 5.8 Spectogram of metal and metallic.
Figure 5.9 Spectrograms of a fake, sake, and a shake.
Figure 5.10 Spectrogram of a take.
Figure 5.11 Spectrograms of high and ahead.
Figure 5.12 Spectrograms of edging and etching.
Figure 5.13 Spectrograms of gray chip and great ship.
Figure 5.14 Spectrograms of train and scar.
Figure 5.15 Spectrograms of kite and pig.
Figure 5.16 Spectrograms of happy and chicken.
Figure 5.17 Spectrograms of basket and ostrich.
Figure 5.18 Waveform of /i/.
Figure 5.18a Waveforms of spider.
Figure 5.18b Waveform of times.
Figure 5.19 Waveform of beet.
Figure 5.20 Waveform of stick.
Figure 5.21 Waveform and spectrogram of whale.
Figure 5.22 Waveform of attack.
Figure 5.23 Waveform of tick.
Figure 5.24 Waveform of stick.
Figure 5.25 Waveform of pie. Waveforms of tie and kite.
Figure 5.26 Waveforms of go and ago.
Figure 5.27 Waveforms of discussed vs. disgust.
Figure 5.28 Waveforms of thigh, fife, sigh, and shy.
Figure 5.29 Waveforms of head and ahead.
Figure 5.30 Waveforms of meet and neat.
Figure 5.31 Waveforms of ray, way, yay, lay.
Figure 5.32 Waveforms of feel and fear.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Contrasts in success between phonological learning and other ling...
Figure 9.2 The Ontogeny Phylogeny Model: normal phenomena.
Figure 9.3 The Ontogeny Phylogeny Model: similar phenomena.
Figure 9.4 The Ontogeny Phylogeny Model: marked phenomena.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Applied English Phonology
Fourth Edition
Mehmet Yavaş
This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Edition History1e 2005, Blackwell Publishing, Ltd.; 2e 2011, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.; 3e 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Mehmet Yavaş to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Yavaş, Mehmet S., author.Title: Applied English phonology / Mehmet Yavaş.Description: Fourth edition. | Chichester, West Sussex [England] ; Malden, MA : Wiley Blackwell, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2019053566 (print) | LCCN 2019053567 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119557449 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119557463 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119557487 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: English language–Study and teaching–Foreign speakers. | English language–Phonology.Classification: LCC PE1128.A2 Y38 2020 (print) | LCC PE1128.A2 (ebook) | DDC 428.0071–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019053566LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019053567
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Lightspring/Shutterstock
Preface to Fourth Edition
For an author doing a revision of his/her work, comments received from the users are most valuable sources for guidance. As such, like for the previous editions, I have tried to carefully attend to the suggestions for improvement I received from several people. I am very much appreciative of their careful examination of the manuscript.
The present edition brings revisions and new material throughout the chapters. This includes the exercises, as well as the expansions, changes and updates in chapters, references, and recommended readings. Among the chapters, the revisions and additions are much more substantial in Chapters 1, 5, and 9. In addition, an entirely new chapter, Chapter 8, on First Language Phonology is added. This is essentially a response to students’ requests. During the last 3–4 years I have informally introduced phonological acquisition in my lectures and the feedback from the students has been very favorable.
I am indebted to many individuals who contributed to the previous editions of this book. Among them, to Sarah Coleman, Ada Brunstein, Pandora Kerr Frost of Blackwell, and to Danielle Descoteaux, Julia Kirk, and Fiona Sewell of Wiley‐Blackwell for their exemplary professionalism and support. I would also like to express my appreciation for the help I received from my students Emily Finlan, Manon van Keeken, Taryn Zuckerman, and Kelly Millard.
Once again, it was a pleasure to work with the production team at Wiley‐Blackwell. For this edition, I am grateful to Daniel Finch, Senior Project Editor, Tanya McMullin, Linguistics Editor, and Merryl Le Roux, Assistant Editor, for their help and support. My good luck on the home side also continued with the help I received from my students, Sophia Younes, and especially from Michele M. Suner. Her meticulous assistance and punctuality were instrumental in the timely completion of this edition. Finally, thanks to many students whom I have taught and from whom I learned.
Note to the Instructor
Material presented in this book has been, partially or in its entirety, used effectively on different occasions. Instructors who work with a specific student body and/or certain time constraints often have to make adjustments in the inclusion or exclusion of the material found in the texts. There are four chapters that might deserve some comments in this respect. First, Chapter 8 (“Phonology of L1”) may be more relevant to students and practitioners of Communication Sciences and Disorders. Second, Chapter 9 (“Structural Factors in Second Language Phonology”) may appear to be relevant only to the field of language teaching. However, the increasing participation of individuals from the field of Communication Disorders with respect to issues such as “bilingual phonology” and “accent reduction” makes this chapter very relevant to this field too. Third, to have a chapter on spectrographic analysis and waveform analysis (Chapter 5) may appear rather uncommon in a book like this, and it may be skipped depending on time constraints. The experience I have, however, has been very encouraging with respect to its inclusion. Students have repeatedly stated that it has added a valuable new dimension to their understanding of issues. Finally, Chapter 10 (“Spelling and Pronunciation”) may be of concern. I find the inclusion of this chapter useful, as it enhances the understanding of matches and mismatches between spelling and phonological patterns. As such, it may be read right after Chapter 2, relating it to the discussion of phonemics.
Finally, a few words in relation to the phonetic transcription are in order. I have put passages for phonetic transcription at the end of the chapters with the central theme of history and varieties of the English language. I am aware of the fact that these are not sufficient, and that students need more opportunities to feel comfortable with transcription. However, I did not want to inflate the number of pages in the sections on exercises, because the materials in this text can be, and indeed have always been, used very effectively together with a transcription workbook.
