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- Herausgeber: V&S Publishers
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018
Practical short cuts to write and speak correct English effectively
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© Copyright: ISBN 978-935-05721-8-4
DISCLAIMER
While every attempt has been made to provide accurate and timely information in this book, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility for errors, unintended omissions or commissions detected therein. The author and publisher make no representation or warranty with respect to the comprehensiveness or completeness of the contents provided.
All matters included have been simplified under professional guidance for general information only without any warranty for applicability on an individual. Any mention of an organization or a website in the book by way of citation or as a source of additional information doesn't imply the endorsement of the content either by the author or the publisher. It is possible that websites cited may have changed or removed between the time of editing and publishing the book.
Results from using the expert opinion in this book will be totally dependent on individual circumstances and factors beyond the control of the author and the publisher.
It makes sense to elicit advice from well informed sources before implementing the ideas given in the book. The reader assumes full responsibility for the consequences arising out from reading this book. For proper guidance, it is advisable to read the book under the watchful eyes of parents/guardian. The purchaser of this book assumes all responsibility for the use of given materials and information. The copyright of the entire content of this book rests with the author/publisher. Any infringement / transmission of the cover design, text or illustrations, in any form, by any means, by any entity will invite legal action and be responsible for consequences thereon.
Dedication
In Memory ofMy GrandfatherHari Mohan MathurGold Medalist in English Literaturefrom Agra University
PREFACE
It is emphasised that all compositions should be able to express clearly what the writer wishes to convey—be it a letter, an article, a report, or even a book. Good writing takes into account proper organisation of the written matter, good sentence construction, correct grammar, and suitable use of punctuation and other marks, besides several other parameters. A well-written and structured composition gives a favourable impression of the writer to the reader. Conversely, a badly presented material may confuse or distract the reader, even dissuading him from reading. I have been conscious of the facts mentioned above while preparing “BECOME PROFICIENT IN WRITING & SPEAKING GOOD ENGLISH.”
Not so long ago a writer used a pen and paper to write in long hand or type out a communication, but the modern author has recourse to a word processor on the computer. This makes their task simpler as they could type out the points or even thoughts on the processor and organize them into a whole document by adding and deleting, by arranging and rearranging the matter and suitable editing without much hassle. However, the spell-check device needs care because most computers follow the American usage while the British style is acceptable in India. But in most software it can be altered to British usage by going to Language option in Tools on the Menu Bar.
Any one aspiring to write good prose must have on his desk at least one dictionary from each side of the Atlantic for British and American spellings, as usage of some words and expressions are different between the two. This work follows the British style. A thesaurus is also very useful, as it not only serves to increase one's vocabulary and helps in avoiding repetition of the same word by giving synonyms but it also helps in choosing the right word that conveys the exact shade of thought or meaning that one wishes to convey.
This book would not have been possible without the active cooperation of my father, Mr. S. M. Mathur. He helped me in my research, in finding appropriate examples, and in several other ways. My words of thanks cannot adequately express my indebtness to him.
• ARCHANA MATHUR
The Need of“GOOD ENGLISH”
English : An International Language
English today is the lingua franca of international communication, of diplomacy, of commerce, or just of interaction between people of different nationalities—even between Indians speaking different regional languages. Because of its universal acceptance the European Union has adopted it as its official language though it has appointed a commission to simplify it. It is the preferred language of computers—over eighty percent of all websites are in English. Even highly chauvinistic societies that are jealously proud of their language—such as the French, the Russian, the Chinese and the Japanese—are perforce learning it because of its world-wide standing and importance. Non-English speaking people, if they wish to bring their scientific, technical and academic studies to the notice of the world at large, prefer to publish their work in this language. Indians across the globe have made their mark in the field of information technology and other scientific disciplines because of their proficiency in English.
Why was this Book Created?
Practically all higher teaching and research in management, medicine, science and technology subjects are carried out in English, not only because most books and journals in these subjects and their various disciplines are in this language but also because it is the language of virtually all internal and international business and commerce communications. Most of the scientific, technical and business terminology is English-language based. It is therefore, important to understand all aspects of the language and to write not only grammatically correct prose but also to organize and present it in a cogent manner which appeals to the reader. There are also some conventions in style that are required to be followed for proper presentation. That is the reason that this book was created.
