Business & Economics E-Book

Abraham Kuyper

• Herausgeber: Lexham Press
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Abraham Kuyper Collected Works in Public Theology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 892

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

Kuyper on the Positive Potential of BusinessIn his vast treasury of writings, Abraham Kuyper addressed nearly every sphere of society, including politics, science, and the arts. But his views on business and economics are often overlooked because he rarely engaged with that sphere directly. Still, his doctrine of common grace has great significance for showing how Christ is at work in the workplace.In this anthology of essays, speeches, and reflections, we see Kuyper's attempts to think positively and creatively about the calling and potential of business. Included are his ideas about economic freedom, the eternal value of earthly work, stewardship and philanthropy, economic globalization, the workings of God's grace in business, and the social function of money.

Leseprobe

ON BUSINESS & ECONOMICS

ABRAHAM

KUYPER

Edited by Peter S. Heslam

ACTON INSTITUTE

FOR THE STUDY OF RELIGION AND LIBERTY

On Business & Economics

Abraham Kuyper Collected Works in Public Theology

Copyright 2021 Acton Institute for the Study of Religion & Liberty

Lexham Press, 1313 Commercial St., Bellingham, WA 98225

LexhamPress.com

All rights reserved. You may use brief quotations from this resource in presentations, articles, and books. For all other uses, please write Lexham Press for permission.

Email us at [email protected].

Unless otherwise noted, Scripture quotations are from The Holy Bible, English Standard Version® (ESV®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway Bibles, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Print ISBN 9781577996767

Digital ISBN 9781683594505

Library of Congress Control Number 2020948473

Acton Editorial: Ingrid De Groot

Lexham Editorial: David Bomar, Claire Brubaker, Justin Marr, Abigail Stocker

Cover Design: Christine Christophersen

ABRAHAM

KUYPER

Collected Works in Public Theology

GENERAL EDITORS

JORDAN J. BALLOR

MELVIN FLIKKEMA

ABRAHAMKUYPER.COM

CONTENTS

Forewords

Editor’s Introduction: Calvinism in Business—an Enlightened Enterprise?

Volume Introduction: Abraham Kuyper and the Economic Teachings of the Heidelberg Catechism

Abbreviations

Give Us This Day Our Daily Bread

You Shall Not Steal

Remember the Sabbath Day

Working People and the Church

Sunday Rest and Hygiene

Manual Labor

The Social Question and the Christian Religion

Draft Pension Scheme for Wage Earners

Protectionism and Materialism

Human Trafficking

Social Organizations under Our Own Banner

Feeding the Nation’s Workers

The Social Question (1909)

Industrial Organization

The Sacred Order

The Social Question (1917)

What Next?

Meditations

Appendix: Common Grace and Commerce

Afterword

Bibliography

About Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920)

About the Contributors

Subject Index

Scripture Index

FOREWORDS

In the hyperpaced, global marketplace of the twenty-first century, what can be gained from the writings of a theologian-philosopher who seems preoccupied with critiquing the French Revolution of 1789? And given the sophisticated tools of modern economic analysis, why should anybody care about this theologian-philosopher’s analysis of labor unions, government subsidies, and pensions in the Netherlands over a century ago?

One reason is that this theologian-philosopher, Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920), understood the underlying dynamics of today’s global economy better than almost all of today’s leading academics, analysts, and marketplace leaders. In fact, over a century ago, Kuyper forecast one of the central paradoxes of contemporary economic and social life.

On the one hand, the spread of capitalist narratives, institutions, and practices from “the West to the rest” has resulted in unprecedented increases in income and in other dimensions of human and cultural flourishing. Particularly encouraging has been the impact on poverty.1 Indeed, since 1990 the number of people living on less than $1.90 per day—the World Bank’s poverty line—has declined by more than half, largely due to the benefits of economic growth.2 Furthermore, many global leaders believe that, should these trends continue, it may be possible to lift the entire world above the $1.90 poverty line by the year 2030.3 This massive reduction in global poverty is one of the greatest accomplishments of human history and should give pause to the critics of globalization.

On the other hand, there is a gnawing sense that something has gone terribly wrong in the West. Families are disintegrating, communities are fragmented, and political processes are in disarray. Our minds and bodies can feel it.4 As leading social psychologist Jean Twenge laments:

I think the research tells us that modern life is not good for mental health.… Obviously, there’s a lot of good things about societal and technological progress, and in a lot of ways our lives are much easier than, say, our grandparents’ or great-grandparents’ lives. But there’s a paradox here that we seem to have so much ease and relative economic prosperity compared to previous centuries, yet there’s this dissatisfaction, there’s this unhappiness, there are these mental health issues in terms of depression and anxiety.5

The West is not alone in these disturbing trends. As market expansion has spread economic growth to the rest of the world, similar results have been found for transitional economies, resulting in what some economists are calling the “paradox of unhappy growth.”6

How can Kuyper help us explain the paradox of the contemporary global economy? On the one hand, he would not have been surprised by the benefits of globalization, and he would have been particularly delighted by its impacts on poverty. Unlike many who have viewed the marketplace as outside God’s domain, Kuyper understood economic exchange, business, and technological progress to be rooted in the created order, making them intrinsically good gifts from our creator.7 Although Kuyper was not naïve about the cosmic scope of the fall, his belief in common grace recognized Jesus Christ as the creator, sustainer, and redeemer of the entire cosmos, including the economic domain (Col 1:15–20). In this light, Kuyper viewed business and economics not as something to avoid, but rather as one of many spheres in which human beings are to fulfill their calling to steward God’s creation.8

At the same time, Kuyper would not be at all surprised by the ills that characterize the current economic and social order. In fact, he predicted them. Although Kuyper believed in common grace, he also saw the cosmos as contested terrain in which King Jesus is in “mortal combat” with all would-be usurpers of his throne.9 This fundamental antithesis between warring kingdoms expresses itself in cultural endeavors, as human beings with differing worldviews shape culture in the image of the god they worship, however secular they may claim to be.10