The sound files designed to enhance several issues discussed in the text. The 19 files highlight several points on the pronunciation of the English consonants and vowels, stress, intonation, and reduction in weak forms. They also include the lengthy end‐of‐chapter passages to enable students to check and recheck their phonetic transcriptions and feel more confident about this very useful but sometimes overwhelming practice. The files are shown with an indicator that appears at relevant points of the text and of the online Answer Key, as illustrated here. The complete list of the files is found in an appendix near the end of the book.
About the Companion Website
Please visit the companion website at www.wiley.com/go/yavas to view additional content for this title:
sound files corresponding to the text
glossary
answer key to the exercises in the book, available to instructors only
Abbreviations
AAVE
African American Vernacular English
AmE
American English
AuE
Australian English
BE
British English
CnE
Canadian English
IrE
Irish English
NZE
New Zealand English
RP
Received Pronunciation (British English)
ScE
Scottish English
WeE
Welsh English
1Phonetics
1.1 Introduction
Our aim in this book is to study the sound patterns of English. The understanding of phonological patterns cannot be done without the raw material: phonetics. In order to be able to come up with reliable phonological descriptions, we need to have accurate phonetic data. Thus, students and professionals who deal with the patterns of spoken language in various groups of speakers (linguists, speech therapists, and language teachers) need a basic knowledge of phonetics.
Phonetics, which may be described as the study of the sounds of human language, can be approached from three different perspectives. Articulatory phonetics deals with the physiological mechanisms of speech production. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of sound waves in the message. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech by the hearer. The coverage in this book will be limited to the first two of these approaches. The exclusion of auditory phonetics is basically due to the practical concerns of the primary readership as well as the little information available about the workings of the brain and speech perception. In this chapter, we will look at the basics of speech production. Acoustic properties, in a limited form of spectrographic analysis and waveform analysis, will be the subject of Chapter 5.
1.2 Phonetic Transcription
Because we are constantly involved with reading and writing in our daily lives, we tend to be influenced by the orthography when making judgments about the sounds of words. After all, from kindergarten on, the written language has been an integral part of our lives. Thus, it is very common to think that the number of orthographic letters in a word is an accurate reflection of the number of sounds. Indeed, this is the case for many words. If we look at the words pan, form, print, and spirit, for example, we can see the match in the number of letters (graphemes) with the number of sounds: three, four, five, and six, respectively. However, this match in number of graphemes and sounds is violated in so many other words. For example, both should and choose have six graphemes but only three sounds. Awesome has seven graphemes and four sounds, while knowledge has nine graphemes and five sounds. This list of non‐matches can easily be extended to thousands of other words. These violations, which may be due to “silent letters” or a sound being represented by a combination of letters, are not the only problems with respect to the inadequacies of orthography in its ability to represent the spoken language. Problems exist even if the number of letters and sounds match. We can outline the discrepancies that exist between the spelling and sounds in the following:
The same sound is represented by different letters
. In words such as
ea
ch
,
bl
ee
d
,
ei
ther
,
ach
ie
ve
,
sc
e
ne
,
bus
y
, we have the same vowel sound represented by different letters, which are underlined. This is not unique to vowels and can be verified with consonants, as in
sh
op
,
o
c
ean
,
ma
ch
ine
,
s
ure
,
con
sc
ience
,
mi
ss
ion
,
na
ti
on
.
The same letter may represent different sounds
. The letter
a
in words such as
g
a
te
,
a
ny
,
f
a
ther
,
a
bove
,
t
a
ll
stands for different sounds. To give an example of a consonantal letter for the same phenomenon, we can look at the letter
s
, which stands for different sounds in each of the following:
s
ugar
,
vi
s
ion
,
s
ale
,
re
s
ume
.
One sound is represented by a combination of letters
. The underlined portions in each of the following words represent a single sound:
th
in
,
rou
gh
,
a
tt
empt
,
ph
armacy
.
A single letter may represent more than one sound
. This can be seen in the
x
of
exit
, the
u
of
union
, and the
h
of
human
.
One or more of the above are responsible for the discrepancies between spelling and sounds, and may result in multiple homophones such as rite, right, write, and wright. The lack of consistent relationships between letters and sounds is quite expected if we consider that the English alphabet tries to cope with more than 40 sounds with its limited 26 letters. Since letters can only tell us about spelling and cannot be used as reliable tools for pronunciation, the first rule in studying phonetics and phonology is to ignore spelling and focus only on the sounds of utterances.
To avoid the ambiguities created by the regular orthography and achieve a system that can represent sounds unambiguously, professionals who deal with language use a phonetic alphabet that is guided by the principle of a consistent one‐to‐one relationship between each phonetic symbol and the sound it represents. Over time, several phonetic alphabets have been devised. Probably, the most widespread is the one known as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which was developed in 1888, and has been revised since then. One may encounter some modifications of some symbols in books written by American scholars. In this book, we will basically follow the IPA usage while pointing out common alternatives that are frequently found in the literature. First, we will present the symbols that are relevant to American English (see Table 1.1) and later in the chapter we will add some non‐English sounds that are found in languages that our readership is likely to come in contact with. The dialectal variations, since they are examined in detail in Chapters 3 and 4, will not be dealt with here.
Table 1.1 English consonant and vowel symbols with key words.