The output of the printed word in the English language, right from books, magazines and newspapers to posters and handbills in India, is simply phenomenal. It becomes imperative, therefore, to be proficient in English and to write it correctly and idiomatically. Badly written and constructed material is not uncommon—mistakes in spelling, grammar and incorrect use of words abound. It must be admitted though that the English language poses several problems in syntax and usage that sometimes baffle writers, not only those whose mother tongue is not English but also people who speak and use the language from birth. But by following the generally accepted rules and conventions many pitfalls can be avoided. There is a plethora of foreign publications on various aspects of correct and good writing but hardly any that focuses on the requirement of the Indian writer. The aim and scope of this work is to make a contribution towards removal of this deficiency. That is another important reason that this book was created.
How is this Dictionary Unique in Presentation?
It is not a text that deals with theoretical aspects of writing but offers practical advice in an alphabetical format for writing proper and attractive prose to improve one's communication skills. The topics cover commonly made mistakes and confusing set of words, proper and effective use of figures of speech, various aspects of grammar and syntax, foreign language words commonly used in English, besides many other aspects of attractive writing.
This book, ‘Become Preficient in Writing and Speaking Good English’, guides the user to communicate effectively by using correct and idiomatic language. This is to be achieved by building the understanding and knowledge of the language and by discussing its various aspects, including correct usage, origin and source of words. It also gives some insight into aspects of the language that would help in writing good prose. The topics are arranged alphabetically for easy reference. The entries have adequate and appropriate examples. It would be a good idea to carefully go through all the entries: this would alert the readers to steer away from commonly made mistakes and to direct them to use the language properly.
Eight appendices are included to enrich the vocabulary and knowledge of the reader. They contain lists of groups of words and terms that are likely to be useful in expanding one's vocabulary and their appropriate usage for better communication.
A
A and An are indefinite articles.
‘A’ is generally used before nouns starting with a consonant or consonantal sound.
A cow gives milk.A pen is used for writing.
‘An’ is used before nouns, starting with vowels or vowel sounds.
An elephant was used to move timber.An umbrella gives protection from the sun and the rain.An hour a day is sufficient to learn the subject.She is an honest woman.She is an M.P. [But: She is a Member of Parliament.]She works for an NGO [But: She works for a Non-Government Organization.]
‘A’ is used before the words starting with a vowel but having a consonant sound.
A one-rupee coin.A useful book.
‘An’ is also used before a word where the initial constant ‘h’ is silent before a vowel.
An hour a day is sufficient to learn the subject.He is an honorary member of the club.
But: a word beginning with ‘h’ where it is pronounced takes ‘a’:
There is also a hotel in the village. He is a historian.
A, as a prefix to certain verbs, forms its unstressed variant. Some examples are given here.
She saw the kids abed before leaving for the movie.
The life jacket kept him afloat.
She was aglow with pride on her achievement.
Children are amoral, and often cannot distinguish between a right or wrong action.
Having failed once, he will try to climb the Everest anew.
Although born in a political family he is apolitical.
He was jolted awake when the first shock of the quake hit his house.
The students eagerly awaited their result.
The beach was awash with tiny shells as the tide hit it.
A number of…Here is confusing grammar. Though the subject, number, is in a singular form it is so strongly plural in meaning that it takes a plural verb.
A number of children are absent today.
A number of men were arrested for rioting.
A number of seats are still available in the school.
A number of shops were gutted in the fire.
However, when used with definite article ‘the’, number takes a singular verb.
The number of children absent today has come down.
The number of men arrested for rioting is only ten.
The number of reserved seats for the handicapped has been increased.
The number of shops looted during rioting is not known.
Abbreviated Latin Words and Phrases. Several foreign words and phrases are abbreviated in English writing and used widely. They are generally from the Latin and are not italicized. The common abbreviations with original Latin and their English meanings are given below:
Abbreviation
Latin word(s)
English meaning
A.D.
Anno Domini
of the Christian era
Ad lib.
ad libitum
improvised, without preparation
c./ca.
circa
about a certain date
cf.
confer
compare
C.V.
curriculum vitae
brief account of ones’ previous career
e.g.
exempli gratia
for example
et al.
et alii
and others
etc.
etcetera
and so forth
et seq.
et sequential
and following pages/matter
ibid
ibidem
in the same work, book, chapter, or passage
id.
idem
the same author, or the same word
inf.
infra
below
N.B.
nota bene
take careful notice
non seq.
non sequitur
it does not follow
op. sit.
opere citato
in the work already cited
P.S.
postscriptum
post-script
P.S.S.
postscriptuma
post-scripts [plural]
q.v.
quod vide
which see
R.I.P.
requiescat
(pl.
reqiescant
)
rest in peace (after death)
R.S.V.P.
respondez s’il vous plait
please answer (the invitation)
sup.
supra
above
v./vs.
versus
against
viz.
videlict
namely
Abbreviated Phrases. It has lately become popular in correspondence and journalistic writing to use abbreviations for some popular phrases. They are written with or without punctuation (generally the latter) and each letter is pronounced individually.
