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Popular terms used in Hindu scriptures, religion & social life; their meaning and significance
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Dictionary of
INDOLOGY
Vishnulok Bihari Srivastava
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DISCLAIMER
While every attempt has been made to provide accurate and timely information in this book, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility for errors, unintended omissions or commissions detected therein. The author and publisher make no representation or warranty with respect to the comprehensiveness or completeness of the contents provided.
All matters included have been simplified under professional guidance for general information only without any warranty for applicability on an individual. Any mention of an organization or a website in the book by way of citation or as a source of additional information doesn't imply the endorsement of the content either by the author or the publisher. It is possible that websites cited may have changed or removed between the time of editing and publishing the book.
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Dedication
To my respected father,late Dr. Raj Bansh Sahay Hira,Ph.D. D.Litt, former professor of Hindi, M. U.,Bodh Goya, Whose Momery has been a fountainof inspiration for me at every step.
Scriptural Transliteration has not been used in this book “Dictionary of Indology”, instead only ‘ā’ has beentakenfrom it for long ‘a’ sound, which is otherwise very difficult to write in Roman Script. Rest of everything is as written in government papers, educational and other institutions, general books, newspapers and magazines etc. It will help the general reader to read and understand easily: numerous Indian words and names. It is difficult to write Shlokas and Indian words in Scriptural Transliteration but more difficult to read. The reason is simple, the writers know about it but most of the readers know almost nothing about the signs used in Scriptural Transliteration.
Names of persons have not been given in Italics to avoid confusion. All the entries have once been given in non-Italicized for the sake of general readers; though, initially they are given in bold-Italics.
Several Samskrit words coined together have been separated for clarity.
Since, the Indians never attached importance to date of birth, death and personal life, so a lot of precious time and energy is regularly wasted in proving or disproving the dates. As far as practicable, we have refrained from them.
Efforts have been taken to reduce the repetition of similar matters, yet repetitions are bound to occur because at their different places they are an integral part of the term being explained. Take for example, the play Abhigyānashākuntalam, which is there as a drama, as the work of the author Kālidāsa as well as mentioned in the Nātyashātra.
The whole book is packed with information, and each reader
Abhidhā-vritti-mātrikā: Abhidhā-vritti-mātrikā is a minor work that contains mature ideas on poetics. The authorship is attributed to Mukul Bhatta who became famous in the 9th century. The work justifies Abhidhā as the only Shabda-shakti, and the other two Vyanjanā and Lakshanā as its offshoots. The text consists of 15 kārikās. The author has written a vritti on it. He opposed vyanjanā taking it to be an inferior mode of expression. He has discussed ten kinds of Abhidhās, and was lenient enough to permeate six kinds of lakshanā into it. Mammata was deeply influenced by his formulations. The influence is evident in his Kāvya Prakāsh.
Abhigyāna-Shākuntala: Abhigyāna Shākuntala is a drama by Kālidāsa in seven acts. It is based on the love, separation and re-union of Shakuntalā and Dushyanta that comes from the Adi Parva of the Mahābhārat. With minor changes the writer has created dramatic effect and given grandeur. It has acquired a new dimension, as the characters are given more liberty to evoke rasa. The amorous king of the Mahābhārat is refashioned as a character that is more daring, agile and firm.
Kālidāsa has deliberately introduced the episode of the curse by Durvāsā and the loss of ring to wash away the stains from the character of Dushyanta. For Shakuntalā of Kālidāsa, love is no contract. It defies all considerations.
1st Act: Dushyanta arrives at the hermitage of Kanva in his absence and fascinated by her beauty falls in love with Shakuntalā who readily gives consent to his proposal.
2nd Act: A messenger urges Dushyant to return to the kingdom to partake in the rituals being performed by the queen. He confides in his friend Mādhava who backed out and did not proceed to the capital.
3rd Act: Shakuntalā is shown writing letters to Dushyant to lessen the pain of the agonising separation.
4th Act: Dushyant returns to the kingdom and gives a ring to Shakuntalā for identification. Maharishi Durvāsā comes to the hermitage but finds none to greet him. Shakuntalā is lost in the memory of her lover. Out of anger Durvāsā curses her that, he would forget her in whose memory she is so deeply engrossed. She awakens and prostrates before the Rishi begging for forgiveness. He calms down and shows a way that a mark of identity will give his memory back and her friend can identify her husband. Grief gripped the hermitage when Shakuntalā departs for her husband’s palace.
5th Act: Shakuntalā arrives at the court but Dushyanta fails to recognise her, as she had lost the ring en route. She is abandoned and gets shelter from seer Marichi.
6th Act: The courtiers take the ring from a fisherman and give it to the king who regains the memory and realises his mistake. He launches a search operation to find Shakuntalā.
7th Act: Dushyant reaches the cottage of Marichi and is astonished to see a boy playing with a lion. He catches hold of a magical gem falling from the hand of the boy. It remains unchanged though it would have changed into a stone if touched by a person other than the boy’s father. The surprised maid informs Shakuntalā and the identity of Dushyanta is revealed. She is handed over to her husband. The play ends on a pleasant note.
Abhinava: Abhinava was a 10th century poet of Kashmir. He wrote an epic Kādambah-sāra. He has narrated the story of Kādambari in Anushtupa Chhanda. He was the son of Jayant I, an eminent critic of Nyāya Darshan.
Abhinava Gupta: Abhinava Gupta was an eminent critic and philosopher. He wrote Abhinava Bhārati and Dhvanyāloka-lochana. These commentaries are of immense importance. Other than these two he wrote 39 more books on criticism, meditation and grammar. While his critical formulations contribute to his philosophical ideology, his philosophy has a direct bearing on his criticism. He has tried to resolve the problem of Rasa with the help of Shaivāgam theory. His theory of rasa-nispati is called Abhyukti-vāda. He says that rasa is generated through vyanjanā. He has conceived dhvani as the soul of poetry, which survives because of its ability to generate rasa. For him, pleasure is the ultimate end of poetry.
Abhinava Gupta is in accord with modern psychological approach. He overshadows the interpretations given by the critics like Bhatta Lollata, Shri Sankuka and Bhatta Nāyaka, with his interpretations of the terms samyoga and rasa nispati. He termed it as prakāshya-prakāshaka relationship
The dormant emotions preserved in the heart as vāsanā flow out as rasa through vibhāvanā vyāpāra of vyanjana vritti with the help of vibhāva, anubhāva and sanchāh- bhāva. Smell already lies in a pitcher, which comes out when water is poured in it. Likewise, the dormant emotion preserved in the heart of the reader or spectator comes out in the form of rasa after reading kāvya or watching a play performed on the stage.
Abhinava Kālidāsa. Abhinava Kālidāsa was a court poet of Rāja Shekhara, the king of Vijaya Nagar Empire. He wrote Bhāgavata Champu in six stavakas based on the 10th Skanda of Shrimad Bhāgavata, and Abhinava’s Champu deals with the amorous life of the court. His description passes all moral boundaries.
Abhisheka: Abhisheka by is a drama by Bhāsa, based on the coronation of Sugriva by Rāma. The title reflects the coronation. Moved by the plight and suffering of his friend Sugriva, the deposed king of Kishkindhā, Rāma promises to win back his kingdom. He eliminates Bali while the two, Bali and Sugriva were locked in pitched battle and restores him his kingdom.