Phonetic symbol
Word positions
Initial
Medial
Final
Consonants
p
p
ack
su
p
er
ma
p
b
b
ed
ru
bb
er
ro
b
t
t
ea
a
tt
ack
grea
t
d
d
ate
a
d
ore
goo
d
k
c
atch
pi
ck
ing
loo
k
g
g
ate
do
gg
y
ba
g
f
f
at
co
ff
ee
loa
f
v
v
ery
mo
v
ing
do
v
e
θ
th
in
ru
th
less
dea
th
ð
th
ey
mo
th
er
brea
th
e
s
s
ad
si
s
ter
bu
s
z
z
oom
rai
s
in
bu
zz
ʃ (š)
sh
ine
ma
ch
ine
ca
sh
ʒ (ž)
—
vi
s
ion
massa
g
e
h
h
ead
be
h
ind
—
t∫ (č)
ch
air
tea
ch
er
whi
ch
dʒ (ǰ)
j
ump
lar
g
er
hu
g
e
m
m
ail
re
m
ind
roo
m
n
n
est
te
n
or
bea
n
ŋ
—
a
ng
er
ki
ng
j (y)
y
ard
be
y
ond
so
y
w
w
ay
re
w
ind
lo
w
(r, ɻ)
r
ain
bo
r
ing
fou
r
l
l
ight
bu
ll
et
mai
l
Vowels and diphthongs
i (ij, iy)
ea
se
f
ee
t
b
ee
ɪ
i
t
s
i
t
—
e (ej, ei, ey)
ei
ght
b
a
ke
s
ay
ε
e
dge
r
e
d
—
æ
a
nger
n
a
p
—
ʌ
o
ven
l
o
ve
—
ə
a
bove
oft
e
n
Tamp
a
ɑ
a
rch
f
a
ther
sp
a
ɔ
a
ll
h
a
ll
s
aw
o (ow, oʊ)
o
at
g
o
at
b
ow
ʊ
—
b
oo
k
—
u (uw)
oo
ze
l
oo
se
tw
o
aɪ (aj, ay)
i
ce
s
i
de
b
uy
ɔɪ (ɔj, ɔy, oɪ, oj, oy)
oi
l
v
oi
ce
b
oy
aʊ (au, aw)
ou
t
s
ou
nd
h
ow
The following should be pointed out to clarify some points about Table 1.1. First, certain positions that are left blank for certain sounds indicate the unavailability of vocabulary items in the language. Second, the table does not contain the symbol [ʍ] (or [hw], []), which may be found in some other books to indicate the voiceless version of the labio‐velar glide. This is used to distinguish between pairs such as witch and which, or Wales and whales. Some speakers make a distinction by employing the voiceless glide for the second members in these pairs; others pronounce these words homophonously. Here, we follow the latter pattern. Finally, there is considerable overlap between final /j/ and the ending portion of /i/, /e/, /aɪ/, and /ɔɪ/ on the one hand, and between final /w/ of /o/, /u/, and /aʊ/ on the other. The alternative symbols cited make these relationships rather clear, and this point will be taken up in Chapter 4.
1.3 Description and Articulation of Sounds of English
1.3.1 The vocal tract
Our examination of how sounds are made will begin with the vocal organs. The air we use in sound production comes from the lungs, proceeds through the larynx where the vocal cords are situated, and then is shaped into specific sounds at the vocal tract. In sound production, it is generally the case that the articulators from the lower surface of the vocal tract (lower articulators, i.e. the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the tongue) move toward those that form the upper surface (upper articulators, i.e. the upper lip, the upper teeth, the upper surface of the mouth, and the pharyngeal wall). Figure 1.1 shows the vocal tract.
Figure 1.1
The vocal tract.
Starting from the outer extreme, we have the lips and the teeth. In the upper surface, behind the upper teeth, there is a bumpy area (the alveolar ridge), which is followed by a larger bony area (the hard palate). Further back is a flaccid area, the “soft palate” (or “velum”), which is unsupported by bone. The soft palate is a movable organ, which opens and closes the velopharyngeal passage (the passage that links the pharynx to the nasal cavity). Finally, at the back, the velum narrows to a long, thin pointed structure that is called the “uvula.”
In the lower part of the mouth, after the lower lip and the teeth, lies the tongue. The “tip” (or “apex”) of the tongue is the foremost part. Just behind the tip is the small surface called the “blade” (or “lamina”). The so‐called “front” part of the tongue is the area between the tip/blade and the center. The hindmost part of the horizontal surface of the tongue is called the “back” (or “dorsum”). At the end of the tongue, we have the “root,” which is the vertical surface against the pharyngeal wall. Finally, we have the “epiglottis,” which is a leaf‐shaped cartilage that sticks up and back from the larynx.
1.3.2 Voicing
The larynx, which sits on top of the trachea, is composed of cartilages held together by ligaments. It houses the vocal cords, which lie horizontally just behind the Adam’s apple (see Figure 1.2). The space between the vocal cords, which is known as the “glottis,” assumes different configurations for sounds known as “voiced” and “voiceless.” When the cords are apart (open), the air passes freely through the glottis. Sounds made with such a configuration of the glottis are called “voiceless” (see Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.2
View of larynx, looking down.
Figure 1.3
Configuration for voiceless sounds.
Figure 1.4
Configuration for voiced sounds.
If, on the other hand, the vocal cords are brought together, the air passing through creates vibration, and the resulting sounds are “voiced” (see Figure 1.4). It is important to point out that the cord vibration is not a muscular action. When the cords are brought close to one another, the passing air creates a suction effect (Bernoulli principle), and the cords are brought together. As soon as the cords are together, there is no suction effect, and the cords move apart. As soon as they are apart, the suction is reinitiated, and the cycle repeats itself.