At the dawn of the twentieth century, Kuyper believed the primary conflict in the West was between King Jesus and the god that had emerged from the French Revolution: the modern human being, an autonomous, rational, material creature whose flourishing depends solely on consumption.11 Kuyper saw this as a grotesque distortion of the true nature of human beings; as image bearers of the Triune God, they are inherently relational and only truly flourish when they are in deep communion with God, others, and the world.12

According to Kuyper, the elevation of human beings and their insatiable desire for material prosperity was having devastating impacts on individuals and society:

For the God of heaven is a God of compassion, but the money-god on earth is a god of boundless cruelty. Love of money abases you, dishonors you, robs you of spirit and backbone, and extinguishes in your soul the impulse for high and holy things. Money deprives you of your dignity, even when it gilds your life, your status, your position in society. It is not you that are rich, but it is money that makes you rich. If tomorrow your money is gone, gone is your glory. That is the lie that enters the world through love of money, corrupting everything. Since everything can be bought for money, the love of money won’t stop until it has corrupted everything—through family feuds, usury practices, theft and robbery, breach of trust and deception, and in the end through suicide. What a frightful contrast! Those who choose the Lord as their God receive all lasting good for eternity; but those who put their faith in the god of money are heading for all manner of sorrows. Poor century! This then is your glory, that you have unleashed love of money. You promised us freedom, yet you shackle us in the chains of contempt.13

Now fast-forward one hundred years. Despite its adamant claims to being morally neutral, the neoclassical school of thought that has come to dominate Western economics and business has an implicit ethical standard and a god that it is worshipping. Indeed, neoclassical economics takes it as given that the goal of economic life is to serve homo economicus, an autonomous, rational, material creature whose flourishing depends solely on its consumption.

As an increasing number of scholars are noting, the goal of serving homo economics has come to dominate the narratives, institutions, and practices of the global economy.14 Moreover, even noneconomic spheres are being shaped by the demands of homo economicus, including prisons, hospitals, libraries, schools, churches, and families.15

Of course, homo economicus is none other than the modern human being, the false god that Kuyper denounced over one hundred years ago. And as he predicted, this god would prove to be very cruel. For although the worship of homo economicus has resulted in unprecedented increases in economic growth and consumption, there is very strong reason to be believe that human beings are being transformed into the image of this horrible god.16 Indeed, there is considerable evidence that Americans have become more individualistic and materialistic throughout the postwar era, resulting in lower self-reported happiness, poorer interpersonal relationships, higher levels of anxiety and depression, greater antisocial behavior, and lower health.17 Moreover, there is evidence that globalization is spreading this deformation to other countries.18

At the start of this foreword I suggested that a key reason to read Kuyper’s works on economics and business is that he understood the paradoxes of the current global economy better than most of us do. As he was a social activist and prime minister, not merely a theologian-philosopher, we can observe how he moves between theory and practice. We can see how he wrestles with such nitty-gritty things as operating hours for bakeries, railroad strikes, the role of tariffs, and the plight of the poor. It provides an example of what it means to improvise faithfully the economy of the kingdom of God, which is slowly but surely replacing the kingdoms of this world. Homo economicus’s days are numbered. May we be found faithful when the one true King appears.

Brian Fikkert

Where does Kuyper fit in the dialogue between theologians, economists, and business? His world of the late nineteenth-century Netherlands was of course a very different one from ours. Theology and the church had authority and respect. Economics as an academic discipline was still taking shape and separating itself from theology—a process that was much more advanced in Britain than in continental Europe.19 Business and management disciplines did not yet exist.

Kuyper picks up some of the longstanding themes of Christian engagement with the world of economics. There is great concern about poverty, which is especially scandalous in the Christian community, and about the spiritual dangers of wealth. In his late nineteenth-century context, the “social question” raised by the advance of commercial society and international finance absorbed his attention, as it did that of many other Christian leaders. This was the context of Pope Leo XII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum and the development of modern Catholic social teaching. Peter Heslam and Jordan Ballor have written elsewhere on this shared context.

Two particular concerns evident from this collection of Kuyper’s writing on economics were the doctrine of laissez-faire, which he associated with liberalism, and the French Revolution. Judging by the citations in this anthology, he seems to have read some of the English political economists such as Adam Smith. But his engagement with political economy was not deep, and his views were shaped by the fear of liberal and revolutionary ideas. Kuyper’s comments about Manchesterism are revealing in this respect. This fear was shared by those who influenced the modern Catholic social encyclicals. Indeed, a suspicion of political economy persisted in Catholic circles for at least another century. Another of Kuyper’s key concerns was the development of international finance and capital accumulation, which in several places in this collection he connects with the biblical critiques of mammon. While he does not offer much in the way of economic analysis, he is clearly an astute observer of the spiritual dangers connected with these developments.

As Peter Heslam discusses in his editorial introduction, the theological tools Kuyper brings to economics are common grace and antithesis. Common grace, in contrast to particular grace, is enjoyed by all, not just the elect. It flows from God’s creative and providential activity, and it connects with Kuyper’s doctrine of the Holy Spirit. As this anthology shows in many places, common grace for Kuyper is expressed in entrepreneurial activity, and commerce more generally. His engagement with Adam Smith does not seem to have included grasping his fellow Calvinist’s idea of divine providence working self-interest toward the general good. I suspect, however, that it is an idea that Kuyper could have embraced if he had seen beyond his European prejudices about English political economy. Common grace in Kuyper must always be balanced against his doctrine of antithesis, his version of the familiar Christian doctrine of sin. This too was a doctrine emphasized by Smith in his treatment of economics. For instance, human sin and ignorance lies behind Smith’s famous parody of the “man of system” who believes he can arrange economic matters as one arranges pieces on a chessboard. Our sinful nature also suggests to Smith that decentralization of economic power is preferable, as it restrains the damage flowing from human sin. I suspect Kuyper would have found this idea congenial to his own doctrine of antithesis in the economic sphere. It would also have sat well with his affection for the hard-pressed “little folk” (kleine luyden) of the Netherlands.

Heslam notes Kuyper’s unusually positive approach to business for a theologian. How much does this flow from his theology, and how much from his friendships with Christian business leaders, including those who provided funds for projects such as his Free University? How much from proud memory of the commercial glories of the Dutch republic? I wonder even if the lack of explicit writing on economic matters reflects Kuyper’s respect for a field he knew he had not mastered. Whatever the sources of Kuyper’s appreciation of business, it sets an example to contemporary theologians.