Dacoit Ambika Patel aka Thokia was killed recently in a police encounter.
Please reply asap as the matter is urgent.
The office could not work full strength as five employees went AWOL last week.
I want this letter delivered to the client PDQ.
She will take charge of the Principlal w.e.f. next July.
Abbreviation is the shortened form of a word or words that consists of the initial letter or letters and is generally punctuated by stops, though there is a current tendency to ignore the stops. Names of practically all multi-word organizations, products, phrases are abbreviated in common usage, usually in capitals. Little-known abbreviations used in a communication should be used only after the full form in written first and the abbreviation indicated within parentheses. Titles, ranks, academic degrees, compass directions are commonly abbreviated. They are different from acronyms and letter symbols. [See also Contraction and Elision]
Abbreviations as contractions. Some abbreviations are actually contractions without an apostrophe even though the first and last letters of the word have been used. They generally take a stop though there is increasing tendency to omit it.
Abbreviations of diurnal time. The correct way to write abbreviation of time is in lower case, but capitals, normal or small, are sometimes used, particularly by the Americans. Forenoon and afternoon abbreviations are always in capitals.
a.m.
p.m..
F.N.
A.N.
Abbreviations with a slash. Some abbreviations take a slash.
Abbreviations, their plural. Plurals of most abbreviations are formed by suffixing the usual ‘s’ in lower case. In some cases the plurals are indicated by repetition of the abbreviated letter. The styles of capitalization are shown in the examples:
Abridge and condense are both verbs having the meaning of ‘to shorten or compress’. Abridge has the fine sense of ‘shortening a text by omission of words without losing the sense’, while condense implies ‘to reduce to fewer words a longer document or speech’.
Both the words can often be used as synonyms in writing.
A new abridged / condensed version of the novel has come out.
The novel has been abridged but has lost its charm.
The condensed version of the novel has been so well done that it is like reading the original.
Absurdities in written and spoken English involve the use of many modifiers that occur commonly. They are solecisms that must be avoided at all cost.
Most unique [Unique is ‘one and only one of a kind and having no equal’, then it cannot be the ‘most’.]
Absolutely perfect [‘perfect’ indicates ‘something faultless’ so ‘absolutely’, is redundant.]
More better [‘better’ is already a comparative of good, so ‘more’ cannot be an additional comparative. It is tautology.]
Acknowledgement or acknowledgment. Both the spellings (with or without ‘e’ after ‘acknowledge’) are permissible.
Acronyms are shortened forms or abbreviations composed from the initial letters of other words or phrases, and are written without punctuation and are pronounced as words. Some acronyms have now become regular words.
Acronyms formed from names of some organizations were originally written all in capitals but generally now only the initial letter is capitalized.
Other types of acronyms are in capital letters only but are pronounced as words.
A.D. and B.C. These two abbreviations refer to historical dates with reference to the Christian era. A.D. is Latin for Anno Domini, meaning ‘in year of the Lord’ indicating that the date(s) is (are) during the Christian era; it is written before the date. B.C. means ‘before Christ’ and is placed after the date indicating that it is before the Christian era. Sometimes, these abbreviations are not punctuated and are written or printed in capitals. [Note: These related abbreviations are from two different languages, Latin and English]
Mt Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79 and the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under its lava. [A.D. is written before the date.]
The Mauryan empire flourished between 321-185 B.C. [B.C. is written after the date.]
Adage. See Proverb…
Adapt and adopt are two similar verbs with different meanings and are likely to be confused in usage. Adapt implies ‘to modify or alter according to changing circumstances’. Adopt means ‘to take into relationship or take another idea’ that may have originated elsewhere.
Many Europeans have adapted themselves to the harsh Indian summer by adopting Indian dress.
Several appliances have been adapted to work on 220 volts instead of 110 volt as in America.
Some European celebrities have adopted African children recently.
The law was adopted after a few amendments.
Adjacent; adjoining; subjacent.Adjacent means ‘near to each other’, but adjoining indicates joined together’ as by a common wall. The meanings of these two adjectives are distinct but sometimes the two words could be interchanged. Subjacent has the special implication of ‘situated under or below’.