One can easily feel the difference between certain voiced and voiceless sounds. If you pronounce the initial sounds of the word pairs sip – zip and cheap – jeep and place your index finger on your Adam’s apple or place your index fingers in both ears, you should feel the buzz created by the voicing of /z/ and /dʒ/; this effect will not be present in the production of their voiceless counterparts /s/ and /t∫/.
1.3.3 Places of articulation
The place of articulation of a consonant is the description of where the consonantal obstruction occurs in the vocal tract by the placement of the tongue or by lip configuration. Below are the places of articulation relevant for the consonants of English:
Bilabial:
In the production of bilabial sounds the two lips come together. The initial consonants of the words
pay
,
bay
, and
may
exemplify the English bilabials /p, b, m/.
Labio‐dental:
Labio‐dental sounds of English, /f, v/ (e.g.
feel
,
veal
), involve a constriction between the lower lip and the upper teeth. Bilabials and labiodentals together are called “labials.”
Interdental:
/θ/ and /ð/ sounds of English (e.g.
thin
,
that
) are made by placing the tip or blade of the tongue between the upper and lower front teeth. For some speakers, the tongue tip/blade just barely touches behind the upper teeth (thus, the term “dental” is used instead in some manuals).
Alveolar:
When the active articulator, the tongue tip or blade, goes against the alveolar ridge, we have an alveolar sound. The initial consonants of the words
tip
,
dip
,
sip
,
zip
,
nip
,
lip
exemplify the English alveolars /t, d, s, z, n, l/ respectively.
Palato‐alveolar:
In the production of palato‐alveolar sounds of English, /ʃ, ʒ, t∫, dʒ/ (exemplified by the final consonants of
fish
,
garage
,
rich
,
ridge
, respectively), the blade of the tongue moves towards the back of the alveolar ridge (approximates in the case of /ʃ, ʒ/ and touches in the case of /t∫, dʒ/).
Retroflex:
Retroflex sounds are made by curling the tip of the tongue up and back toward the back of the alveolar ridge. The only retroflex sound in American English is the r‐sound (//). Although both in retroflex sounds and in palato‐alveolar sounds the constriction is at the back of the alveolar ridge, these two groups are not identical; the former is “apical” (with the tip of the tongue), and the latter is said to be “laminal” (with the blade of the tongue). It should also be noted that not all speakers use the retroflex r‐sound; many speakers have a “bunched” r‐sound made by raising the blade of the tongue with the tip turned down.
Palatal:
/j/, as in
yes
, is the only palatal sound of English. It is made with the front of the tongue articulating against the hard palate.
Dentals, alveolars, palato‐alveolars, and palatals are called coronals.
Velar:
In the production of English velars, /k, ɡ, ŋ/, exemplified by the final sounds of
back
,
bag
,
sing
, respectively, the back of the tongue articulates against the velum (soft palate).
Glottal:
These are sounds formed at the glottis, which include /h/ (e.g.
home
) and the glottal stop /ʔ/.
Velars and further back articulations (uvular, pharyngeal, glottal) are called dorsals.
Labio‐velar:
The sound /w/ (e.g.
we
) is the only consonant that has two places of articulation. In the production of this sound, the lips are rounded (thus, “labial”), while at the same time the back of the tongue is raised toward the velum (thus, “velar”). As a result, we place the symbol at both bilabial and velar places and call the sound “labio‐velar.”
1.3.4 Manners of articulation
The manner of articulation of a sound is the degree and the kind of obstruction of a consonant in the vocal tract. For example, if we compare the first sounds of the words tip and sip, we realize that the airflow is obstructed in the same area (alveolar), and in both sounds, /t/ and /s/, the configuration of the vocal cords is the same (voiceless). The difference between the two sounds lies in the type of obstruction of the airflow. While in /t/ we stop the air completely before the release, we simply obstruct (not stop) the airflow with a narrowing created by the articulators in /s/.
Stop:
A stop consonant involves a complete closure of the articulators and thus total blockage of airflow. The stops found in English are /p, b, t, d, k, ɡ/.
Fricative:
A fricative is a sound that is made with a small opening between the articulators, allowing the air to escape with audible friction. In English /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/ are the fricative sounds. The common denominator of fricatives is partial airflow with friction noise. Some manuals, adhering strictly to the requirement of turbulent airstream, do not consider /h/ a fricative. A subgroup of fricatives (alveolars and palato‐alveolars), which are more intense and have greater amounts of acoustic energy at higher frequencies, are known as “sibilants.”
Affricate:
In a stop sound, the release of the closure is quick and abrupt; however, in sounds where the closure release is gradual, it creates friction. Such sounds are called affricates. In other words, affricates start like stops (complete closure), and end like fricatives. Both affricates of English, /t∫, dʒ/, are produced in the palato‐alveolar place of articulation. The symbols used for these sounds reveal the combination of stops /t/, /d/ with the fricatives /ʃ/, /ʒ/, respectively. An important point to remember is their one‐unit (inseparable) status. Unlike consonant clusters (e.g. /sk/, /pl/), which are made up of two separable phonological units, affricates always behave like one unit. For example, in a speech error such as
key chain
[ki t∫en] becoming [t∫i ken], the affricate /t∫/ is interchanged with a single segment /k/; clusters, on the other hand, are separated in a comparable situation, as illustrated in
scotch tape
[skʌt∫ tep] becoming [kʌt∫ step] and not [tʌt∫ skep] (see
Section 3.3
for more on this). Since affricates /t∫/ and /dʒ/ contain sibilant fricatives in them (/ʃ/, /ʒ/, respectively), they are also sibilants. Stops, fricatives, and affricates, which are produced by a considerable amount of obstruction of the laryngeal airstream in the vocal tract, are collectively known as “obstruents.”