Bhāsa has tried his level best to give his drama originality and a distinct look. He has described several incidents from the Rāmāyana in his way to give an added colour and flavour to Abhisheka. He gives plausible arguments to justify the killing of Bali. Rāma is made to cross over the ocean without a bridge. In his Bāla Charita, a drama based on Bhāgavata, Vasudeva is forced to cross over Yamunā without a bridge. He has used simple and evocative language to bring home the ideas. At places, the character of Bali seems to have an edge over that of Rāma, as Rāma is shown only as an archer.
ādi Purāna: ādi Purāna is the oldest among the 24 Purānas and is attributed to Jains. It deals with the story of the first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha Deva. It consists of 12 thousand shlokas, divided into 47 parvas. Jinasena, the successor of Shankarāchārya, has written it. Rishabha Deva was the 8th of the 24 incarnations of Vishnu described in the Purānas. He was a Yogi and propogated Parama-hansa Religion. He was digambar and partially abnormal. He finished his life by self-immolation. Marudevi was his mother. He opposed Monism and tried to formulate independent ideas about the creation of the universe including the living and nonliving beings.
Agni Purāna: Agni Purāna, chronologically, is the 8thPurāna, the encyclopedia of Indology presenting the entire gamut of knowledge coming down the ages. It covers subjects like grammar, medical science, dictionary, poetics and astrology, and different kinds of riti, vritti and abhinaya, forms of epic, five forms of gadya kāvya along with akhyāyikā, kathā, khanda kathā, pari-kathā and kathānikā. Seven forms of padya have been referred to: Mahākāvya, kalp, prabandha, visheshaka, kulaka, muktaka and kosha. Different rupakas, forms of rasa, classes of Nāyikā and figures of speech are the added attraction. It consists of 383 chapters and 11,457 shlokas.
Akāla-Jalada: Akāla Jalada was the grand father of the eminent critic Rāja Shekhara who belonged to 8th century. No written work of Akāla Jalada is available. His sukties are found in the collections like Sārangadhara.
Alankāra Sarvasva: Alankāra Sarvasva is a celebrated work on alankāra by Rājānaka Ruyyaka. It has three sections: sutra, vritti and illustrations. Illustrations have been quoted from other works. His commentator Jayaratha put a curtain on all speculations and controversies by accepting Ruyyaka as the author of both the sutras and vritti. Ruyyaka’s credit lies in a scientific division of Alankāras.
Amar Chandra Suri: Amar Chandra Suri is a famous Jain poet and is placed between 1241 and 1260 AD. His epic Bāla Mahābhārata comprises of 44 cantos and 6,950 shlokas. He has presented a brief account of Mahābhārat in a simple and in ornate language. His other works are Kavi-kalpa-latā and Padma-nanda. A disciple of Jinadatta Suri, he was the court poet of king Vishāla Deva.
Amar Kosha: Amar Kosha is an authentic dictionary of Samskrit by Amar Singh. He has done a stupendous work by compiling this monumental dictionary written in a unique style of synonyms. It shows his in-depth study as a scholar, which is reflected throughout the work. The amazing fact is that it is still accepted as an authority. He has spun out the roots or genesis from which a particular word is coined. Succeeding dictionary writers have borrowed immensely from him.
Amaru Shataka: Amaru Shataka is erotic poetry, which has never been reckoned as poetic creation, and has survived in the laps of folk songs and Prakrit. Many poets and scholars have tried to revive it but the mass sentiment could not digest it. In the middle ages it took shelter in courts as the amorous descriptions suited its milieu.
In Amaru Shataka, the stanzas are not tied like the flowers of a garland. The thread has been loosened allowing each stanza to retain its independence and be a part of the whole. Life in its multiple facets, have been appropriately expressed with the depiction of both the brighter and darker sides of life.
Ambikā Datta Vyāsa: Ambikā Datta Vyāsa was an eminent poet, prose writer and dramatist of the 19th century. His popularity rests on his prose work Shiva-rāja-vijaya written on the pattern of Kādambah.
Ananda Rāmāyana: Ananda Rāmāyana is the principal work of Rasika sect of Rāma bhakti. Several examples from ādhyātma Rāmāyana have been given in it. It has 9 chapters and 12,352 shlokas. The 1st, Sāra Kānda has 13 sargas and deals with the story from birth till the abduction of Sitā. The 2nd, Yātrā Kānda has 9 sargas and deals with Rāma’s journey to various pilgrimage centers. The 3rd Yagya Kānda, has 9 sargas and deals with Ashwamegha Yagya performed by Rāma. The 4th, Vilāsa Kānda, describes the beauty of Sitā in all its grandeur. The 5th’ Janma Kānda, deals with the birth of Luva and Kusha. The 6th, Vivāha Kānda, highlights the marriages of eight sons of the four brothers. The 7th, Rājya Kānda has 9 sargas and describes the victories of Rāma. The 8th, Manohar Kānda, depicts the methods of worshipping Lord Rāma. The last one has 9 sargas and describes the coronation of Kusha and the departure of Rāma and Sitā to heaven.
Anand Varman: Anand Varman was an eminent critic and the exponent of the school of dhvani. He accepted dhvani as the kernel or essence of poetry, rejected avidhā and relegated alankāra, riti, vritti and guna to lower pedestal with his famous work Dhvanyā-loka, which is written in kārikā and vritti. He divided dhvani in three broad divisions: vastudhvani(contentsuggestion); alankāra dhvani (figurative suggestion); and rasa dhvani (emotional or aesthetic suggestion). Only rasa dhvani is appreciated and relished. It is held that rasa gets revealed only in vyanjana.
Later on, Māhima Bhatta overshadowed him and in Vyakti-viveka pointed out many shortcomings in Anand Varman’s theory of dhvani.
According to Rāja-taranganiānand Varman was a contemporary of Avanti Varman, a 9th century king of Kashmir. Besides Dhvanyāloka he has also written Arjuna-charit, Devi-shataka, Tatva-loka and Visham-vana-lilā.
Anant Deva: Anant Deva, the grand son of Ekanāth, was a political commentator of 17th century, associated with the court of king Rāja Bahādura Chandra. He wrote a political treatise Rāja-dharma-kaustubha at the behest of the king. It is divided in four sections called Dadhiti and consists of 88 chapters dealing with the royal duty. In place of formulating novel theories and ideology, he has discussed the accepted principles related to royal duty and state religion. His other works are: Sainika-shāstra, Trivirnaka Dharma and a drama Krishna Bhakti Chandrkā.
Anargha Rāghava: Anargha Rāghava is a drama in seven acts by Murāri. It lacks artistic grandeur, structural harmony and dramatic skill. Some acts run in 200 verses and some contain only 50 verses. Some dialogues are very long and some are cut short, and some descriptions are redundant which destroy the intensity and beauty of the drama.
It deals with the story of Rāma from the arrival of Vishwāmitra to the court of Dasharatha onwards.
1st Act: Vishwāmitra seeks the permission of Dasharatha to take away Rāma and Lakshamana to thwart the designs of the demons to enable the Rishis to perform yagyas peacefully.
2st Act: Rāma displays his ability as a seasoned warrior killing several demons including the most dreaded Tārakā.