My house is adjacent to the Hanuman temple but there is a lane in-between.
My house is adjoining his house, only a low wall separating the two.
The Doon Valley is subjacent to the Mussoorie Hills.
Adjectives from proper names. Some people have given their names to special qualities or philosophies attributed to them which go by their names which are capitalized in writing.
Churchilian is an adjective formed from the famous British statesman Winston Churchill for his great oratory that he embellished by using rhetoric and flourish.
In India Atal Behari Vajpayee is considered a great orator for his Churchillean flourish of rhetorical language.
Gandhian is an adjective formed from the name of Mahatma Gandhi which coveys a way of life of austerity, honesty, truth and nonviolence.
Martin Luther King, Jr., was the embodiment of Gandhian principles in the United States.
Machiavellian has become an adjective to enunciate the principles of conduct laid down by the Italian politician Machiavelli marked by cunning, scheming or unscrupulous duplicity or bad faith in politics and business.
The Machiavellian cunning of some Indian politicians has resulted in fragmentation of the Indian society as never before.
Nehruvian is an adjective formed from the name of Jawaharlal Nehru who advocated socialism in India after Independence.
Nehruvian model of development envisaged control of all economic activities by the state.
Orwellian has become an adjective after an English author George Orwell who propounded a policy of control by propaganda, misinformation, and denial of the truth of colonial oppression which he felt was for the good of the oppressed people.
Though the British have left some African dictators have used Orwellian techniques to oppress their people.
Advice; advise. These two words often cause some confusion. But if you remember the difference in pronunciation, you are not likely to make a mistake. Advice is a noun and means ‘opinion or guidance given’, and is pronounced with a soft ‘c’. Advise is a verb with the meaning of ‘to give advice or suggestion’ or ‘counsel’, and is pronounced with a ‘z’ sound.
He withdrew his case on the advice of his lawyer.
His lawyer advised him to withdraw the case.
Affect; effect. There is often confusion about the right use of these two words. Affect is primarily a verb that means ‘to produce a feeling’ or ‘to influence’. Effect is a noun that means ‘result’; ‘consequence’ or ‘impression’, but is also a verb to mean ‘to bring about’ or ‘to accomplish’.
Alcohol affects different people in different ways. [verb]
She was greatly affected by the condolence messages from everyone. [verb]
Everyone in the room is affected by his chain smoking. [verb]
The disease has affected the movement of her hands. [verb]
People have given up alcohol as the effect of Baba Ramdeo's teachings. [noun]
The effect of alcohol on some people is to make them rowdy [noun]
Police effected the arrest of the chain-snatcher after a long chase. [verb]
The order is likely to have no effect on the free sale of beer. [verb]
Afrikaans words. Several words in the English language are taken from Afrikaans— the official language of the Republic of South Africa—a language derived from Dutch.
Agenda. This is the plural of agendum but has been widely used as singular, and a plural agendas has been coined. So instead of swimming against the popular usage there is no alternative but to accept agenda as singular.
The agenda for the meeting was drawn up ten days in advance.
The agendas of all the meetings should be sent well in advance.
Allegory is a form of extended metaphor in which fictional things in a story, poem or picture are introduced to interpret truths or generalisations with underlying meanings.
Alliteration is the use of two or more words in close succession in a sentence beginning with the same letter or sound, usually a consonant. The use of alliteration sometimes gives a lyrical feel to the prose.
He keeps cool, calm and collected in an emergency.
Betty's bitter butter is better than sally's
She sells sea shells on the sea shore. [Also a tongue-twister]
Alright; all right. Allright is a short, combined form of two words, all and right. The purist frown on it and write it in two separate words, all right, but alright, as one word, is in wide use particularly in speech.
It is alright for you to write your paper in Hindi.
It is all right for you to write your paper in Hindi.
Also; too. Both adverbs have the same meaning in the sense of ‘besides’ or ‘likewise’. When used at the end of a sentence in this sense it sometimes follows a comma. ‘Too’ also has the meaning of ‘excessive’.
She would also like to take part in the school drama.
She would like to take part in the school drama, too.
He wants to sell off his TV and the VCR, too.
The house is too large for a single family. [excessive]
He has gone too far this time in blaming others for his mistakes. [more than what is desirable]
Altogether; all together. The two forms are often confused. Altogether means ‘entirely’, ‘wholly’, ‘completely’. In a special informal sense, it means ‘nude’ preceded by ‘the’. The phrase all together has the meaning of ‘in one place or in a group’.