Approximant:
Approximants are consonants with a greater opening in the vocal tract than fricatives, and thus do not create any friction. Identifying a sound as an approximant or a fricative includes acoustic/auditory and aerodynamic considerations, as well as articulatory factors. Catford (
1977
) states that the typical cross‐sectional area of the maximum constriction in a fricative ranges from about 3 to 20 mm
2
, while it is greater than 20 mm
2
in an approximant. The sounds /l, , j, w/ (the initial consonants of
lay
,
ray
,
yes
, and
week
) are the approximants of English. Both fricatives and approximants, because they let the airflow continue in the production, are called “continuants.” Two of the English approximants, /l, /, are “liquids,” vowel‐like consonants in which voicing energy passes through a vocal tract with a constriction greater than that of vowels. The liquid /l/, which is called the “lateral” liquid, is produced with the tongue tip creating a closure with the alveolar ridge while maintaining an opening at the sides of the tongue where the air escapes. The non‐lateral approximant, //, which was described earlier in relation to retroflex place of articulation and is also known as the “rhotic,” will not be repeated here.
The remaining two approximants /j/ and /w/ are known as “glides” (also “semi‐vowels” in some manuals). These are vowel‐like sounds that function like consonants. In other words, /j/ is like the vowel /i/ and /w/ is like the vowel /u/ in production, while functioning like consonants, as they do not occupy the syllable nuclei and they always need a vowel to lean on.
Nasal:
If we compare the initial sounds of
beat
and
meat
, /b/ and /m/, we see that they share the same place of articulation (bilabial) and voicing (voiced). The difference between them lies in the velopharyngeal opening and the channels of the outgoing airflow. In the production of /m/, the velum is lowered, and the velopharyngeal passage is open. Thus, upon release of the closure, the air goes out through the nasal cavity as well as through the oral cavity. In the production of /b/, on the other hand, the velum is raised and the passage is closed. Consequently, the only outlet for the airflow is the oral cavity. Sounds that are made with the former configuration, e.g. /m, n, ŋ/, are called nasals; the others are oral sounds.
Table 1.2 Consonants of English.
Bilabial
Labiodental
Interdental
Alveolar
Retroflex
Palato‐alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
Stop
p b
t d
k g
Fricative
f
v
θ
ð
s z
ʃ
ʒ
h
Affricate
t∫
dʒ
Nasal
m
n
ŋ
Liquid
l
Glide
w
j
w
Approximants (liquids and glides) and nasals, because they include a relatively unobstructed flow of air between the articulator and the place of articulation, collectively form the group of consonants that is known as “sonorants.”
We can summarize the English consonants in the following fashion:
Table 1.2 shows the places and manners of articulation for English consonants. Whenever a cell has two consonants, the voiceless one is placed to the left and the voiced one to the right. We can also summarize the places of articulation with the listings of active and passive articulators, as shown in Table 1.3.
1.3.5 Voice onset time
As stated earlier, a stop articulation consists of a closure formed by the two articulators followed by an abrupt release of this closure. In this section, we will look at the production of stop sounds and the timing of vocal cord vibration, which is relevant for voiced, voiceless, aspirated, and unaspirated distinctions. The differences for these various kinds of stops can be explained by the time difference between the release of the stop closure and the beginning of vocal cord vibration. This timing relationship is known as the “voice onset time” (hereafter VOT). Figure 1.5 represents the different stop productions in the VOT continuum.
Table 1.3 Active and passive articulators for different places of articulation.
Place of articulation
Active articulator
Passive articulator
Bilabial
upper and lower lips
None
Labiodental
lower lip
upper front teeth
Dental
tongue tip
upper front teeth
Alveolar
tongue tip or blade
alveolar ridge
Palato‐alveolar
tongue blade
rear of alveolar ridge
Retroflex
tongue tip
front of hard palate
Palatal
tongue front
hard palate
Velar
tongue back
soft palate (velum)
Glottal
vocal cords
None
Figure 1.5
VOT continuum.
If the voicing starts before the release (i.e. during the closure period), as in the case of lines (a) and (b), then the situation is described as having “voice lead” and is given a negative VOT value in milliseconds (ms). (See Chapter 5 for different methods of VOT measurements.) Line (a) represents a fully voiced stop; we have vocal cord vibration throughout the closure, which continues after the release. The /b, d, ɡ/ sounds of Romance languages are said to be typical examples of fully voiced stops. Lead values in these stops range from about −125 to −75 ms (e.g. French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese).
Not all voiced stops are produced in this fashion. In some languages, English and other Germanic languages included, /b, d, ɡ/ are subject to a certain amount of loss of voicing (“partial voicing, or no voicing at all”) during their production. Line (b) in Figure 1.5 represents this configuration; the voicing starts some time into the closure stage and continues into the following vowel (the mirror image of this is seen in final voiced stops; these will be given in detail in Chapter 3).