3st Act: Deals with the svayamavara of Sitā. Rāma breaks the bow of Shiva.
4stAct: Rāvana approaches his sister Shurpanakhā who changes herself into a maidservant of Kaikeyi and suggests her to send Rāma into exile to clear the way for Bharata using the promises by Dasharatha.
5st Act: Rāma along with Sitā and Lakshamana leaves for the forest and kills many demons. With the help of Mārich Rāvana abducts Sitā, faces a stiff opposition from Jatāyu, kills him and comes to Lanka with Sitā. Rāma meets Sugriva, kills Bali and Sugriva gets the throne again.
6st Act: Rāma, with Sugriva and his army of monkeys, invades Lanka, kills Rāvana.
7st Act: Rāma and Sitā are reunited, return to Ayodhyā with associates.
Angirā Smriti: Angirā Smriti is a work on moral codes of conduct composed by the renowned ancient Rishi Angirā. The prose extracts of this text are available in Smriti Chandikā. Only 72 shlokas of Angirā Smriti are available in Jivānanda Samhitā. It deals with receiving edible and potable materials from the Shudras, the atonement for causing physical injury to cow, and on the method of putting blue garments by women.
Annan Bhatta: Annan Bhatta was a prominent scholar of Nyāya School of philosophy. His reputation rests on his seminal work Tarka Samgraha, the Dipikā (commjentary) on Tarka Samgraha and commentaries like Rankojjvāni, (on Nyāya Sutra); Brahman Sutra Vyākhyā; Ashtādhyāyi-tikā; Udyotana; Siddhānjana (on Jaideva’s Chandra-loka). Among the 25 commentaries on Tarka Samgraha, Nyāya Bodhini by Govardhana Mishra and Nila-kanthi-tikā by Nila Kantha Dikshit are important.
Anukramani: Anukramani is an index of Vedic gods, ascetics and Chhandas. Each Veda has a separate Anukramani. These are designed to preserve Vedas from the rust of time. Shaunaka has written ten Anukramani texts; five of them present detailed account of gods, Rishis and Chhandas in ten mandais with anuvākas and sutras. They are metrical compositions in Anushtupa Chhanda. His Brihad-devatā presents elaborate description of Rig Vedic gods in 12,000 shlokas.
Kātyāyana’s Sarva-anukramani, another popular work, contains the richās of Rig Veda, name and gotra of Rishis and gods of each mantra and chhanda. The number of Anukramani on Sāma Veda exceeds the other Vedas. Kātyāyana has compiled another work, Shukla-yaju-sarva-anukrama-sutra in five chapters.
Apastamba Dharma Sutra: The 28th and the 29th questions of Apastamba-kalpa-sutra is called Apastamba Dharma Sutra. Its language is more primitive than that of Baudāyana Dharma sutra. Its several findings resemble those of Jaimini, and many words from Mimāmsā School are incorporated in its texture. It may have been written in 600 BC, and Apastamba’s place of living may have been Matasya Desha.
Apishali: Apishali was a predecessor of Pānini. His sutras have been frequently quoted in Ashtādhyāyi, Mahābhāsya Nyāsa and Mahābhāsya Pradip. Besides grammar he has written four other books: Dhātu-pātha, Ganapātha, Shikshā and Unādi Sutra.
Appaya Dikshit. Appaya Dikshit was an eminent grammarian, philosopher and critic. He has written more than hundred books on wide ranging subjects. He was the most revered scholar in the court of Shāhji, the king of Tanjore. His works on poetics gave him popularity. They are: Vritti Vartikā; Kuvalayānand and Chitra-mimāmsā. Kuvalayānand, based on Jaideva’s Chandra-loka is the most successful work in which he has added 24 other alankāras. His merit lies in pointing out the shortcomings of Lakshanās and in an appropriate description and analysis of alankāras.
āranyaka: āranyakas are part of Vedas and include the books by people retiring to forests after successfully completing their worldly responsibilities and duties. āranyakas are entirely different from Brāhmanas, and are called parshishta (appendix) of Brāhamanas.
āryabhatta II. āryabhatta II was a scholar of astrology. He has written a significant book Mahā-Arya-Siddhānta. It is divided in 18 chapters. The entire text is written in ārya Chhanda. They are 625 in number. Besides discussing various aspects of Jyotisha, he has included Mathematics and thus widened its scope. The details of his life are not known.
ārya Saptashati: ārya Saptashati is a Muktaka Kāvya by Govardhāchārya in 700 ārya Chhandas on the pattern used by famous Pāli poet Hala’s Gāthā-saptashati. He had the patronage of Lakshamana Sena, the king of Bengal. He flourished around 1116 AD. ārya Saptshati is a work of Shhngār-rasa in its twin form: Samyoga and Viyoga (union and separation). It depicts the gesticulations of both countrywomen and women living in posh-areas. The poet has taken the recourse of Anyokti alankāra for expressing shhngāra.
Aryodaya Mahākāvya: Aryodaya Mahākāvya is a poetic history of Indian civilization. It brings out its merits that have made it the most pioneering and promising of all the ancient civilizations. Pt. Gangā Prasād Upādhyāya wrote it in 21 chapters and 1,166 shlokas in two sections: the 1st aimed at describing the grandeur of Indian culture while the 2nd deals with Swāmi Dayānand Sarswati. The epic begins with the description of the universe that culminates in the plot hatched for the assassination of Swāmi Dayānand Saraswati.
Ashcharya Chudāmani: Ashcharya Chudāmani is the only extant book of Shaktibhadra available. The other Unmāda-vāsava-datta is only referred to, but is not available. Ashcharya Chudāmani is a dramatic version of Rāma’s story. Its specialty lies in the nispati of Ashcharya rasa, which is a rare phenomenon in poetry. He has written two books on drama: Tāpti Svyambara and Subhadrā-Dhananjaya.
Ashtādhyāyï. Ashtādhyāyi is an excellent book on grammar. It is the oldest work on the structure of words. It is divided in 8 chapters: each chapter consists of 4 pacfas. With the addition of 14 Pratyāhāra Sutras the number of Sutras in it goes up to 3,995. The first two chapters deal with Subanta pada, division of tinganta and their relationship in a sentence. The third chapter discusses Shabda-shakti, (the power of words) where as the 4th and the 5th chapters are devoted to Pratipadikā and shabda-siddhi. The 6th and the 7th chapters revolve round the siddhi of pratyayātmaka of tinganta words and swars. The 8th chapter deals with the impact of swars and varnas.
The topics falling underthe compass of Ashtādhyāyi include: noun and its definition; distinction between swars and vyanjanas; dhātu-siddhi-kriyā-pada; kāraka; vibhakti; samāsa; kridanta; subanta; taddhita; āgam; ādesha; swar-vichāra; and sand hi.
Ashwaghosha:Ashwaghosha was a renowned Buddhist poet and philosopher. Buddhist scriptures testify that he was contemporary of Kanishka, the Kushāna king who ascended the throne in 78 AD. He participated in the 4th Buddhist Sangati convened by Kanishka at Kundala-vana in Kashmir. His name has also been mentioned in the Sārnātha inscription of Kanishka.