The trip cost five thousand rupees altogether. [entirely]
The model posed in the altogether. [in the nude]
The hikers meet at the forest lodge all together. [in one place, the lodge]
The cricket team flew back all together. [in one group]
Although; Though. These two words cause some confusion when used in a sentence, but both are practically interchangeable except in certain cases. Although can be used anywhere in the sentence except at the end, but though can occur any where including the end of a sentence.
Although/ Though the train was crowded we found a seat.
We found a seat (al) though the train was crowded.
It's hard work, I enjoy it though.
I will call on you soon, it will take a little while though.
There are some sentences, in which the two words can be interchanged. But in the following examples though cannot be replaced by although.
I liked the book. I decided not to buy it though.
He was behaving as though he owned the place.
I didn't show my feelings, happy though I was.
Altitude and elevation are nouns, both concerned with heights: altitude refers to ‘vertical height above the sea level or land’, and elevation to ‘vertical height above a given level’.
The altitude of Mt. Everest is 8850 metres above the sea level.
India is planning to place a remote sensing satellite at an altitude of 600 km above the Earth.
The maximum elevation allowed for a building in Lucknow is 30 metres.
The elevation of the surrounding hills above the valley varies between 30 and 65 metres.
Alumnus; alumni; alumna; alumnae. These related words are frequently used in academic circles but often cause some confusion. Alumnus is singular, and alumni is plural for both the genders of former students. Alumna is female, singular, and alumnae is female plural.
He/she is an alumnus of the Delhi University.
The alumni of the English Department will have a get-together next Wednesday.
She is an alumna of the Women's College, Varanasi.
Several alumnae of the Women's College occupy important positions in the society today.
a.m.; p.m.a.m. is the abbreviation of Latin ante meridiem meaning ‘before noon’, and p.m. is the abbreviation of Latin post meridiem meaning ‘afternoon’. These abbreviations are written in lower case following British usage, but the Americans write them in capitals, using small capitals in printing. It is redundant to write ‘10 a.m. in the morning’, and ‘6 p.m. in the evening’.
The classes will be held from 8.30 a.m. to 3.30 p.m.
The eclipse will be visible between 3.27 and 5.42 p.m.
Amend; emend. With the same sound but slight alteration of the initial letter these two words mean the same ‘change’ but have different shades of meaning. Amend signifies a ‘change or modification of a document, proposal, etc.’, while emend means ‘to correct or revise’, generally a document or text. The derivatives of amend are amendable (adjective), amender (noun), and amendment (noun), and those of emend are emendable (adjective), and emendation (noun) (but not ‘emendment’).
There is a proposal to amend the Constitution to provide for reservation to OBCs.
The text of the book was emended to remove some offensive passages.
The Supreme Court struck down the 39thAmendment and part of the 42ndAmendment of the constitution as violation of Basic Structure of the Constitution.
The emendation of the text was done to improve the language.
American spelling. There are many words which are spelt differently by the Americans from the British. The dictionaries in American softwares spell words the American way, and the spell check of a computer may confuse the Indian user who follows the British spelling. If in doubt, a British dictionary should be consulted. The main entry of a word in American dictionaries follows the American style but may sometimes also print the British variant. The use of the ending ‘-ise’ versus ‘-ize’ has been discussed elsewhere in this work. Some other differences in styles may be noted here. The British ending ‘our’ in American words is reduced to ‘-or’, and ‘-re’ to ‘-er’. Another American style is to spell some words with a single ‘l’ or'm’ while the British spelling has two. Some other American spellings tend to be phonetically simpler.
British
American
behaviour
behavior
colour
color
honour
honor
humour
humor
centre
center
metre
meter
theatre
theater
cunsellor
counselor
jeweller
jeweler
traveller
traveler
gemmology
gemology
programme
program
cheque
check
tyre
tire
American words. A large number of words originating from the United States have seeped into the English language. A few that are commonly encountered and are typical of American vocabulary are given here.
Before the matter goes to the boss let's try a band-aid to repair the damage.
He is a good buddy of mine.
There is a small caucus in the Congress that is opposed to aid to Pakistan
This doodad/doohickey is useful for opening tin cans.
This dude is very popular with the girls.
Everything is hunky-dory between them after the quarrel.
It is O.K. for you to sit here.
The food was so yucky that I threw-up.
Ampersand is the symbol &, which means ‘and’. It is generally used in name of companies: Sharma & Co. Ltd.