If, on the other hand, the voicing starts after the release of the stop closure, then it is said to have a “voice lag” and is described with a positive VOT value in milliseconds. Perceptually, hearers react to the differences in a binary fashion (categorical perception). The amount of lag may be significant; while a lag greater than 30 ms results in stops that are perceived as “aspirated” (or “long lag”), a shorter voice lag or voicing simultaneous with release results in stops that are known as “unaspirated” (short‐lag). The location of the category boundary is found to differ by language experience. For Spanish speakers, who produce /b/ with pre‐voicing (voice lead) and /p/ as voiceless unaspirated (short‐lag), the /b/ vs. /p/ boundary falls at 15 ms. Consequently, listeners from different language backgrounds react differently to the same measurable difference, say 40 ms, between two productions due to their different category boundaries. Spanish speakers hear tokens of −20 and +20 as different, but +20 and +60 as the same (boundary at +15 ms), whereas English speakers hear –20 and +20 as the same and +20 and +60 as different (boundary at +30 ms). Tokens are tagged as different only when they are from different sides of the category boundary.
Lines (c) and (d) show these two possibilities. In neither case do we have vocal cord vibration during the stop closure (thus “voiceless”). The difference between the two cases lies in the point at which the voicing starts with respect to the moment of release. In line (c), the vocal cord vibration is simultaneous with the stop release, or with a lag from 0 to about 20 ms, and we have a “voiceless unaspirated stop.” The voiceless stops of Romance languages are given as examples for this. English initial /b, d, ɡ/, while they may have some voicing for some speakers during the closure (i.e. they are partially voiced), do not have any voicing for great many speakers and thus are virtually indistinguishable from the voiceless unaspirated stops (Cf. [b] in ba and [p] in spa)
In line (d), the lag is longer than the 30 ms threshold, (ranging from +60 to +100 ms) and the resulting sound is a “voiceless aspirated stop.” The diacritic used for aspiration is a small raised [ʰ] to the top right of the stop (e.g. [pʰ]). English initial [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] sounds are produced in this way and we hear the resulting short burst before the buzz of voicing in the vowel. The degree of aspiration may be different in different languages. For example, while English voiceless stops are slightly aspirated, their counterparts in languages such as Mandarin, Thai, and Scots Gaelic are strongly aspirated. Across languages, lag values tend to increase as we move the place of articulation from front to back. Accordingly, the mean VOT values for [p] are shorter than for [t] which, in turn, are shorter than for [k]. VOT is also longer before high vowels than before low vowels. These variations are probably an automatic consequence of differences in degree of aerodynamic resistance to the exiting airflow. The higher resistance offered by the high vowels delays the decay of pressure and thus the onset of voicing (Ohala 2009). In addition to such segment internal effects, VOT can be influenced by other factors such as tempo of speech, the number of syllables in the word, and the sentence length. As expected, faster speech, words with more syllables, and longer sentences have the effect of reducing VOT.
In some languages (e.g. Hindi of India, Sindhi of Pakistan and India), the possibilities go beyond the three types of stops (voiced, voiceless unaspirated, voiceless aspirated) we have discussed, with the addition of the so‐called “voiced aspirated stops.” These stops have, after the release of the stop closure, a period of breathy voice (murmur) before the regular voicing starts for the following segment. Thus, we get the following four‐way voicing distinction in Hindi:
[tal] “beat”; [tʰal] “plate”; [dal] “lentil”; [dʰal] “knife”
1.3.6 Vowels and diphthongs
When we examined consonants, we talked about the varying degrees of obstruction of the airflow in their production. As a general statement, we can say that the vocal tract is more open in vowels than in consonants. This, however, can be a tentative formulation because, as we saw in the discussion of glide/vowel separation, the consideration may be phonological and not phonetic.
For the characterization of vowels, we do not use the dimensions of place and manner of articulation, as there is no contact between the articulators. Instead, vowels are characterized by the position of the tongue and the lips. Since vowels are usually voiced, the voiced/voiceless distinction used for consonants is not relevant either.
If you examine the vowels of beat, bit, bait, bet, and bat in the order given, you will notice that your mouth opens gradually and the body of your tongue lowers gradually. A similar situation is observed if we go through the vowels of boot, book, boat, and bought; that is, gradual opening of the mouth and gradual lowering of the tongue occur. The difference between the two sets lies in the part of the tongue involved. While in the former set, the front part of the tongue is involved (tongue pushed forward), the latter set focuses on the back of the tongue (tongue pulled back). The traditional type of chart used to plot vowel positions places the front vowels on the left, back vowels on the right, and central vowels in the middle. There are height dimensions: “high” (or “close”), “mid,” and “low” (or “open”), while the “mid” is frequently divided into “high‐mid” and “low‐mid.” Figure 1.6 shows the English vowels.
Another dimension of vowel description refers to the lip position. Four /ɔ, o, ʊ, u/ of the five back vowels, which are given in circles in Figure 1.6, are produced with rounded lips and thus are called “round” (or “rounded”); all other vowels are unrounded.
Figure 1.6
English vowels.
Finally, in addition to the height, backness, and rounding characteristics, one other grouping, tense/lax, is given. This is a rather controversial issue and will be dealt with in detail in Chapter 4. Here, suffice it to say that this book will follow the distributional criteria and group /ɪ, ε, æ, ʊ, ʌ/ as “lax,” while considering the rest “tense.”
The vowels we have described so far are considered to have a single, unchanging quality and are called “monophthongs.” (This is not uncontroversial for /i/ and /u/, and especially for /e/ and /o/; see Chapter 4 for details.) The vocalic elements of words such as bite, brown, and boy, on the other hand, involve a complex articulation whereby we move from one vowel to another. More specifically, we have /aɪ/, /aʊ/, and /ɔɪ/, respectively. Such sounds are known as “diphthongs.” The complete account of vowels and diphthongs, including their dialectal variations, will be discussed in Chapter 4.