The poetic skill of Ashwaghosha is evident in Buddha-Charita in 28 cantos and in Saunderānand. Buddha Charita deals with the causes leading to the foundation of Kapilvastu; the birth of Buddha and Nanda; Nanda falling in love with Sundari and the conflict and grief of the couple. The rest of the book is marred by philosophical ideology leaving him more as a preacher than a poet.
A drama named Sāh-puta-prakarana has also been assigned to him. It deals with Maudalyāyana and Sāriputra being initiated in Buddhist cult by Lord Buddha. It has all the dramatic elements: nandi; preface; sutra-dhāra; synthesis of prose and poetry and use of words both from Samskrit and Prakrit. In his works he has profusely discussed the doctrines of Buddhism in simple and general language. There is a confluence of shringāra, karunā and shānta rasa in his works.
Atharva Veda: Atharva signifies magic, sorcery and witchcraft. It is concerned with the activities related to mārana, mohan and uchchātana. It is a collection of hymns and mantras of several sacred rites. Atharva Rishi perceived them. Previously it was called Atharva-āngirasa, which included two Rishis Atharva and āngirasa. Its words have been taken from local dialects. The ritvija of Atharva Veda is Adhvaryu who recites the hymns at the time of yagya. It consists of 20 kāndas, 731 suktas and 5,987 hymns. In each kānda there are prapāthakas, anuvāka, sukta and mantra. There are 34 pratipāthakas, 111 anuvāka, 731 suktas and 5,849 mantras. About 1,200 hymns have been taken from Rig Veda. The first 13 chapters deal with mārana, mohan and uchchātan and the rest with the ritual of marriage. Out of its nine branches, only Pippalāda and Shaunakiya are available. The subjects are physical, (king, statecraft, battle, enemy, vehicle); spiritual (Brahma, Parmātmā and the four stages of life); and celestial (God, Yagya and Time). Indra, Varuna and Maitreya have been described as manifestations of the same Almighty. Some of the suktas are related to diseases and remedy.
Atharva Veda Pratisākhya Sutra: Atharva Veda Pratisākhya Sutra is aimed at unveiling the mystery associated with the study of Atharva Veda. It helps us understand it.
Ayurveda: Ayurveda is the branch of Vedas that teaches how to achieve longevity by leading a disciplined life and using herbal medicines. It has eight organs: shalya chikitsā (surgery); salkya (diseases related to ears, eyes, ghrāna and throat); kāya chikitsā; Bhuta Vidyā; Kaumārya Bhartya (diseases related to children); agada tantra (treatment of poison); rasāyana tantra (treatment with chemicals); and vājikarana tantra (rejuvenating a man).
The chief exponent of Ayurveda is Dhanvantari who emerged out from the churning of the ocean with Amrita Kalash (Nectar). Aitareya, Kashyapa, Harita, Agnivesha, Bheda, Charak, Sushruta, Jivaka and Vāga Bhatta are associated with. Ayurveda, Vaidyaka Shāstra. They were great Vaidyas and have written treatises on it, called Samhitā.
Bāla-Rāmāyana: Bāla Rāmāyana is a mega-drama by Rājashekhara consisting of 10 acts. The plot of this drama is based on the story of Rāma from the svayamavara of Sitā to Rāma’s return to Ayodhyā after killing Rāvana. The first act is called pratigya-paulastya. It deals with Rāvana’s participation in the svayamvara of Sitā, and his resolve to marry her. He expresses his desire before Janaka to marry Sitā and leaves the palace in wrath on Janaka’s refusing to accede to his proposal. The second act is called Rāma-Rāvaniya. Parsrurāma bursts into anger after listening to the proposal of Rāvana, and prepares to settle scores with him. The war between the two is averted. The third act is called Lankesvara act. In this act, the scene of the svayamvara of Sitā is shown on the stage to flatter Rāvana but the latter is infuriated losing his temper while watching the scene of Rāma breaking the bow and Sitā garlanding him. His anger soon goes down and he reconciles himself to the situation. The fourth act is called Bhārgava act, which depicts the battle between Rāma and Parasurāma. The fifth act is called Unamatta Dasānana. It shows Rāvana gripped with panic for failing in his attempt to win Sitā, and gets consolation with the wooden idol of Sitā. The sixth act is called Nirdosa Dasharatha. It deals with the incident of Rāma’s leaving for exiled life in forest. The seventh act is called Asama-parākrama. It describes the scintillating and sparkling dialogue between Rāma and Samudra on the issue of erecting a bridge on the sea. The eighth act has been referred to as Vira Vilāsa, which depicts the battle between Rāma and Rāvana and the killing of Meghanāda and Kumbhakarana. Rāvana tries to create panic in the heart of Sitā by showing her the illusory head of Rāma. In the ninth act, Rāvana is killed. The last act is called Sānanda Raghunātha. It deals with the fire-test of Sitā and the latter emerging victorious out of it. Rāma leaves for Ayodhya along with Sitā and Lakshmana boarding the Puspaka Vimāna.
The drama lacks in dramatic skill and the dramatist has unnecessarily stretched the story causing vexation to the readers. Instead of depicting the incidents associated with Rāma, the poet has taken more care in depicting the incidents occurring in the life of Rāvana. He has also drifted from the original story of Rāma as depicted in Vālmikiya Rāmāyana and has tried to make major changes in the original text using his imagination to give his text a distinct look. The staging of the svayamvara of Sitā and Rāvana’s consoling himself by erecting a wooden statue of Sitā are the episodes deliberately introduced to the framework of the drama to create dramatic effect. Rājashekhara has failed to create effect by stretching it to funny length. The drama lacks movement and flow.
Bālacharita: Bāla Charita is a drama by Bhāsa in five acts based on the story of childhood days of Shri Krishna as narrated in Hahvansa Purāna. It incorporates the story from the birth of Krishna till the killing of Kansa. The first act depicts the story of the birth of Krishna and Vāsudeva shifting him to Gokula. The second act deals with the killing of Yashoda’s daughter who was substituted for Krishna but she miraculously survived. The third act deals with the lilās of Krishna including the killing of Putanā, Keshi, Sakata and Dhenuka. The fourth act deals with the story of Krishna giving a fitting reply to the arrogant snake Kāliya-nāga forcing it to abandon the river Yamunā along with his family. The fifth and final act deals with the exploits of Krishna and Balarāma at the court of Kansa, the wrestling with Mushtika and Chānura culminating into the killing of the dreaded wrestlers and Kansa too. Vira-rasa is the dominant rasa of this drama.
The dramatist has violated the established rules of classical drama by depicting the execution of Arista, Chānura and Kansa on the stage.
He seems to be at the loggerheads with accepted dramatic conventions and is more concerned with creating dramatic effects at the cost of flouting well-established rules and regulations.
Bānabhatta: Bāna Bhatta is the most celebrated prose-writer of Samskrit Literature. His popularity rests on his prose works Kādambah and Harsha-chahta. Besides this, he has also compiled Chandi-shataka in Shragdhara Chhanda, which consists of 100 shlokas expressing his devotion to Chandi. The text is not available, its reference is found in Sukti-granthas. The ornamental style of Subandhu’s prose writing is mirrored in the writings of Bānabhatta. He laid emphasis on the external embellishment of his prose and used almost all the weapons available in his armoury to give a new tint and colour to Samskrit prose. From Bāna onwards a new trend emerged, which preferred figurative expression to plain expression. He gave vent to terse and high-flown style avoiding the simple one. In this respect he differs from Kālidāsa who seldom tries to play on words. His command over description often falters and a series of sub-plots intrude into the framework of the main-plot. In the introduction to Harsha-chahta, Bāna has pinned up faith in a style or diction marked by an expression coupled with puns and decorated with poetic figures aimed at creating miraculous meaning. The beauty of Bāna’s prose work lies in his amazing descriptive acumen.