Let me commend this volume of Kuyper’s writings on business and economics put together by two fine scholars, Peter Heslam and Jordan Ballor, who have contributed much already to our understanding of Kuyper. In Peter’s case, he has also contributed to working out Kuyper’s ideas in practical business ventures around the world that are helping to tackle poverty, corruption, and other social ills. Though I have been critical of certain strands of “Kuyperian Christian economics,”20 I retain a deep respect for Kuyper. If this volume makes his writing on business and economics more accessible, then we are all in the contributors’ debt. Kuyper’s writings are vast and must be read in the context Heslam and Ballor so helpfully provide. I hope most of all that this volume will encourage those who do not consider themselves Kuyperians to engage more deeply with his work.

Paul Oslington

Tertullian, the early church theologian and sometime Montanist, posed the now-famous question: “What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the Church? what between heretics and Christians?”21

This was a reasonable question to pose, as many people both then and now perceived a deep dichotomy between things secular and things sacred. Tertullian maintained that dialectic and rhetoric served no useful purpose in the pursuit of truth, and he assigned an epistemological monopoly to the Scriptures. Not so his predecessor, Justin Martyr. Although his apologetic acknowledged the limitations of philosophical enquiry, Justin provided for the possibility that truth may indeed come from what appears to be nonreligious sources, but are in fact derived from the divine logos and therefore “are the property of us Christians.”22

The idea that God’s revelation of himself and his truth may, at least in part, be available to those outside the community of the elect is not a novel idea. But the widely accepted construct of “common grace” is a relatively recent phenomenon, largely accredited to the subject of this book, the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Dutch polymath Abraham Kuyper.

Kuyper is known worldwide as the theologian of common grace, and much has been written about his uncompromising coram Deo (also known as sphere sovereignty). However, as this book’s editor, Peter Heslam, notes, little if any scholarship exists that relates the great man’s theology to the areas of business and economics. It is a lacuna this tome is designed to address. Heslam admits this is a challenging task, as Kuyper himself did not connect theology and business in the sustained and systematic way he connected theology with other social spheres, such as education, politics, and science. However, Kuyper’s vast codex, theological eclecticism, and Weber-like belief in a “this-worldly asceticism” gives Heslam and Jordan Ballor ample material from which to mine the treasures of his thinking on economic issues.

The book avoids the pitfalls of eisegesis and allows Kuyper’s work speak for itself, including those areas in his thinking that appear to pull in different directions. For instance, he clearly has an Adam Smith-like appreciation for both the division of labor and the critical role of private enterprise; yet he lays his criticism of capitalism’s laissez faire, laissez passer shortcomings squarely at Smith’s feet. Similarly, while a critic of socialism, Kuyper nonetheless believed in the role of a strong and stable central government in the regulation of commerce and the restraint of economic activity marred by the fall. Indeed, in the metanarrative of creation, fall, redemption, and consummation that pervades these writings, Kuyper provides a very helpful framework for developing a theology of business and economics.

In this regard, Kuyper makes fascinating use of the Heidelberg Catechism. This confessional standard, representing the theology associated with sixteenth-century reformer John Calvin, was never intended to be used as an economic textbook or policy paper. But it was Calvin who influenced Kuyper more than any other theologian, as reflected in Kuyper’sfamous Stone Lectures on Calvinism, delivered at Princeton University in 1898, which solidified his status as the preeminent neo-Calvinist of his day. What better prism could there be to view Kuyper’s thinking on business and economics than the standard by which he calibrated his own beliefs?

Inspired by Kuyper’s use of theology to address business and economics, Ballor offers in his introductory essay a tour de force through Kuyper’s application of the tenets of the catechism in every area of life, including the economic interactions human beings have with each other, their stewardship of creation, and ultimately their duty to God.

Throughout these pages, readers will see the uncompromising nature of Kuyper’s belief in the sovereignty of God and the constant tensions inherent in the “already but not yet” nature of human existence. He addresses head-on the telos of our economic activity and the idolatry of greed, the blessings of abundance and the curse of scarcity, the benefits of hard work and the need for Sabbath rest, the right to private property and concern for the common good. He addresses the nature and the use of money and in prescient fashion considers the pros and cons of what we would call globalization today. Yet in every instance, he views these issues as more than questions of political economy; he views them as issues of spiritual well-being and moral duty.

Were Tertullian to reframe his questions and ask Kuyper: “What has Jerusalem to do with Wall Street, the church with the economy, the Christian with the capitalist?” it is likely that Kuyper would say “Much,” or perhaps as he states so eloquently in his reflection on Ecclesiastes 10:19:

Whichever way you look at it, for God’s child it always comes down to this choice. Whereas the power of money is the idol of the age, the Lord our Righteousness needs to be our God. This means our money must be made subject to the power, the commandment, the service and the honor of God.23

That is the underlying theme of this book. We are invited to gaze into the mind of a man whose superior intellect and commitment to the common good were surpassed only by his deep religious convictions and his commitment to the faithful service of God in every area of life. The result is a book that presents a fascinating, and at times complex, maze of traditional and progressive ideas. Seasoned with Kuyper’s penetrating insight and foresight, it sheds new light on the intricate and sometimes confounding relationship between faith, business, and economics. This anthology will be warmly welcomed and widely read, as its message is timeless and its wisdom is sorely needed to meet the economic challenges of the twenty-first century.

Kenneth Barnes

EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION

CALVINISM IN BUSINESS—AN ENLIGHTENED ENTERPRISE?

ABRAHAM KUYPER, COMMON GRACE, AND THE POTENTIAL OF BUSINESS

PETER S. HESLAM

INTRODUCTION

Common grace in business: putting these four words together implies a link between theology and enterprise, the existence of which is barely evident from the output of most theologians and business writers. The long-standing paucity of engagement between these groups reinforces the widespread perception that trying to mix commerce and religion is like trying to mix oil and water. This is reflected in the world of research and writing on Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920). In part due to more of his work appearing in English through this series of collected works, this world is rapidly expanding. Nevertheless, it is still the case that, among the countless studies that have been made of Kuyper for over a century, none deal with his views on business.1 The closest are treatments of his engagement with poverty, working conditions, and pensions—generally referred to as the so-called social question. Kuyper’s engagement with this question cannot, however, be taken as a proxy for his engagement with business itself.

Against such a bleak background, it is timely for an anthology on business and economics to appear made up of writings by Kuyper. This is especially the case given that he is increasingly known around the world as the theologian of common grace. In an era in which the sphere of business has risen in significance for human beings worldwide, this reputation raises the question of how Kuyper saw that grace at work in business. Before the appearance of this anthology, the material from which that question could be addressed lay too dispersed throughout Kuyper’s huge legacy of writings to attract much attention. Add to that the traditional reluctance of theologians and other academics to engage with business, and the business lacuna in Kuyper studies becomes understandable. Another key reason for this lacuna, however, is that he failed to give much dedicated attention to business compared to other spheres of society. An example is his famous and influential Stone Lectures, which he delivered at Princeton in 1898.2 Seeking to sketch out in those lectures the contours of a Christian worldview that engaged with every area of life, he dealt at some length with a number of spheres including politics, science, and the arts. But he gave no sustained attention to business.

A discussion of the many historical factors that help account for this void cannot be included here, though three can briefly be noted. First, business and economics had not yet been fully established when Kuyper was writing, either as professions or as academic disciplines, in the modern sense of those terms. Second, Kuyper and many of his antirevolutionary colleagues were children of the manse, with degrees in theology or law, rather than with trade backgrounds. Accordingly, their interests and commitments lay more naturally with the spheres of education and politics, the two spheres that were most central to the antirevolutionary cause.3 Third, the industrial revolution occurred relatively late in the Netherlands, getting underway only in the final third of the nineteenth century. Consequently, the emergence of the large and complex organizations of industrial capitalism that set in motion the pens of moral philosophers in more industrially advanced economies were less within Kuyper’s sights than more imminent perceived dangers inherent in other spheres.

Historical reasons aside, it is not without irony that a key impetus to the small but growing engagement between business and theology is the vision that animates Kuyper’s works (including his Lectures on Calvinism)—an articulation of Christian faith that is discerning and critical yet world affirming. Indeed, Kuyper’s legacy in the business world is greater than might be expected when judged by the range of social spheres with which he most engaged or by the produce of Kuyper scholarship.

Although this anthology (and to a lesser extent, this introductory essay) is a modest attempt to help supply the missing piece in Kuyper’s intellectual legacy, it does so by providing a selection of his writings that do not necessarily deal with business and economics head-on but have important implications for those spheres. It may, indeed, be somewhat surprising that an anthology on business and economics should include reflections on a classic statement of ecclesiastical doctrine (the Heidelberg Catechism), biblical meditations, op-eds, occasional speeches, and travel memories. That it does use such sources is a mark of the breath of Kuyper’s career. Here at work is a pastor, theologian, journalist, travel writer, philosopher, social reformer, spiritual writer, political party leader, and statesman. It is also a mark of the integral nature of Kuyper’s thought. For him, the boundaries between theology, spirituality, ethics, politics, business, and economics were permeable because they all operated under the sovereignty of God and embodied God’s transcendence, immanence, and grace.

The integral nature of Kuyper’s thought and action is offered in this anthology not merely as a model of interdisciplinary and practice-orientated thinking. It is also offered in the hope that it will spur a much richer theology-business engagement in the many parts of the world where Kuyper’s name is known, and where he has hitherto been locked behind a language barrier for readers of English. This engagement will need to be made relevant, however, not only to business theorists but to business practitioners. For Kuyper, after all, Christian engagement with contemporary culture was not to be confined to ivory towers but needed to instigate tangible change that would help shape the social order.

Given that, when theology and business do at times engage, that engagement tends to be characterized by mutual hostility and suspicion, this introductory essay will provide an overview of what Kuyper regarded as the positive potential of business. This is not to imply that business, and economic issues in general, escaped Kuyper’s criticism. The contents of this anthology provide plenty of evidence to the contrary. Indeed, his application of the theme of the “antithesis” gave him a more than adequate intellectual platform from which to mount severe critiques of these fields. This doctrine was, in fact, as central to Kuyper’s thought as the doctrine of common grace. It held that the fall of humankind into sin constituted a radical disruption whereby the curse of sin infected and affected all existence. The innocence, freedom, and order of paradise constituted the “normal” state of things because it was in alignment with God’s will. The postfall condition was “abnormal” in being at odds with divine intentions and subject to all manner of sin and evil and their ugly consequences—a predicament that ultimately could only be addressed through God’s redemption.

From the vantage point of the twenty-first century, many of Kuyper’s antithesis-inspired critiques of commercial activity have a poignant and prophetic feel. As readers of this anthology will see, he spoke out (to name just a few issues) against highly commoditized and speculative activity in finance, burgeoning consumerism, and the prioritization of wealth above all other concerns. Moreover, he often framed his critiques with characterizations of economic globalization that have a contemporary ring for later generations, even though they stem from the early years of the twentieth century. In one example, Kuyper writes,

Money’s power has thus become a world power that ignores the borders of land and nation, spreads its wings out over all of human life, lays claim to everything, and increasingly penetrates into some of the most unknown corners of the world. It makes everything dependent on it, imposes its law on all lives, and consolidates in the great world cities in order to give life a bewitching glow, to have a temple there in its honor, and to rule the entire world from that base.4

Such imagery also finds expression in two important addresses Kuyper delivered. One is included in this anthology as the chapter titled “Sacred Order.” The other he gave as prime minister to the Dutch Retailers Association. In the latter speech he claimed that big capital, international competition, and rapid developments in communication were producing a situation in which national industries hardly existed anymore.5

These examples, while drawn from the later part of Kuyper’s career, when global capital markets were beginning the rise that would hit the buffers in the Wall Street crash of 1929, echo sentiments found earlier in his career in his writings on social issues. One of his most famous speeches, “The Social Question and the Christian Religion,” delivered in 1891 and included in this anthology, provides particularly striking example. There he declares, “Christ himself, just as his apostles after him and the prophets before him, invariably took the side of the suffering and the oppressed against the rich and the mighty of this world.” While avoiding the trap many theologians fail to avoid, of romanticizing the poor, Kuyper argued that “when Scripture corrects the poor it does so much more tenderly and gently; and, by contrast, when it rebukes the rich it uses much harsher language.”6

All these examples serve as evidence that, on issues of socioeconomic justice, Kuyper was a strident critic and campaigner with indignation and zeal comparable to that of the so-called liberation theologians of the later twentieth century.

Nevertheless, the common-grace theme of this introductory essay invites an inquiry into what Kuyper saw as the positive contribution that business makes to human and social flourishing. This inquiry assumes, rather than overlooks, Kuyper’s countervailing doctrine of the antithesis. This is because common grace only makes sense when held together with the antithesis, as the former is in the first place an attempt to answer the question of how, given the reality of the antithesis, it is possible that non-Christian culture can exemplify great virtue. Particular grace, or “special grace,” was, for Kuyper, the grace by which people turn from their sins, put their trust in Christ, receive the regenerating work of his spirit, and inherit the gift of eternal life. Common grace, in contrast, was grace at work in the world at large, by which God holds back the forces of evil, restrains the effects of the fall, and allows civility and human culture to flourish.7 Against the background of this doctrinal framework, Kuyper’s positive appraisal of the potential of business—as indeed of any sphere—is the other side of the coin to his denouncements of errors within that sphere. Disregarding this positive appraisal fails to do justice to Kuyper as a cultural critic with a sharp eye not only for pitfalls but also for potential.8

Common grace was, in fact, a means Kuyper used to break the stranglehold that was keeping business and theology separate. Judging by his critiques, this bifurcation was as much a feature of the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Netherlands as it is today in many parts of the world.9 He railed against forms of Christianity that made no difference to the way people operated in the workplace, leaving the work of Christians indistinguishable from that of non-Christians.10 Misconduct in business and in the handling of money served only to show believers to be hypocrites.11

For Christians to restrict their faith to matters of the soul allowed business to be regarded as an unholy distraction rather than as a dignified profession.12

Kuyper’s positive view of business includes his ideas about economic freedom and the role of regulation, organized labor and the role of guilds, the eternal value of earthly work, stewardship and philanthropy, economic globalization, business as a “mediating institution” between the individual and the state, the workings of God’s grace in business, the social function of money, and the calling of business. While all these matters deserve exploration, the confines of this article only allow a brief overview of the final three.

COMMON GRACE AT WORK

Biblical history and archaeology, Kuyper claimed, attest to the fact that crafts and practical skills were more prolific in the pagan cultures of Israel’s neighbors, such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and Persia, than in Israel itself.13 For Kuyper, this was evidence that the spirit of God gifts human beings with talents and skills without regard to merit or piety. Whether or not the recipient recognizes the origin of their gifts, they have the potential to enrich all people and societies. Kuyper appealed to the accounts of the artisans Bezalel and Oholiab in Exodus 31:1–6 and 35:30–35 and of arable production in Isaiah 28:23–29 in support of his claim that God is the source of all artistic craft and skill and of all knowledge and insight in agriculture.14

In business, Kuyper explained, this giftedness works as God raises up exceptional leaders who grow their operations in accordance with their talents and with the opportunities they perceive. Such people stand out from their contemporaries in having “clearer insight, a greater practicality, a more powerful will, and a greater degree of entrepreneurial courage.”15 In exercising these gifts, they help others flourish and ensure that their ideas and inventions outlive them in society.16 All this, Kuyper insisted, is the result of common grace, which works in a specific way in the sphere of commerce, just as it works in a specific way in other spheres: “Common grace extends over our entire human life, in all its manifestations.… There is a common grace that shines in the development of science and art; there is a common grace that enriches a nation through inventiveness in enterprise and commerce.”17 As these forms of common grace take effect, they raise the standard of social life; enrich human knowledge and skill; and make life “easier, more enjoyable, freer, and through all this our power and dominion over nature keeps increasing.”18 While these developments inevitably provide additional opportunities for sin, common grace has raised human achievement to new heights through the invention of tools and machines, the division of labor, and the harnessing of nature to generate steam power and electricity.19

In the light of what is now known about the impact of carbon-intensive industrialization on the natural environment, Kuyper’s appreciation of human power over nature appears to be insufficiently nuanced, revealing him as a child of his times. It is clear from the context of his words, however, that foremost in his mind is the centuries-long progress human beings have made in procuring such basic goods as food, shelter, energy, transport, and health. In terms, by contrast, that sound well ahead of his times, he averred that the potency of common grace to foster such progress, and the cultural development it facilitates, lay in the fact that humans are made in the image of a God whose essence, as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is diverse and relational. This imago Dei acts as a “seed” within diverse human beings that only germinates through their social relationships. It thereby permeates culture, including “all kinds of business undertakings and industry.”20 Clearly, for Kuyper, business joined all other aspects of culture in reflecting God’s creation of human beings in the divine likeness, an act that fills these beings with awesome potential.

PARTICULAR GRACE AT WORK

If the image of God in human beings is not restricted to Christians, and one of its effects is that it helps business flourish, what role did Kuyper reserve for particular grace within the commercial sphere? Here the distinction he made between the church as institution and the church as organism is of special relevance.

Kuyper taught that the institutional form of the church is found in its statutes, laws, offices, and registers, all of which facilitate the ministry of the Word, the sacraments, and acts of charity. Closely associated to this form of church is its rich organic form that finds expression in wider society, including in families, businesses, science, and the arts as believers live and work in those spheres. A Christian, he taught, is not merely a church member but a parent, a citizen, an employer, or an employee. As such, they “bring to bear the powers of the kingdom in their family life, in their education, in their business, in all dealings with people, and also as citizens in society.” Whereas the church as institution is distinct from society, the church as organism “impacts the life of the world, changes it, gives it a different form, elevates it and sanctifies it.”21 This is especially the case when the life of the institutional church is most vibrant. As Kuyper put it, using a vivid metaphor:

Even though the lamp of the Christian religion burns only within the walls of that institution [the church], its light shines through the windows far beyond it and shines upon all those aspects and connections of our human life.…

Jurisprudence, law, family, business, occupation, public opinion and literature, art and science, and so forth—the light shines upon all of this, and that illumination will be all the more powerful and penetrating the more clearly and purely the lamp of the gospel is allowed to burn within the institution of the church.22

As an example of this occurring in practice, Kuyper highlighted the Dutch Republic (1581–1795), a period in the history of the Netherlands often associated with the heyday both of Calvinism and of commerce. Not only were Dutch farmers at this time the most advanced in Europe, Kuyper maintained, but Dutch merchants were renowned for their honesty and integrity. He attributed these characteristics to the power of the Word of God and of divine ordinances that were widely preached and shared in their midst.23

This power put Christian nations at an advantage and helped account for the contribution they had made to human development: “a rich development of the life of the soul arising from regeneration joined with a rich development proceeding from the life of common grace.”24 The potency of this mix of graces was not only demonstrated in these nations by their high level of care for the poor and the elevation of women but also by a highly developed business sphere.25 The attributes of such countries derive from particular grace but operate in the sphere of common grace. Despite his readiness to admit that impressive business development had been achieved outside the influence of the Judeo-Christian tradition, Kuyper was clearly of the view that business’ best prospects were served when the workings of particular grace and common grace converge.

MONEY AS A SOCIAL BLESSING

Despite Kuyper’s many jeremiads against the dangers and abuses of wealth, he insisted that money was a gift of God. The appearance and development of money in world history “did not come from the Evil One, but was fully in line with the design of God. It was not intended as a curse, but a blessing.”26 Only when sin attacked it did money acquire a sinister omnipotence: it is in the human heart and not in money itself wherein lie the origins of mammon—the idolization of money. While mammon is allied to greed and dishonesty, money itself is “one of God’s gifts for society so that it might develop more highly and richly.”27

The uplifting and cohesive impact of money in society derives primarily from the ability it gives to the thrifty to save and from the stimulus this gives to commercial enterprise.28 This blessing, Kuyper maintained, “is evident in the quiet, normal life of citizens whose activity in trading and commerce has been unbelievably enriched and simplified by money.”29 The positive potential of money was also evident in the charitable sector, where it facilitates care for the needy; and in the church, where it not only supports buildings but also clergy, missions, seminaries, and the practical help for the disadvantaged provided by the diaconate.30 In the end, whether money works as a blessing or curse is a spiritual matter:

It can be turned to the good, or to evil. The choice between the two depends only on the disposition of the human heart. Those who bow down to mammon use it for corruption; those who bow their knee before Christ as their King can use it to increase the luster of Christ’s kingship.31

Kuyper’s notion that money can provide sound foundations for a developed and unified society suggests he was influenced by the notion of the “commercial society,” associated in particular with French intellectual Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–59), who visited the United States in 1831 and recorded his observations in Democracy in America. As early in his career as 1873, Kuyper acknowledged the influence of this thinker on his ideas; in a sermon he published that year, he held up the United States as a “golden land” that provided a model of freedom.32 A quarter of a century later, he reechoed this theme several times when he visited America in 1898. There he argued, in somewhat rhapsodic tones, that the origins of the United States’ enterprise society lay in the Calvinism practiced by ordinary tradespeople in the Old World:

Calvinism sprang from the hearts of the people themselves, with weavers and farmers, with tradesmen and servants, with women and young maidens.33

With this there went out from Western Europe that mighty movement which promoted the revival of science and art, opened new avenues to commerce and trade, beautified domestic and social life, exalted the middle classes to positions of honor, caused philanthropy to abound.34

There was a rustling of life in all directions, and an indomitable energy was fermenting in every department of human activity, and their commerce and trade, their handicrafts and industry, their agriculture and horticulture, their art and science, flourished with a brilliancy previously unknown, and imparted a new impulse for an entirely new development of life, to the whole of Western Europe.35

The flowering of Calvinism and commerce went hand in hand, Kuyper argued, with the division of labor. As this division increased, the scope and quality of production rose, and sufficient capital could be accumulated to develop large enterprises.36 In turn, these stimulated “all kinds of inventions and the enrichment of our power over nature.”37

While Kuyper was eager to admit that sin affects all such positive development, he was adamant that the abuse of money must not be allowed to overshadow its proper use. History demonstrates, he argued, that money facilitates the economic development necessary for social flourishing.

BUSINESS AS A CALLING

The positive social potential inherent in the creation of material wealth reflected, for Kuyper, that business is an honorable calling for an individual to pursue and that business has an honorable calling to fulfill in society. Christians must be prepared, he argued, to counteract the corrupting effects of sin in business life by setting a good example in the production, processing, and distribution of goods and services. In so doing, they honor the workings of common grace in society and uphold the ordinances of God for commercial life. Christians should reject, therefore, the attitude of those who consider business to be a field in which Christians should allow others to take the lead because there can be no valid calling to commerce. Not least because of the financial requirements of churches, schools, and charities, Christians in business need to be competent in generating profit. God’s children, Kuyper taught, should “take pride in not falling behind others in this realm, because also in this area of life it is God who gives us wisdom, God who prepares the means for us, and God who guides the development of societal life through his common grace.”38

In making this argument, Kuyper appealed to Petrus Plancius (1552–1622), a Flemish astronomer, cartographer, theologian, and a founder-director of the Dutch East India Company. Based in Amsterdam during the Dutch Golden Age, this devout and impassioned preacher encouraged Calvinists to excel in commerce and used his expertise in geography to give navigational assistance to seafaring merchants. His example, Kuyper maintained, challenged the contemporary tendency “to view agriculture, industry and commerce as worldly side issues.” Bringing the best goods to market, making wise acquisitions, and conducting sound commerce was the pathway to the prosperity that societies needed, and Christians needed to be in the vanguard.39

It was, moreover, from God that people receive the intuition, imagination, and skills—plus their delight in utilizing them—that cause them to excel in the commercial sphere. From God also comes their “spirit of enterprise,” and “the desire and inclination people have to occupy themselves with a certain trade over another.” What people chose to do with their lives, accordingly, is not a matter of coincidence but was a matter of what God has implanted within them. It is ultimately this divine orientation, rather than money or argument, that convinces them to pursue a particular career.40 Entrepreneurs are given the rare talent, persistence, resources, and leadership qualities to grow their businesses from employing only their immediate family to employing hundreds of workers. All this involves an art that God gives to certain individuals, who eventually hand it on to those in the next generation who have a similar orientation. Here, too, Kuyper appealed to the account of the Israelite craftsmen noted earlier who were equipped in their work by God’s spirit.41

Kuyper’s defense of business as a valid vocation for an individual to pursue was inextricably tied to his idea that business itself had a vocation. In keeping with the calling of all other social spheres, its vocation was to glorify God through following God’s ordinances for that sphere. These ordinances, he maintained, permeate all creation and human culture, and they provide the organic connections that hold the various social spheres together. They are connections that human beings find rather than create. Although human beings exert some influence on these connections, these connections exert a stronger influence on human beings.42

In the economic sphere, the workings of God’s ordinances can be found in particular in the historical process, noted earlier, to which Kuyper attached great importance: the division of labor.43 As this process unfolded, trade and industry flourished, thereby stimulating higher and richer forms of culture and society.44 Despite threats imposed by human sinfulness, this development “brings to light treasures that were once hidden, increases man’s power over nature, fosters interaction among people, and brings together nations.… [It] counteracts much suffering, turns aside much danger, and in numerous ways makes life much richer.”45 All this is reflected in the expansion of local markets into national and international ones.46 Clothing once made by tailors at home with the help of their spouses and children was now made in “a large garment factory, which wants to bring tens of thousands of pieces of clothing to the market all at once.”47 In such developments and in the power of steam and electricity that enables them, ordinances of God lay hidden for centuries. Only at the appointed time did God raise up people to make the necessary discoveries.48 Accordingly, the human task is not to devise theories and then to try to press reality to fit them. It is, rather, to trace the laws and relationships inherent in reality—regardless of whether or not God is recognized as their source.49 As this quest is fulfilled in the commercial sphere, business flourishes and strengthens human culture.50

The idea that every sphere of society, including business, is charged with the ordinances of God and has the task of discerning them and acting on them was fundamental to Kuyper’s social vision. It meant that society was not a random aggregate of individuals but an integrated and purposeful whole:

Families and kinships, towns and villages, businesses and industries, morals, manners, and legal customs are not mechanically assembled but, like groups of cells in a human body, are organically formed by a natural urge that, even when degenerate or deviant, is generally obedient to a higher impulse.51

Because of this, each sphere of society has a fundamental moral purpose: “The various entities—human persons first of all—which God called into being by his creative powers and to which he apportioned power, are almost all, in whole or in part, of a moral nature.”52 From its divinely endowed moral purpose, rather than from any dictate from the state, each sphere of society develops a free life of its own:

There is a distinctive life of science; a distinctive life of art; a distinctive life of the church; a distinctive life of the family; a distinctive life of town or village; a distinctive life of agriculture; a distinctive life of industry; a distinctive life of commerce; a distinctive life of works of mercy; and the list goes on.53

The sphere of the state stands alongside, rather than above, these social spheres, though it does have the right and duty to intervene when conflict arises among them; to defend the weak; and to ensure (coercively if necessary) that citizens give sacrificially, in financial and nonfinancial ways, to maintain the “natural unity of the state.”54

This is a core tenet of Kuyper’s sphere-sovereignty doctrine, which has attracted a great deal of scholarly attention from around the world. Whilst this doctrine cannot be expounded here, an interesting example of Kuyper seeking to apply his idea of sectoral autonomy to a specific industry is that of bakeries. On the initiative of the Catholic Employers’ Association for Bakers and Confectioners, the first Congress for the Abolition of Night work in the Baking Industry was held September 24–26, 1907. Kuyper delivered a speech in which he supported the proposal of a bill to ensure proper night rest for bakers. He did so on the basis that the ordinances of God are reflected in the way the rhythm of work and rest corresponds with the division of day and night. He argued, however, that family-owned bakeries should be made exempt from the proposed law, otherwise the state would be contravening the autonomy of the family. Ten days after the congress, Kuyper published a reflection on this issue in a meditation based on Hosea 7:6, which in the Statenvertaling, the Dutch translation of the Bible that was used in his time, includes a phrase that also appears in the King James Version but not in more recent Dutch and English translations: “Their baker sleepeth all the night.”55 When the draft law was rejected in 1912, Antirevolutionary cabinet minister Syb Talma, who introduced it, was (understandably) disappointed with Kuyper for not giving it his support. Clearly there were differences among members of Kuyper’s own party as to how the principle of sphere sovereignty should be applied in practice. But it has remained a central concept among many of Kuyper’s followers right up until the present day.

Representing an unusual form of sociopolitical pluralism, sphere sovereignty is often associated among scholars in the Netherlands with “pillarization” (verzuiling), a process of ideological group formation in Dutch history on which Kuyper exerted significant influence.56 The complex particulars of Dutch social pillarization fall outside this introduction. What matters in terms of Kuyper’s approach to economic life is the idea, central to his notion of sphere sovereignty, that every sphere of society (business included) enjoys a certain freedom because its authority comes from God rather than from the state. This provided Kuyper with a key part of the intellectual framework with which to make the case that business—along with every other sphere of society—has a calling. As with those other spheres, business has the freedom and responsibility to discern and follow that calling for itself. As it does so, it helps human beings and the social spheres they inhabit to flourish to the glory of God.

BUSINESS AND LEADERSHIP

Kuyper was not a business leader, but he shared some of the traits associated with such leaders, including those he identified above in terms of practical insight, determination, and courage. He was also the key driver of many new ventures, including a newspaper, a university, and a political party, all of which had requirements familiar to the founders of commercial enterprises, such as the management of investments, budgets, cash flows, accounts, targets, delivery channels, marketing, publicity, and accountability to stakeholders. Using contemporary language, he could legitimately be referred to as a social entrepreneur.

The entrepreneurial instincts appear to have run deep. According to anecdotal evidence from his family, as a child he distributed cigars to local seamen in exchange for their giving audience to his mini homilies. In his first parish, he followed another Reformed clergyman—Henry Duncan (1774–1846), the Scottish founder of the world’s first savings bank—in establishing a local bank for small savers. His endeavors clearly commanded respect and support, especially among business leaders. An ally of Kuyper for almost half a century was successful beer entrepreneur and social reformer Willem Hovy (1840–1915), who was the key financial backer of the fledgling Free University and played a founding role in the Christian trade union Patrimonium and of the Christian employers association Boaz, both of which Kuyper writes about in this anthology.

When Hovy died, Kuyper was his most long-standing friend and the only person the family invited to give a graveside address. In a subsequent obituary, he paid tribute to Hovy’s generosity, his practical mindedness, his “almost unbelievable” knowledge of Scripture, his “unconditional attachment” to the Bible as the basis for all his actions, and his commitment to living out his faith in everyday life.

Kuyper also praised Hovy for two things he explicitly condones in writings included in this anthology: making money in order to support the work of Christ, and for being an employer for whom the well-being of his workers was paramount.57 Hovy’s aim to see Christ at work in people’s souls gave him, Kuyper claimed, “that warmth, that inspiration and that fervor, which so ignited others and replaced so much stiffness and dryness with new life.” Kuyper declared that whereas many Christians demonstrated the tendency to stay in their own tent, for Hovy it was about getting out from the tent to bear witness and to engage with contemporary society. His activities, including his promotion of the draining of the Zuidezee, reflected his “double employment of spiritual freedom and public involvement.” He went to his brewery, “not as a capitalist checking up on his workers but as a brother who held his factory workers in a bond of respect and trust.” He even, Kuyper continued, held daily times of worship and Scripture reading for his workers. This for Kuyper was an example of the ways in which Hovy helped bring down barriers between employers and employees. Concerned about the whole person, he shared in the ups and downs of his workers’ lives; visited them when they were ill; helped provide them with accommodation, pensions, and paid leave on Sundays and feast days; and met with their families at Christmas. Standing at his graveside, Kuyper was struck, he recalled, by how much loss the second half of the nineteenth century would have suffered without Hovy. With unmatched certainty, Kuyper concluded, Hovy stood for his beliefs and principles, while always seeking to maintain unity between people of different outlooks. He felt at one even with his fiercest opponents, for they too were citizens and fellow human beings. In every area of their lives, Hovy had shown other people empathy and commitment.58

Kuyper’s friendship with Hovy provides an important historical clue to why Kuyper is exceptional among theologians for appreciating the positive potential of business. Although they had some serious disagreements, the friendship they forged as young men remained until death separated them in their old age. In Hovy, Kuyper had a close friend, colleague, and supporter who was known both for his godly character and for being one of the country’s leading Christian business leaders. This would have made it difficult for Kuyper to display the naïve dismissiveness toward business that has characterized the attitude of theologians down through the centuries.

A second reason for Kuyper’s unusually positive approach to business was that he was opposed to the conservatism of the landed gentry and those of noble birth. Whether they were involved in some form of commercial activity or not, they were often out of touch with ordinary people working people and demonstrated little concern for their welfare. Kuyper, on the other hand, was the leader of the so-called kleine luyden (“little folk”)—the small-scale entrepreneurs, tradespeople, shopkeepers, farmers, and leaders of family firms. He was aware that, for them, business was their livelihood—a way of life not to be looked down upon with the aristocratic snugness of the intellectual elite.

Third, while Kuyper was unquestionably a champion for the poor, he was also vociferously opposed the socialism that was rapidly on the rise during his career. Adamant that all those who follow Christ will defend the interests of the vulnerable and the weak, they are to be as opposed to the socialistic tendencies of those who claim to represent those interests as they are to be opposed to attempts to defend special privileges for the rich.

Fourth, Kuyper’s belief in the inherent goodness of business (despite its fallenness) was determined in part by his concern for the welfare of the indigenous people of the Dutch colonies, especially in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia). The speech from the throne given at the opening of the Dutch parliament is, to this day, written by the prime minister. In 1901, at the start of Kuyper’s term in that office, Queen Wilhelmina announced in her speech a new departure in Dutch colonial policy:

As a Christian power, the Netherlands is obliged … to imbue government policy with the understanding that the Netherlands has a moral calling to fulfil towards the people of the East Indian Archipelago. The low living standard of the native population in Java attracts my special attention. I wish to conduct an inquiry into its causes.59

This was the launch of the so-called Dutch ethical policy, which stressed the moral duty the Netherlands had regarding the well-being of its colonial subjects and remained in place until its colonies gained independence following the Second World War.60 Although the ethical policy was not solely his achievement, Kuyper goes down in history as the person who made it official government policy. He sought to give form to this policy by putting entrepreneurship at the heart of the government’s strategy for the economic betterment of the colonial peoples. Convinced that agriculture alone could not support their burgeoning population, he argued that the only way to help them escape the clutches of poverty was to assist them in starting new businesses.61 One outcome of his policy was the creation of credit banks that made microloans available to indigenous entrepreneurs. While this echoed Kuyper’s attempts noted earlier in this chapter to help his impoverished parishioners as a young clergyman, it was long before microfinance played a central role in the international development policy of the Netherlands and many other Western powers. Kuyper can, therefore, be considered well ahead of his time in terms of enterprise solutions to poverty. This is unlikely to have been the case had Kuyper been skeptical about the potential of business as a force for good.

Fifth, Kuyper’s attempt to think positively and creatively about the calling and positive potential of business was a natural consequence, as we have seen, of his doctrine of common grace but also of two related ideas that are foundational to his thought and actions. In keeping with God’s common grace, Christ shines not only in great works of art, philosophy, and science but also in the worlds of business and economics. Therefore, Calvinism in business is, quite literally, an enlightened enterprise (to recall the question posed in the title of this essay). That being the case, the vocation of a Christian in the contemporary world is to “think God’s thoughts after him.” Or, as he put it in his famous speech on sphere sovereignty, “Thinking God’s thoughts after him, grasping what he has thought prior to us and about us and in us.”62 Alongside this is the idea, which Kuyper often repeated using the Latin phrase coram Deo