1.4 Additional Sounds
Our primary concern in this chapter has been the consonants and vowels of English. However, students of speech pathology and teachers of English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) and of applied linguistics frequently deal with speakers of other languages, either in the context of foreign language learning or in the context of bilingualism (or multilingualism). Such situations, needless to say, demand familiarity with several sounds that are not present in English. Thus, the following is intended to provide the necessary coverage.
1.4.1 States of the glottis
Besides the two configurations (voiced and voiceless) we mentioned for the sounds of English, some languages use sounds that involve two additional states of the glottis. These are creaky voice (also known as “laryngealized” or “vocal fry”) and murmur (also called “breathy voice”).
In creaky voice, the arytenoid cartilages at the back of the glottis are together, and the cords vibrate at the other end. The result is a low‐pitched sound. Many Chadic languages (e.g. Hausa, Bura, and Margi of West Africa) use such sounds to make changes in meaning in opposition to a regularly voiced sound. Creaks can be transcribed by adding a subscript tilde to individual sounds (e.g. []).
Murmurs (or breathy voiced sounds) are produced in such a way that the vocal cords are apart at the back, while they vibrate at the front portion. The opening of the cords is narrower than in voiceless sounds, and the cords vibrate with high volume‐velocity airflow through this gap, which subsides quickly because the high rate of flow cannot be maintained for long. Murmur sounds can be transcribed by placing two dots [..] under individual sounds (e.g. []). Niger‐Congo languages in Africa (e.g. Zulu, Shona) and several languages spoken in India (e.g. Hindi, Sindhi, Marathi, Bengali, Gujarati) have murmured stops. Also, in Mazatec (an Oto‐Mangean language spoken in Mexico) laryngealized vowels, breathy voiced vowels, and regular vowels can be found in contrast (i.e. substitutions for each other making differences in meaning).
1.4.2 Places and manners of articulation
Stops
The bilabial, alveolar, and velar stops of English are very common in the languages of the world. Three additional places of articulation are noteworthy for stops. Voiceless and voiced palatal stops, which are transcribed as [c, Ɉ] respectively, are found in Hungarian, Czech, Turkish, Basque, and Irish. Retroflex stops [ṭ, ḍ] (or [ʈ, ɖ]) are common in Hindi. As for uvular (the back of the tongue articulating against the uvula) stops, we can cite the voiceless [q] (found in Eskimo and Quechua), and the voiced [G] (found in Persian). Mention should also be made of dental stops [, ], which are found in Romance languages (e.g. Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, etc.).
Fricatives
The fricative inventory of English is quite rich (nine fricatives), but there are many more possibilities that are found in several languages of the world. The voiceless bilabial fricative, [Φ], is common in Greek and Hausa, while the voiced counterpart, [β], is found in Spanish. Ewe of West Africa has both of these bilabial fricatives. Retroflex fricatives, both voiceless, which can be transcribed as [ṣ] (or [ȿ]), and voiced, which can be transcribed as [ẓ] (or [ʐ]), are found in Mandarin Chinese and in several Dravidian languages of India, such as Tamil and Malayalam. Palatal fricatives are also found in several languages. While the voiceless [ç] is found in Irish, Bengali, German, Norwegian, and Greek, the voiced counterpart, [ʝ], is found in Swedish, Greenlandic, and Margi. Velar fricatives can be found in Indo‐European languages. We can cite Welsh, Irish, Bulgarian, Czech, German, Sindhi, and Slovene for the voiceless [x], and Greek, Spanish, Arabic, Persian, German, and Irish for the voiced [ɣ]. The voiceless uvular fricative, [χ], is common in Dutch and Semitic languages (e.g. Arabic, Hebrew), and several Amerindian languages (e.g. Tlingit), while the voiced counterpart, [ʁ], is frequent in Portuguese and French. Finally, pharyngeal fricatives, both voiceless, [ћ], and voiced, [ʕ], are commonly found in Semitic languages.
Affricates
The two palato‐alveolar affricates of English are by far the most common ones in the languages of the world. Besides these, alveolars are also relatively frequent. The voiceless member, [tˢ], of this group, which is the most common one, is found in Chinese, Croatian, Japanese, Slovene, and Czech, while the voiced [dᶻ] may be found in Bulgarian. Also worth mentioning is the voiceless bilabial affricate, [pᶠ], which is found in German.
Nasals
Just like the affricates, the nasals of English are among the most common in languages of the world. However, mention should be made of the next most common nasal, [ɲ], which is palatal. This sound is part of several languages such as French, Spanish, Portuguese, Vietnamese, Hungarian, Catalan, Irish, and Sundanese. Other nasals that are worth mentioning are the uvular [N], which is found in Japanese and in several Amerindian languages, and retroflex nasal [ṇ] (or [ɳ]) found in Malayalam.
Liquids
In this group, we look at sounds that are known as “l‐sounds” and “r‐sounds,” which present a wide variety. The voiced alveolar approximant [l], found in English, is one of the most common laterals in languages. Palatal [ʎ], which is found in languages such as Italian and Portuguese, is another common lateral approximant. Laterals are most likely to be approximants and voiced; however, neither of these qualities is necessarily the case. Fricative laterals are more commonly voiceless (e.g. voiceless, alveolar fricative [ɬ], as in Welsh).
The r‐sounds, while they all are normally voiced, present a wider range in types than laterals. It is common to see a distinction between “continuant” and “interrupted” r‐sounds. The r‐sounds of English (retroflex approximant in American English, [], alveolar approximant in British English, [ɹ]) are examples of continuants.