Three distinct forms of Bāna’s prose style are evident: Dirgha-samāsa-vati, Alpa-samāsa-vati and Samāsa-rahita. They are called Utkalikā, Churnaka and Abhiddhā respectively. He has taken recourse to Utkalikā in long statements. He has cultivated beauty, refinement, sophistication and balance during the description of his prose work in order to revive fantastic flavour and colour. Except a few passages, Bāna’s style has been more or less comprehensible. He has also introduced small dialogues according to the requirement of the situation. His prose works maintain the pace and rhythm of poetry and his muse has come out with varied facets and colours to make an artistic portrayal of the natural beauty and thus has added warmth and vigour to his prose. Moved by his amazing and miraculous narrative tecnique, scholars have rightly observed ‘Bānochchhistam Jagst Sarvam’ (The rest of the works are merely imitation of Bāna). Bāna invited the ire of some critics for his terseness, excessive love for poetic figures, unfamiliar diction and long statements coupled with exaggerated expressions. He will continue to rule the roost of the readers for the artistic grandeur which he cultivated in his prose using unique narrative technique, verbal music, terse diction and rhythmical combination of words.
Baudhāyana Dharmasutra: Baudhāyana Dharma Sutra is a text of Dharmashāstra written by Baudhānyana. It is not available in complete form. It consists of eight chapters and most of them have been written in shlokas.
The list of subjects which it consists includes customs practised in the north and the south, atonement, duties of Brahmācharin, significance of celibacy, rules regarding significance of yagya and the duties of a king, five severe offences and punishments accorded for committing grave offences, punishment for killing birds, rules for purgation from Brahmahatyā and other evil deeds, kinds of will, right of elder son, atonement by man and woman for adultery, methods of Niyoga and rules of Samyāsa.
Bhāguri: Bhāguri was a grammarian of the pre-Pānini period. The reference to his grammatical text is available in Jagadisha Tarkālankāra’s Shabda-shakti-prakāshikā. His works include Bhāguri Vyākarana, Sāmavediya-shākhā, Thkānda-kosha, Sāmkhyabhāsya and Daivata-granthi. Somesvara has quoted him in Sāhitya-kalpa-druma and Abhinavagupta in Dhvanyā-loka-lochana.
Bhāmah: Bhāmah was a prominent rhetorician and author of the text Kāvyālankāra. It is the earliest work on Alankāra. Bhāmah is supposed to be the exponent of Alankāra Sampradāya and has accepted alankāra as the most significant element of kāvya. He flourished in the middle of the sixth century. It has been established from the reference to Dinga-nāga found in Kāvyālankāra. Many critics have acknowledged Bhāmah as the successor of Dandin but now it has been proved that Bhāmah was the predecessor of Dandin.
Bhāmah enjoyed an independent stature among rhetoricians. He brought alankāra to a new height. He strictly made it clear that as a young lady loses her charm without ornaments so, the poetry loses its efficacy without alankāra.
Kāvyālankāra is divided into 6 chapters and contains 398 verses. The first chapter containing sixty verses describes the making of a poet and difference between prose and poetry. This chapter also covers vaidarbhi and gaudi styles and literary blemishes. The second chapter is devoted to the discussion of madhura, prasāda, and Oaj gunas and the description of as many as 39 alankāras. The description of alankāras continues unabated to the third chapter also. He does not admit the status of hetu, sukshma, lesha and vritta amid alankāras, since they are badly wanting in vakrokti. The fourth chapter deals with 11 kinds to poetic blemishes and the fifth chapter is devoted to the causes of poetic blemishes. The sixth chapter is a modest suggestion to the poet to maintain grammatical accuracy to make their work readable.
Bhana: Bhana is a kind of Rupaka describing the wicked. Several texts on Bhana have been written in Samskrit. A text entitled Chaturbhani has been published from Kerala in four volumes. The authors of this text are Vararuchi, Ishvaradatta, Shyāmalika, and Shudraka. Vararuchi has written another Bhana named Ubhaya-abhisāhkā. It has a very lucid and enriched style. One more Bhana entitled Padma-parābhhtaka has been attributed to Shudraka. One of its shlokas is quoted in Hemachandra’s Kāvyānushāsana. It deals with the story of Muladeva, an ancient artist. Ishvaradatta’s Bhana is known as Dhurta-vita-samvāda, which passes a scathing remark on harlots through the dialogue between Dhurta and Vita. Among other bhanas in Samskrit, Bāmanabhatta’s Shhngāra bhushana, Rāmabhadra Dikshita’s Shhngāra Tilaka, Vardāchārya’s Vasanta Tilaka, Shankara Kavi’s Sharadā-tilaka, Nallakavi’s Shringāra-sarvasva and Yuvarāja’s Rasa-sadana Bhana are worth noting.
Bhangaduta: Bhagna-duta is a form of Duta-kāvya written by the 8th century poet Shrikrishna Deva. No exact evidence is available about the writer. It is based on Kālidāsa’s Meghaduta. It consists of 126 mandākrāntā chhandas. Agonised by the separation of Krishna, a gopi sends her message to him through the black bee. Towards the end of the message, Krishna appears before the gopi blessing her with divine grace.
Bhanga Sandesha: Bhanga Sandesha embodies the message to beloved by Vasudeva, a 15th or 16th century poet. He was the court poet of the king of Calicut. He had also written a kāvya entitled Vasudeva-vijaya by way of an analysis of the sutras of Pānini. It is incomplete. His other works include kāvyas such as Devi-charita, Shivodaya and Achyuta-lilā. The story of Bhanga Sandesha is imaginary. The structural pattern is based on the Meghaduta. The services of the black bee is sought to send the message by the lover to his ladylove. Like Meghaduta it has been divided into Purva and Uttara sections and the poet has used mandākrāntā chhanda as well. Purva section consists of 95 shlokas and Uttara section consists of 80 shlokas.
Bhānudatta: Bhānudatta was a renowned critic belonging to the later half of the 13th century. His popularity basically rests on his twin treatises Rasa Manjari and Rasa Tarangini. Besides them four other works: Alankāra-tilaka, Chitra-chandrikā, Gitagauhsha and Kumār Bhārgaviya have also been attributed to him. Rasamanjah is a mature work dealing with Nāyaka-Nāyikā bheda. It has been written in the form of sutras. Achārya Gopal had written a commentary entitled Viveka on it. Rasatarangini presents a scientific analysis of Rasa particularly the various components of Rasa including Bhāva, Vibhāva, Anubhāva and Sanchāh-bhāva. Bhānudatta has borrowed substantially from Dasha-rupaka. It consists of 8 tarangas. Alankāra-tilaka is based on Sarasvati-kantha-bharana, which deals with several forms of kāvya such as Alankāra, guna, riti, dosha, and Kāvya-bheda. The style of Gitagovinda has been followed in the lyrical poetry Gitagauhsha.
Bhānudatta has accepted shhngāra as the dominant rasa and merged rest of the rasas into it. He has accepted Rasa as the soul of poetry. He has made three categories of Kāvya: uttama, madhyama and adhama. He has also accepted two types of rasas: earthly (laukika) and unearthly (alaukika). All the rasas including shhngāra are placed in the category of laukika. Alaukika rasa has been divided into Svapnika, Manorathika and Aupnayika.
Bharata: Bharata was an eminent scholar of poetics and the author of Nātya Shāstra, which is an encyclopaedic dictionary.
He was a versatile genius. His muse finds expression in Nātya Shāstra (dramaturgy), Sangeeta (music), Kāvya-shāstra (poetics) and Nritya (dance). He has made a minute and scientific analysis of these topics. His analysis of Rasa is based on dramas available during his period. He recognised only 8 Rasas. He codified one sutra for the manifestation of Rasa. This sutra is that Rasa is manifested by the co-ordination and crystallisation of Bhāva, Vibhāva, Anubhāva and Sanchāhbhāva: (Bhāva-vibhāva-anubhāva-sanchāh-bhāvasam-yogatra-sa-nispattih).TUe sutra was later variously interpreted by four Samskrit critics Sri Shankuka, Bhatta Lollata, Bhatta Nāyaka and Abhinava Gupta. Bharata’s analysis of Rasas is very authentic. His opinion on music is equally important. He, for the first time, made the analysis of four poetic figures, Upamā, Rupaka, deepaka and Yamaka.
Bharata’s contributions to the enrichment of Samskrit poetics cannot be ignored. There are certain practical difficulties in bringing together Bhāva like comic (Hāsya) and the pathetic (Karuna) or erotic (Shhngāra) and gruesome (Vibhatsa). Mere experience of Bhāva is not Rasa. Rasa is the state that follows such an experience. The recollection (smarana) and the relish (āsvāda) of that experience is Rasa. Rasa emerges when the Bhāvas are properly combined. Rasa, supported by inadequate Bhāva, is what he calls fugitive Rasa (Rasa-bhāsa).
Bhāravi: Bhāravi was a great Samskrit poet who achieved the distinction of making a new way out of the tender and delicate poetry of Kālidāsa. He is credited with introducing ornamental style of poetry, which reigned supreme during post Kālidāsa period. His fame chiefly rests on his epic poetry Kirāt-Arjuniya.
The plot of Kirāt-Arjuniya is based on the story described in the Vana parva of the Mahābhārata. It depicts the fight, which Arjuna had to wage against Shiva who disguised himself in the form of a Kirāt. Arjuna was deputed on a mission to secure Pashupatāstra from Shiva in order to ensure victory in the ensuing battle of Mahābhārata. But the poet seems to have travelled a long distance in introducing situations and episodes, which have no connection with the main story. Bhāravi is also said to have fallen prey to the existing norms of poetry, which gave way to rhetorical expression and use of hackneyed vocabulary. The plot of the epic is not fit enough to be considered as an epic. It also lacks the flow and rhythm, which is urgently required in an epic. The poet has tried to bridge the gulf by natural descriptions.
Bhartnhari: Bhartrihari was an eminent poet of the three shatakas: Shhngāra Shataka, Niti Shataka and Vairāgya Shataka. No clear account of his life is available. The works of Bhartrihari contain his deep resentment over the harsh treatment meted out to him by his disloyal wife who deserted him. All his works are real masterpieces. Every shloka in his shatakas is complete, and communicates messages with regard to Shhngāra, morality and renunciation. Most of the shlokas are the outcome of his personal experience.
When he was fully in love with his wife, he wrote shhngāra shataka, when he ruled over his kingdom as a judicious king, he wrote Niti shataka and when he renounced the world and became a Yogi, he wrote Vairāgya Shataka. Bhartrihari was the disciple of Matsyendra Nāth who was himself the guru of Gorakha Nāth. It is said that it was under the influence of his guru that he renounced this world and became a samyāsi and took religious order. There is also a hearsay that his guru created confusion in his mind that his wife Pingalā was unchaste and this also added to his sense of frustration. Sutra kāvya matured with the poetic efforts of Bhartrihari. His every shloka contained in these shatakas is aphoristic.
Bhartrihari: Bhartrihari was a renowned grammarian and author of the popular grammatical text Vākya-padiya. Although he is entirely different from the poet Bhartrhari, some of the critics have taken both of them as the same person. Vākya-padiya is a book in which Bhartrihari has shown the relationship between word and meaning. Word is like a flower and meaning is its fruit: Shabda Pushpāni Artham Phalamavaha. Meaning may be myriad and multi-dimensional, and it may transcend the literal meaning of the word. That is what he meant by the word as fruit. According to Bhartrihari wisdom depends upon word. He says that without words, knowledge is unattainable. It is only from their integrated form that the entire knowledge is brought to light. Word is the cause of object because object is born of word. So word may be regarded as the cause of object.
Bhāsa: Bhāsa was a dramatist of the pre-Kālidāsa era. He wrote 13 dramas in all. Unfortunately, nothing substantial about the life of Bhāsa has yet emerged. For the first time, Ganapati Shāstri brought the dramas of Bhāsa to limelight. He collected the manuscripts of his dramas from various places and published them in 1912. Scholars are not unanimous about the authenticity of the dramas of Bhāsa. One set of scholars has assigned the authorship of these dramas to Bhāsa. On the basis of the mode of plot-construction, style and diction, these dramas are supposed to be the composition of a single person writing prior to Kālidāsa. Another set of scholars has declined to accept Bhāsa as the author of these dramas and have instead accepted the author of Matta-vilāsa-prahasana as the author of these dramas. The third set of scholars though, accepting Bhāsa as the author of these dramas have declined to accept the validity of the texts available.
On the basis of the subject matter the dramas of Bhāsa’s plays can be put into four categories (i) Dramas based on the story of the Rāmāyana: Pratibhā, Abhisheka, (ii) Dramas based on the Mahābhārata: Bāla chanta, Pancharātra, Madhyama Vyāyoga, Duta-vākaya, Urubhanga, Karnabhāra and Duta Ghatotkacha (iii) Dramas based on the story of Udayana, Svapna-Vāsava-dattā and Pratigyā-Yaugandharāyana (iv) Dramas based on imaginary plots - Avimāraka and Dahdra-Chārudatta.
His dramas based on folk tales are more successful. Svapna-vāsava-dattā and Pratigyā-Yaugandharāyana are thus, placed among the most successful dramas of Bhāsa. He did not retain the plot of the original sources as usual rather he broke away from the beaten track and made necessary changes in the plot and even added new episodes to serve at least two-fold purposes, first, to mitigate monotony and to make the plot compact and wholesome and secondly, to elevate his characters to a novel height purging out their blemishes.
Bhāsa’s diction is very simple. There is no craving for poetic figures in his writings. His verses do not appear to have been added to the text rather they are neatly associated with the incidents.
Bhāsarvagya: Bhāsarvagya was a 9th century philosopher. He has the credit to compose the famous text on Nyāya shāstra entitled Nyāya sāra. In this text, he has referred to only a single proof of Nyāya, and rest of the 15 objects has been assimilated into it. As opposed to the other Naiyāyikas, Bhāsarvagya has signaled out four kinds of Pramāns: Pratyaksha, Anumāna, Agama and Upamāna. His ideals do not conform to those of other scholars.
Bhatta Nāyaka: Bhatta Nāyaka was an aesthetician and scholar of Indian poetics. He had compiled an anthology Hridaya darpana, which is not available. This text was intended to contradict the theory of Dhvani. His ideas are contained in Abhinava-bhārti, Vyakti-viveka, Kāvya-prakāsha and Kāvyānushāsana. He had also written a commentary on Bharata’s Nātya Shāstra. He held the view that Rasa is something to relish or bhoga, and is called Bhuktivāda; that Rasa is neither generated nor inferred, it can only be relished or experienced. According to Bhatta Nāyaka there are three word powers (Shabda Shakti) Abhidhā, Bhāvakatva and Bhojakatva. Abhidhā means surface meaning orthe literal meaning. It is limited in range. In drama, it is relished by the hero and the heroine and the persons associated with them. But Bhāvakatva is superior to it. The spectators or sāmājikas relish it that witness the drama and interpret it in their own manner. By sāmājika, he meant competent recipient. The stage of Bhojakatva is the final stage. At this stage, the meaning of a dramatic performance is relished by sāmājika, not only as it is presented on the stage but also as it is received by the recipient. At the stage of Bhojakatva the characters on the stage lose their personal identity and become the characters they are playing. Dushyanta and Shakuntalā no more remain Dushyanta and Shakuntalā, rather they symbolize lover and beloved in general. It is a matter of common experience that nobody wants to enterthe purely personal life of any man. But here the situation is different. The characters are depersonalized. This depersonalization of Characters makes them universal in nature. This is the secret of sādhāranikarana. During the state of Bhojaktva, raj and tamas gunas vanish from the heart of the audience and they enjoy perfect bliss (satva).
Bhatta Nāyaka opposed Dhvani tooth and nail and he tried to reveal the worthlessness of the school of Dhvani through his work Hhdayadarpana.
Bhattatauta: Bhatta Tauta was the author of Kāvya-kautuka, a text of poetics. He was the teacher of Abhinava Gupta who has written a commentary on Kāvya-kautuka entitled Vivarana. A reference to this has been given in Abhinava-bhārati. The original text of Kāvya-kautuka is not available. The views expressed in this book are embodied in Abhinava-bhārati, Auchitya-vichāra-charchā, and Kāvyānushāsana. Bhattatauta’s popularity rests on elevating Shānta Rasa to the position of the most dominant Rasa.
Bhatti: Bhatti was the author of Bhatti Kāvya or Rāvana Badha. He was basically a grammarian and critic whose purpose was to give sufficient teaching of grammar and alankāra to the princes. No reliable information regarding his life is available. Although towards the end of his kāvya, he has given reference to his personal life. He enjoyed the privilege of Shridhara Sena, the king of Vallabhi. In the inscription of the king, the account of donation of land to a poet called Bhatti has been mentioned. In this way, Bhatti seems to be his contemporary who ruled around 650 A.D.
Bhattikāvya: Bhatti-kāvya is an epic written by Bhatti, which is intended to unveil the complexity imbued in the study of grammar through the story of the Rāmāyana. It is variously called Rāvana badha. It consists of 22 cantos and 3624 shlokas. The epic deals with the incidents occurring in the life of Rāma. It has been divided into four khandas: Prakirna khanda, Adhikāra Khanda, Prasanna khanda and Tinganta khanda. The first five cantos in the firstkhanda present the account of Rāma’s life from his birth till his departure to forest. The talent of Bhatti as a poet is manifested in this khanda. The second, Adhikāra khanda is basically concerned with grammatical facts which is spread up to the 9th canto. The thirdkhand, which is confined to the 13th canto, deals with different kinds of Shabdālankāras and Arthālankāras, and shlokas using these alankāras have been introduced in this section. The fourthkhanda from the 14th to the 22nd canto, 9 lakshanās of Samskrit grammar have been introduced. Actually Bhatti’s intention is to provide the derivatives of words and their relative usage in proper context. That is why besides narrating the story of the Rāmāyana he inserted grammatical teaching as well. Bhatti has mentioned in a shioka that it serves as a lamp, which brings light removing darkness to those inclined to study grammar. But the same lamp ceases to be a source of light for those who are least interested in grammar. For them it is as good as a lamp in the hand of the blind.
There is an amazing manifestation of Bhatti’s poetic talent in 10th to the 14th canto. Bhatti seems unparalleled in outpouring his feelings and emotions in a language embellished with all sorts of poetic excellence and grandeur. He has excelled others in the use of puns and hyperboles. He is equally at ease with the depiction of natural scenery.
Bhatti has also made an innovation in the original story of the Rāmāyana. Dasharatha is portrayed here as an ardent disciple of Lord Shiva. In the same way, no deity emerges from the site of the yagya to offer the prasāda to the queens of Dasharatha to enable them to conceive. Bhatta has mentioned only the marriage of Rāma and Sitā. These changes do not affect the pace of the epic rather they add substantially to its perfection.
In the opinion of the poet, it is a festivity for an inspired man but it is a toxic for a defunct person. The selection of verses in Bhatti Kāvya is not independent it is shut up in duress. Bhatti is a torch bearer and harbinger. He represents that tradition of Samskrit poets who crave for a blend of scholarship and poetic sensibility. His characterisation suits the accepted tradition of epic writing.
Bhatti failed miserably in giving the details of the object and streamlining the vital and touching episodes of the story. His growing apathy for the episodes of the marriage of Sitā and thereafter Rāma leaving for forest raises doubt about his ability to handle an epic theme coherently and systematically. The story of the marriage of Rāma has been told in one shioka. The incident of abduction of Sitā by Rāvan has also figured prominently in this epic.
Bhattalollata: Bhatta Lollata was an eminent criticwho propounded the theory of Utpatti-vāda to substantiate his Rasa siddhānta. He has also written a commentary on Nātya Shāstra, which was very popular. No independent work of Bhattalollata is available, though his critical formulations are preserved in several texts on poetics including Abhinava-bhārati, Kāvya-prakāsha, Kāvyānaushāsana, Dhvanyā-loka-lochana and Kāvya-pradeep. He was the successor of Udbhata. He contended that the original characters and heroes and heroines playing the role also share the enjoyment of Rasa.
Bhatta Nārāyana: Bhatta Nārāyana is the author of the drama Veni-samhāra. He was the adherent of the Vaishnava sect. Reference to Bhattanārāyana has been given in Vāmana’s kāvyalankāra sutra. In this way, his timing is fixed around the 1st half of the 8th century.
The plot of Venisamahāra is based on the Mahābhārata War. The story revolves round the promise of Draupadi to wash her hair with the blood of Duryodahana. Her promise was fulfilled when Bhima kills Duryodhana in the gadā-yuddha and combs the hair of Draupadi with his own hands soaked in the blood of Duryodhana. This incident served as the title of the drama Veni-samhāra.
Bhatta Nārāyana’s talent as poet has been successfully cultivated through his dramas, though the dramas failed miserably to cope with the demands of dramatic art. The influence of Kālidāsa, Māgha and Bāna cannot be overlooked on his poetry. Since vira rasa is the dominant rasa in his dramas, he has resorted to gaudi riti to voice the anger and resentment of the characters particularly Bhima and Draupadi. He is successful in generating a situation suited to poetry dominated by Vira Rasa using terse, and long sentences and difficult words which carry the weight of anguish of the characters successfully. Such a style is bound to hamper the movement of the drama. Therefore, it has been acknowledged inappropriate from the dramatic standpoint. The poet’s leaning towards the use of alnkāra is also worth-noting. He has used Anuprāsha, Yamaka, Rupaka, Upamā and Parikara alnkāras. In the dialogues between the monsters, he has used twin languages Magadhi and Saurseni.
Bhattoji Dikshita: Bhattoji Dikshita was an eminent grammarian who gave a new orientation to Samskrit grammar by the composition of Siddhānta Kaumudi. He belongs to the 16th century. He has written several works, which include Shabda-kaustubha, Siddhānta Kaumudi, Praudha Manorama and Veda-bhāsya-sāra. Shabda-kaustubha is the interpretation of Ashtādhyāyi anti Praudha-Manorama is the interpretation of Siddhānta Kaumudi. His grandson Hari Dikshita has written two commentaries on Praudha-Manorama entitled Brihad-shabda-ratna and Laghu-shabda-ranta. The second one is very popular. Seven commentaries on Shabda-kaustubha are available. Of them Visamapadi of Nāgesvara and Bhāvapradeep of Krishna Mishra are prominent. The other commentaries on Siddhānta Kaumudi include Tatvadipikā by Rāmānanda and Bālamanoramā by Vāsudeva Vajpayee. Pandit Rāja Jagannātha has written a rebuttal on Praudha-manorama entitled Manorama kuchamardini.
Bhavabhuti: Bhavabhuti was an eminent dramatist who composed a significant drama Uttara Rāmacharita. He is placed only next to Kālidāsa. His muse successfully found expression in his dramas and has even excelled Kālidāsa in many respects. He was a man of philosophical bent of mind. He was well versed in philosophical speculations and was an authority on various philosophical ideologies.
Bhavabhuti has given sufficient information about his life in the preface to his dramas particularly Mahāvira charita. He was the inhabitant of Padmapura falling under Vidarbha region. He did not mention his period in his works, information to this effect can be obtained from Vākpatirāja’s Gaudabaho in which the poetry of Bhavabhuti has been applauded. Bhavabhuti enjoyed the patronage of Yosho Vermā towards the later part of his life and the fact to this effect has been established in Rājatarangini. Bhavabhuti’s shlokas have also been quoted in Vāmana’s kāvya-alankāra-sutra-vhtti.
Bhavabhuti has written three dramas: Mālati-Mādhava, Mahāvira charita and Uttara Rāmacharita. Mālati-Mādhava is a prakarana consisting of 10 acts. It is based on the imaginative love story of Mālati and Mādhava. In Mahavira-charita, the story of the Rāmāyana has been recast in 7 acts. The Uttara Rāmacharita, the most successful of all his dramas, is also based on the Rāmāyana depicting the plight of Sitā after her banishment from the palace. His dramas were meant for staging on the occasion of the festival of Mahakāla.
In Bhavabhuti’s works, his poetry often overweighs his drama. His dramas are placed in the category of lyrical drama. His style is not uniform throughout. Often he skates from delicacy to toughness. Critics have questioned Bhavabhuti’s ability as a dramatist by pointing out numerous shortcomings in his writing. His failure to abide by the principles of three unities, exaggerated expression, lack of humour, obscurity and terseness of language and long dialogues have hampered the smooth flow. He has also violated the accepted norms of classical drama. These combined together earned the ire of critics. They conspired to underrate the achievements of Bhavabhuti whose poetry despite all drawbacks was charming enough. He is by far the most successful dramatist of Samskrit literature after Kālidāsa. Expressing his utter dismay and grief over the distaste shown by the readers and critics for his works he has remorsefully uttered the heart-rending words in the preface to Mālati-Mādhava that he would eagerly await the birth of the able reader of his drama who will possess literary sensibility similar to his own. He is sanguine that such a reader will do justice to his work. Such reader may not be available at present, but there is no doubt that he will be born in future because time is endless and the earth is vast: utpatsyatehi-mam-kopi-samāna-dharmā, kālohiyam-nirvadhir-vipulā-cha-prithavi.
Bhāva-prakāsha: Bhāva Prakāsha is a famous work of Ayurveda. It is placed among three important texts, i.e., laghutrayi, of Ayurveda. Bhāva Mishra has written it. Scholars have fixed 15th century as the period of its composition following the description of phiranga disease, which is connected with Portuguese. It is divided into three khandas: Purva, Madhya and Uttara. The first khanda deals with the origin of Ayurveda. The second khanda deals with the treatment of fever and the last khanda is confined to vājikarana. The author has introduced almost all the methods of treatment in vogue during that period which shows his authority over Ayurveda.
Bhavishya Purāna: Chronologically, Bhavishya Purāna is the ninth Purāna. The texts contained in the Purāna have been undergoing constant changes at regular intervals. Scholars have added incidents of different ages within the framework of this Pauranic text. This has laid to a vital change in the original text. According to Nārada Purāna, it consists of five Parvas: Brahma Parva, Vishnu Parva, Shiva Parva, Surya Parva and Pratisarga Parva. It comprises of 14,000 shlokas. This Purāna basically deals with Brahma Dharma, moral codes and Varnāshrama dharma. Al-Biruni has also referred to this Purāna in his travel account. This Purāna also presents the dynastic history of several kings of Kaliyuga up to queen Victoria.
Bhela-samhitā: Bhela Samhitā is a text of Ayurveda composed by Bhela, a disciple of Punarvasu Aitreya. The existing form of Bhela samhitā is incomplete and is deeply influenced by Charaka samhitā. The titles of its chapters have been mostly borrowed from this book. Its description of heart does have a similarity with that given in Sushruta samhitā.
Bhoja: Bhoja was the king of Dhārā who displayed his scholarship by writing on different forms of literature including Vyākarana, Jyotisha and Ayurveda. He flourished in the 1st half of the 11th century, which is established by an inscription of his successor Jaya Singh who flourished in 1055. The number of texts ascribed to Bhoja has risen to 84, which include texts on Dharma-shāstra, Jyotisha, Yoga-shāstra, Vaidyaka-shāstra, Vyākarana and Kāvyashāstra. He wrote an excellent work on architecture entitled Samarāngana-sutradhāra consisting of 7000 shlokas. He wrote two books on Dharma-shāstra: Yukti-prakāsha and Tatva-prakāsha and one on medicine named Rāja-māratanda in 418 shlokas. He also wrote a Kāvya Shhngāra-manjah and a champu Mandāra-maranda-champu. He has written two books on poetics Shhngāra-prakāsha and Sarasvati-kantha-bharana in which there is an elaborate discussion on the nature and function of Kāvya, its kinds, rasa, poetic figures, drama, style, vritti, Sāhitya, Nāyaka-Nāyikā bheda, Shabda-shakti and dhvani. He defined kāvya in three ways: Vakrokti, Rasokti and Svabhāvokti. Of the three Rasokti