More commonly, r‐sounds belong to one of the “interrupted” types (taps, flaps, trills). Both taps and flaps involve a momentary contact between the articulators. The Spanish [ɾ], in caro [kaɾo] “expensive” (or the American English intervocalic /t/, as in writer), is made with a flicking movement of the tip of the tongue against the upper articulator. Taps are sometimes equated with flaps, which is not accurate. First, taps are mostly dental/alveolar, while flaps are retroflex. Also, these two sounds are different in direction of the movement; in taps we have a movement from up to down, and in flaps from back to front.
Trills are produced by the repeated tapping of one flexible articulator against the other.
It is important to note that while a tap/flap requires muscle activity and involves a single movement, a trill is produced by the airflow and involves a passive repetitive motion of trilling articulator. The dental/alveolar trill, [r], (e.g. Spanish perro [pero] “dog”) is one of the most common in languages of the world. Also noteworthy is the uvular trill, [R], which is found in German and in some varieties of French (e.g. [Ruʒ] “red”). In some other varieties of French (e.g. Parisian), this sound is a uvular fricative or approximant (e.g. [ʁuʒ] “red”). Sometimes a trill may be accompanied with friction. The Czech r‐sound [ṛ] is a good example of a voiced alveolar fricative trill (e.g. Dvorak [dvoṛak]).
Glides
The sounds /j/ and /w/ that are found in English are by far the most common glides in languages of the world. A noteworthy addition to this category is the labio‐palatal approximant, [ɥ], found in French (e.g. [mɥεt] “mute”). Table 1.4 gives the updated consonant chart.
While the additional symbols are useful in dealing with sounds that are not found in English, they may not be sufficient when dealing with data from a disordered population. Here, we may require extra refinement in the form of new symbols and/or diacritics to accurately reflect the atypical productions, which are rarely found in natural languages, or not found at all. Among such articulations we may find the following: dento‐labials, the reverse of labiodentals, are articulated between the upper lip and the lower front teeth. These may include stops [, ], nasal [], and fricatives [, ]. Labio‐alveolars, which are common with speakers with excessive overbite for target labials and labio‐dentals, are articulated between the lower lip and the alveolar ridge (e.g. ]). In clinical data, fricatives may be found with simultaneously median airflow over the center of the tongue and laterally (e.g. []), as well as with friction located within the nasal cavity (i.e. fricatives with nasal escape), []. Also commonly cited are labio‐dental stops [p, ] and the velopharyngeal fricative (more commonly known as the velopharyngeal snort) [fŋ]. The sounds cited above do not constitute an exhaustive list of possible atypical articulations found in disordered speech. For a more detailed account and complete diacritics, including transcription conventions for phonatory activities and connected speech modes, the reader is referred to Ball and Lowry (2001).
We should also point out that some of the spaces where certain places of articulation and manners of articulations intersect are empty. This is due to two reasons. Certain intersections represent anatomical or aerodynamic reasons that such a sound cannot be produced. Pharyngeal nasals can be given as an example for this. Since the occlusion for this sound is going to be at a point below the velopharyngeal passage to the nasal cavity, it is impossible to have the closure and let the air go through the nasal cavity. On the other hand, there are some intersections (e.g. labiodental trill) that are left empty just because no language has (yet) been documented with that sound.
1.4.3 Secondary articulations
In the production of some consonant sounds, we observe the addition of a secondary, lesser constriction to the primary articulation. The distinct sound that is superimposed on the original creates the secondary articulation. Four types of secondary articulation are common: labialization, palatalization, velarization, and pharyngealization.
Table 1.4 Consonants (English and other languages).
Bilabial
Labio‐dental
Dental/interdental
Alveolar
Retroflex
Palato‐alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Uvular
Pharyngeal
Glottal
Stop
p
b
t
d
ṭ(ʈ)
ḍ(ɖ)
c
ɟ
k
g
q
G
ʔ
Fricative
Φ
β
f
v
θ
ð
s
z
ṣ (ȿ)
ẓ(ʑ)
ʃ
ʒ
ç
ʝ
x
ɣ
χ
ʁ
ћ ʕ
h
Affricate
p
f
tˢ
dᶻ
tʃ
dʒ
Nasal
m
ɱ
n
ṇ(ɳ)
ɲ
ŋ
N
Liquid
l
r ɾ ɹ
()
R
Glide
w
ɥ
j
ɥ
w
Note: Sounds given in bold type occur in English.
Labialization:
This term refers to the addition of lip rounding, resulting in the rounded vowel quality of the type seen in
boot
. In other words, this can be thought of as the superimposition of a [u]‐like or [w]‐like articulation on the primary articulation. An example of a labialized consonant is found in the initial sound of
quick
. The diacritic for labialization is a raised [ʷ], because it is often accompanied by raising the back of the tongue (e.g. [kʷɪk]). Labialized consonants contrast with non‐labialized consonants in some African languages (e.g. Twi, spoken in Ghana).
Palatalization:
This is the raising of the blade of the tongue toward the hard palate without touching the roof of the mouth. It can be considered as the superimposition of an [i]‐ or [j]‐like articulation on the primary articulation, and the diacritic for palatalized consonants is a raised [ʲ]. Russian and other Slavic languages have palatalized consonants contrasting with the regular consonants (e.g. [brat] “brother” vs. [bratʲ] “to take”).
Velarization:
This term refers to the raising of the back of the tongue toward, but not touching, the velum, as for the vowel [u] without the lip rounding. The diacritic for velarization is [~]. Scots Gaelic contrasts velarized and non‐velarized consonants (e.g. [balә] “town” vs. [baɫә] “ball/wall”).
Pharyngealization:
