31,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
Newly updated, Gavin Reid's best-selling handbook remains an essential resource for those helping dyslexic individuals of all ages, from preschoolers to adults in the workplace. * Combines theoretical explanations, the latest research, and practical solutions with a focus on inclusion and meeting the individual's needs * New and expanded coverage includes: multilingualism; the use of technology; co-existing conditions such as dyspraxia, dyscalculia, and ADHD; and positive dyslexia * Assembles the latest policies and best practices for dyslexia from around the world, and makes current debates regarding education and literacy accessible to trainees and practitioners
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 958
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
Ähnliche
Dyslexia
A Practitioner’s HandbookFIFTH EDITION
Gavin Reid
This edition first published 2016 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Offices350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.
The right of Gavin Reid to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names:
Reid, Gavin.
Title:
Dyslexia : a practitioners handbook / Gavin Reid.
Description:
Fifth edition. | Chichester, West Sussex ; Malden, MA : John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
Identifiers:
LCCN 2015038409 | ISBN 9781118980040 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118980101 (pbk.)
Subjects:
LCSH: Dyslexic children—Education—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Dyslexic children—Ability testing—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Curriculum planning—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification:
LCC LC4708 .R45 2016 | DDC 371.91/44—dc23 LC record available at
http://lccn.loc.gov/2015038409
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Contents
About the Author
Other Books by Gavin Reid
Foreword
Preface
Chapter 1 Defining Dyslexia
Defining Dyslexia
Purpose of Definitions
How Should We Define Dyslexia?
Definitions
Barriers to Implementing Policy
Rose Review and Dyslexia
Education for Learners with Dyslexia
Different Perspectives and Agenda
Points for Reflection
Note
Chapter 2 Explaining Dyslexia
Causal Modelling Framework
Genetic Factors
Neurobiological Factors
Visual and Temporal Processing
Magnocellular Visual System
Procedural Timing
Hemispheric Symmetry
Processing Speed
Phonological Processing
Phonological Awareness and Multisensory Programmes
Morphological Processing
Glue Ear
Cognitive Skills
Metacognition
Environmental Factors
Additional Language Learning
Dyslexia in Different Orthographies
Self-disclosure in Adults
Points for Reflection
Chapter 3 Assessment
The Context
Assessment Aims
Discrepancy Criteria
Listening Comprehension
Componential Model of Reading
Curriculum Focus
Why an Assessment?
How? The Assessment Process
Effect of an Assessment
Assessment—Points to Consider
Some Other Considerations
Assessment and Inclusion
The Bilingual Learner
Points for Reflection
Chapter 4 Identifying Needs
The Context
Information Processing
Factors That Can Prompt Concern
Linking Assessment with Intervention and Support
Key Aspects of an IEP
The Overlap
Assessing Performances
Criteria: Summary
Whose Responsibility?
Early Identification
Models of Identification
Expert/Intervention—Attainment
Barriers to Learning
Whole-School Involvement
Points for Reflection
Chapter 5 Assessment
The Use of Tests—Points to Ponder
Assessment and Information Processing
Cognitive Measures
Assessment of Processing Skills
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP-2)
Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests
Gray Oral Reading Tests (GORT-5)
Standardised/Psychometric Criteria
Standardisation
Psychometric
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-II and III)
Comment
Phonological Representation and Assessment
Screening
Curriculum Assessment
Miscue Analysis
Assessment in Context
Assessment for Learning
Metacognitive Assessment
Multiple Intelligences Approaches
A Components Approach
Observational Assessment
Observational Framework
Systematic Observation
Summary
Points for Reflection
Chapter 6 Reading—Social, Cultural and Government Perspectives
The Social Context for Literacy
Literacy and Culture
Defining Literacy
Critical Literacy
Challenging Assumptions
Government Initiatives
Literacy Standards and International Comparisons
PISA Study
Literacy Initiatives
Points for Reflection
Note
Chapter 7 The Acquisition of Literacy
What is Reading?
Factors to Consider
Reading as a Process
Reading Skills
Reading Practice
Developing Reading Skills
Key Factors
The Development of Reading
Stages of Reading Development
Limitations of the Stage Model of Reading
Reading and Memory
Relationship between Phonology and Orthography
Dyslexia and Different Orthographies
Points for Reflection
Chapter 8 Reading Models and Methods
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Models
Connectionist Models
Balance Model of Reading
Method of Teaching Reading
Developing Reading Skills
Teaching Reading—the Debate
Reading Interventions
Methodological Issues in Reading Intervention Research
Factors to Consider in Developing and Using Reading Approaches
The Literacy Experience
Framework for Teaching
Summary
Points for Reflection
Chapter 9 The Acquisition of Literacy
Why is Spelling Difficult?
Systems Involved in Spelling
Spelling Skills
Spelling Development
Spelling Policy
Spelling Strategies
Spelling Materials
Points for Reflection
Chapter 10 Expressive Writing
The Importance of Writing
Relationship Between Writing and Spelling
Expressive Writing: The Process
Cognitive Skills Associated with Writing
Writing in the Curriculum
Developing Metacognitive Skills through Writing
Metacognitive Strategies for Writing
Strategies for Writing
Motivation and Writing
Planning
Pre-writing Framework
Developing Ideas
Handwriting
Summary
Points for Reflection
Chapter 11 Teaching Approaches
Overview of Approaches
The Context
Assessment and the Curriculum
The Learner
Programmes and Approaches—Some Considerations
Overlearning
Principles
Issues
Points for Reflection
Chapter 12 Supporting Literacy
Criteria for Selection
Orton–Gillingham (OG)
The Hickey Multisensory Language Course
Bangor Dyslexia Teaching System
Letterland
Reading Recovery
Toe by Toe: Multisensory Manual for Teachers and Parents
Alternative Approaches
Comment—Issues to Consider
Points for Reflection
Chapter 13 Supporting Literacy
Phonics Instructional Approaches
Language Experience
Other Support Approaches
Phonological Approaches
High-Interest Books—History
Barrington Stoke (www.barringtonstoke.com)
Start to Finish Books
Differentiated Texts
Visual Factors
Motor Aspects
Assisted Learning
Summary
Points for Reflection
Chapter 14 Supporting Learning
Effective Learning
Key Points about Learning
The Learning Process
Realising Potential
Zone of Proximal Development
Developing Learning Skills
Learning Strategies
Multiple Intelligences
Study Skills
Set Goals
Feedback
Memory—Some Strategies
The Role of Self-esteem
Creativity and the ‘Gifted’ Dyslexic Student
Summary
Points for Reflection
Chapter 15 Inclusion
The Context
Responding to the Diverse Needs of Students
The Challenges
Meeting Curriculum Objectives
Index for Inclusion
Tensions and Contradictions
Assessment, Need and Accountability
Removing Barriers to Achievement
Interventions and Inclusion
Making the School Inclusive
Equity
Principles of Inclusion
An Inclusive School
Healthy Schools
Supporting Inclusion
Staff Support and Training
Student Advocacy
Dyslexia and Self-advocacy
Staff Support
Key Factors
Points for Reflection
Note
Chapter 16 Inclusion in Secondary Education
Responsibility
Features of Secondary Schools
Differentiation and Curricular Development
Differentiation and Assessment
Subject Areas
Multiple Intelligences in Secondary Schools
Physical Education
Staff Development
Challenges: Key Areas
Points for Reflection
Chapter 17 Inclusion
Further and Higher Education
The Workplace
Concluding Comment
Points for Reflection
Chapter 18 The Role of Parents
Parental Concerns
Parental Support
Parents’ Challenges
Parents as Partners
Points for Reflection
Chapter 19 Multilingualism
Background and Context
Cultural Factors
Culture-fair Assessment
Teaching
Key Principles
Metacognitive Awareness/Schema
Concluding Points
Points for Reflection
Chapter 20 The Overlap—Dyslexia
Introduction
The Overlap Dilemma
Attention Issues
Identifying and Defining Attention Difficulties
Intervention
ADHD and Creativity
Coordination, Movement and Handwriting
Intervention Strategies—15 Tasks to Try
Handwriting
Dysgraphia Strategies
Early Intervention
Auditory Processing
Diagnosis and Overlap
Management of APD
Intervention
Difficulty with Numbers
Reading in Mathematics
Diagnosing Dyscalculia
Intervention
Points for Reflection
Note
Chapter 21 The Use of Computers and Technology
Introduction
Approaches Using New Technology
Resources—Computer Programs
British Dyslexia Association New Technologies Committee (BDA NTC)
Comment
Points for Reflection
Chapter 22 Positive Dyslexia
The Background
Five Key Factors
How Dyslexia Affects Children’s Learning
Metacognition
Encourage Creativity
Provide Feedback to Students about Their Own Personal Progress
Encourage Self-assessment
Develop Student Responsibility
Enhancing Creativity
Concluding Comment
Points for Reflection
Note
Appendix 1 Some Popular Tests for Dyslexia that Can Be Used by Teachers
Test of Phonological Awareness, Second Edition: Plus (TOPA-2+) (2004)
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition: (CTOPP-2) (2013)
Launch Into Reading Success—Test of Phonological Awareness (1997)
GORT-5: Gray Oral Reading Tests, Fifth Edition (2012)
TOWRE-2—Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition (2012)
WIST (Word Identification and Spelling Test) (2004)
DIBELS
Bangor Dyslexia Screening Test
Dyslexia Screening Test—Junior (DST-J) (2004)
Dyslexia Screening Test—Secondary (DST-S) (2004)
Dyslexia Screener (2004)
Cognitive Profiling System (CoPS) Version 5.1 (2010)
Special Needs Assessment Profile
WIAT-II UK for Teachers (2006)
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-II) (UK Norms and III US and Canada Norms Only)
Phonological Assessment Battery Revised (PhAB-2 )
HAST-2 Helen Arkell Spelling Test
Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT 4)
Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Second Edition (WRAML-2) (2003)
Test of Auditory Processing Skills—3 (TAPS-3)
Appendix 2 Further Contacts
International
North and South America and Canada
Australia and New Zealand
Europe
Middle East
Asia
Africa
Other Websites
Organisations
Articles and Reviews about Dyslexia
Literacy
References
Index
EULA
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Chapter 4
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
Chapter 15
Table 15.1
Table 15.2
Table 15.3
List of Illustrations
Foreword
Sir Jackie Stewart
Preface
Gavin Reid
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
The Jolly Phonics pupil/student checklistSource: Reproduced with permission of Jolly Learning Ltd.
Figure 8.2
The phonemes of the English language
Figure 8.3
The triangle model of reading
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
Cued Spelling: the 10 steps
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1
Paired-reading
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1
The process of learning
Figure 14.2
Gardner’s multiple intelligences: the eight intelligences
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1
Visual elements
Figure 16.2
Musical symbols
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1
Support strategies for maths and dyslexia
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Pages
xiv
xv
xvi
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
xxiii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
About the Author
Dr Gavin Reid Ph.D., M.A., M.App.Sci., M.Ed., B.Ed., AMBDA, Assoc. F. B.P.S., Reg. Psych.
www.drgavinreid.com
Dr Gavin Reid is an international consultant and psychologist with consultancies in Canada, the UK, Europe, the Middle East, Asia and Australasia. He was visiting professor at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, in the Department of Education and Counseling Psychology and Special Education in 2007 and 2010.
He is chair of the British Dyslexia Association (BDA) Accreditation Board and an ambassador for the Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre in the UK. He is also a consultant for All Special Kids (ASK) in Geneva, Switzerland, The Child Learning Enrichment Medical Centre (CLEMC) in Dubai, the Centre for Child Evaluation and Teaching (CCET) in Kuwait, the Institute of Child Education and Psychology Europe (ICEPE) and the Canadian Academy of Therapeutic Tutors (CATT).
Dr Reid is a fully registered psychologist with the College of Psychologists in BC, Canada, and with the Health and Care Professionals in the UK. He was formerly senior lecturer in the Department of Educational Studies (formerly Department of Special Education), Moray House School of Education, University of Edinburgh from 1991–2007.
He is also co-founder and director of the Red Rose School for children with specific learning difficulties in St. Annes-on-Sea, Lancashire, UK, and is a visiting educational psychologist to learning centres and schools in Switzerland, the UK, the Middle East, Asia, Egypt and Canada. Dr Reid wrote the first university Master's course in dyslexia in the UK in 1992.
Dr Reid is an educational psychologist, university lecturer, researcher and author. He has written 30 books on learning, motivation and learning disabilities, and lectured to thousands of professionals and parents in over 80 countries. His books have been published in Polish, Italian, French, Arabic, Hebrew, Chinese and Slovak.
Many of his books are used as course texts in courses throughout the UK and in many other countries. These include: Dyslexia: A Practitioner's Handbook, fourth edition (Wiley, 2009), Dyslexia: A Complete Guide for Parents, second edition (Wiley, 2008), Dyslexia and Inclusion, second edition (2014), Motivating Learners in the Classroom: Ideas and Strategies (2007) and Learning Styles and Inclusion (2005). He is the co-author with Shannon Green of 100+ Ideas for Supporting Pupils with Dyslexia, Dyslexia: A Teaching Assistant's Handbook and Effective Learning: Ideas into Action (2009).
He is the co-author of a computer-aided diagnostic assessment and profiling system (Special Needs Assessment Profile—SNAP), which has received three national award commendations and was winner of the Special Needs Category at the NASEN/TES book awards in Birmingham, UK in March 2006.
He is an experienced teacher with over 10 years' experience in the classroom and has held external examiner appointments at 18 universities worldwide for Ph.D. and Master's courses.
He has been a consultant to parent groups and charitable bodies in the UK, Europe, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. He has appeared in television and radio documentaries and news editorials on educational matters in the UK, Poland, Hong Kong, Kuwait, Dubai, France and New Zealand.
http://vod.dmi.ae/media/241780/Studio_One_Season_4_23_10_2013http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-VpkYoIPOo&feature=youtu.behttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-2yjOw7e7AAhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhzmqU_hDCIhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OAmsDdM-vkM
Gavin Reid uses his experiences as a teacher, educational psychologist, researcher, university lecturer and, most importantly, as a parent in the preparation of his books.
Other Books by Gavin Reid
Reid, G., Elbeheri, G. and Everatt, J. (2015)
Assessing Children with Specific Learning Difficulties: A Teacher's Practical Guide
. David Fulton/Routledge, London.
Reid, G. (2013)
Dyslexia and Inclusion
(2nd edition). Routledge, London.
Reid, G., Elbeheri, G., Everatt, J. and Wearmouth, J. (eds) (2009)
The Routledge Companion on Dyslexia
. Routledge, London.
Green, S. and Reid, G. (2009)
Effective Learning: Ideas into Action
. Continuum, London.
Reid, G. (2009)
Dyslexia
(3rd edition). Bloomsbury, London, also published in French and Polish.
Reid, G. (2009)
Dyslexia: A Practitioner's Handbook
(4th edition). Wiley, London.
Reid, G. and Green, S. (2009)
100+ Ideas for Supporting Students with Dyslexia
. Bloomsbury, London, also published in French and Polish.
Came, F. and Reid, G. (2008)
Common Assessment Framework
. Learning Works International, Marlborough.
Reid, G. (2008).
Dyslexia: A Complete Guide for Parents
(2nd edition). Wiley, Chichester, reprinted; also translated into French and Italian.
Reid, G. and Green, S. (2008)
Dyslexia: A Guide for Teaching Assistants
. Continuum, London.
Reid, G., Fawcett, A., Manis, F. and Siegel, L. (eds) (2008)
The Sage Dyslexia Handbook
. Sage, London.
Reid, G. (2007)
Motivating Learners in the Classroom: Ideas and Strategies
. Sage, London.
Reid, G. (2005)
Learning Styles and Inclusion
. Sage, London. Also published in Polish.
Reid, G. and Fawcett, A. (eds) (2004)
Dyslexia in Context, Theory and Practice
. Whurr, London.
Reid, G. (2004)
Dyslexia: A Complete Guide for Parents
. Wiley, Chichester, reprinted 2004, 2005 (three times), 2006 (twice); also translated into Italian.
Peer, L. and Reid, G. (2003)
Introduction to Dyslexia
. David Fulton, London.
Reid, G. (2003)
Dyslexia: A Practitioner's Handbook
(3rd edition). Wiley, Chichester, reprinted 2004, 2005 (twice), 2006, 2007.
Weedon, C. and Reid, G. (2003)
Special Needs Assessment Profile (SNAP)
. Hodder & Stoughton, London (version 2, published 2006, version 3 2009).
Peer, L. and Reid, G (eds) (2001)
Dyslexia: Successful Inclusion in the Secondary School
. David Fulton, London.
Reid, G. and Wearmouth, J. (eds) (2002)
Dyslexia and Literacy: Research and Practice
. Wiley, Chichester.
Peer, L. and Reid, G. (eds) (2000)
Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators
. David Fulton, London.
Reid, G. and Kirk, J. (2000)
Dyslexia in Adults: Education and Employment
. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, reprinted 2006.
Translated Books
Reid, G. (2014)
Dyslexie: Guide Practique Pour Les Parents
. Tom PouSSe, Paris (French).
Reid, G. (2013)
Disleksija Potpuni vodic za roditelje I one koji im pomazu
. Naklada Slap, Zagreb (Croatian).
Reid, G. (2013)
E dislessia! Domande e riposte utili Erickson
. TRENTO (Italian).
Reid, G. and Green, S. (2013)
100 I wiecej pomystow, jak pomoc dziecku z dysleksja
. Harmonia Universalis (Polish).
Reid, G. and Green, S. (2012)
100 IDEES+ Pour Venir en Aide aux Elèves Dyslexiques
. Tom PouSSe, Paris (French).
Foreword
By Sir Jackie Stewart
Gavin Reid has asked me to update the foreword for the latest edition of his Dyslexia: A Practitioner's Handbook. I wrote the foreword for Gavin's fourth edition of his Handbook in 2009 and, looking back on it, I find very little that I feel needs changing from my original foreword. However, I would like to say that Gavin Reid continues to be a real leader in the world of the dyslexia movement on a global basis.
I hope you will still find my original foreword of some interest.
Gavin has been a great contributor to the entire dyslexia movement and he is now spreading his wings beyond Scotland, the country of his birth, to be involved in the Middle and Far East and North America, and has lectured in many other countries around the world on the subject.
I, for my part, am a dyslexic, who was only identified as such at the age of 41, when both my sons were struggling at school in Switzerland. Although it would have seemed that the school had no great knowledge of anything to do with learning disabilities at the time, they at least recognised that both my sons simply couldn't keep up with the other class members in most of the subjects. They also had the sense to suggest that my sons be assessed, and recommended a specialist in London who could undertake that.
This event had an immense impact on my life because on that very day, during the assessment of my son Mark, the professor involved asked if I personally had ever experienced learning difficulties, which of course I had, having failed almost every exam that my school was able to invent. I walked out of his consulting room with great relief, realising for the first time that I was not ‘stupid, dumb or thick', but that I was a dyslexic.
I now commit an enormous amount of my life to the dyslexic movement, not just in Scotland (where I am President of Dyslexia Scotland) and in the rest of the UK (where I am a Vice-President of the British Dyslexia Association), but worldwide, trying to enhance the dyslexic movement, working with governments, ministers for education, university chancellors and deans of teacher-training colleges.
It is very apparent that even with the help that is currently being provided to support those children who are suffering with learning difficulties, unless we immediately integrate with the teacher-training colleges (who need to restructure their curriculum) to ensure that every single new teacher that qualifies into the profession has, at the very least, the skills for the early recognition of children with learning disabilities, and knows how to progress them on to more developed specialists in the field, we are not going to fully deal with, or resolve, the problem.
The educational authorities in a great many countries have a lot to answer for, because to a large extent around the world, a great many educators have simply ignored a child or young person who cannot accomplish the simple skills that others find so easy. They cannot read, write or count correctly, they get blamed for being lazy, for not paying attention, and therefore are identified not only by their teachers, but also by their peers, as being ‘dumb, stupid and thick', just as I was.
The pain, removal of self-esteem, frustration and humiliation that this brings to a young person can be devastating and can tarnish their lives forever. The problem moves from classroom to playground and they suffer intensely, to a point where they may turn to the abuse of alcohol and drugs to escape from the reality of their inadequacies.
A very large percentage of the existing established teacher body, because they have not been educated on the subject, allow those children to be left on the scrapheap of the educational system. They therefore leave school with little education, which considerably reduces their opportunity to secure a decent job or even gain employment. They are therefore robbed of the chance to reach their true potential, which, in my opinion, is totally unacceptable and indeed a sin.
A great many dyslexics are truly creative people and those who are able to succeed in life turn out to be hugely successful in many cases. For any government or educational authority to ignore those suffering from dyslexia, which amounts to at least 10% to 15% of the population of any country, is an unacceptable position.
The loss to a nation of many of them, who end up unemployed or turn to crime and end up in prison, is well documented. Well in excess of 65% of the prison population in most countries is dyslexic, which is simply unacceptable in the world in which we live. It would seem that most governments are still unaware of those statistics and that is why the work that Gavin Reid is doing around the world is so important. Gavin has a wealth of experience, with considerable knowledge, and has a proven track record in this field of dyslexia.
This book will benefit a multitude of people who are capable of assisting the young, and the mature, to overcome the hurdle that dyslexia provides. Those who can be led and informed into providing support for dyslexics will themselves be stimulated and fulfilled, through providing a lifeline to those who in many instances have been left as debris in school classrooms around the world. This is not a territorial problem, it is a universal problem.
Few people can communicate as successfully as Gavin Reid on this subject; he reaches out, not just to those who suffer the pains, frustrations and inadequacies that dyslexia provides, but just as importantly, he opens the eyes of the parents to allow them to give better understanding, consideration and support to the children that they have borne. With more knowledge those same parents are able to make greater demands on the schools, the teachers and authorities, who should be responsible for each and every one of the students who pass through their hands.
With many congratulations to Gavin Reid not only for the creation of this book, but also for spreading the news.
Sir Jackie Stewart
Preface
I have been involved in the field of dyslexia for close to 30 years now and for me it has been a ‘mission' with a ‘vision'! As one of the 11+ ‘casualties' at a time when there was little opportunity for those who did not fit the mould or make the grade, I have a great deal of empathy for those who have been formally diagnosed as dyslexic. I appreciate the sense of feeling different, having to expend more effort for sometimes basic tasks and of course being in awe of those who meet with success rather easily. As in the case of many with dyslexia this adversity generated a steely determination to achieve and to help those who may have experienced, and still may experience, some degree of disadvantage in educational settings.
One of the benefits of this seemingly uphill struggle is that dyslexics are almost forced to do it their way! They develop a working formula for dealing with their challenges. It is based on the individual and uses individualised strategies. It is important that schools and educators appreciate this and allow and encourage all those with dyslexia to think and work outside the box. That is not to say they can do it totally alone. In most cases they can't! They need the support and understanding of their families, teachers, schools, colleges and universities, and the community at large, including the workplace. Sir Jackie Stewart comments on this need for support and understanding in the foreword to this book. This is so important.
This support can take many forms but if it is accompanied by understanding and empathy then the battle is all but won. Support, empathy, appropriate teaching methods, acknowledging the learning differences and the right type of resources used at the right time will make a difference—of this you can be assured!
My role now is quite different from when I first started out. As a teacher I gained important first-hand experience of how literacy difficulties can impact on the educational and occupational choices of young people. I also learned that those who experience difficulties also share some significant strengths, and the key is to identify those strengths to help equip them to use these to overcome their challenges. You will note that the final chapter of this book is called ‘Positive Dyslexia', and profiling this aspect has been one of my enduring missions since 1993 when I wrote the chapter ‘The Other Side of Dyslexia' as part of the Moray House course texts on dyslexia. It is encouraging that the educational community is also coming round to that view. But I know Sir Jackie endorses the view that there is still much work to be done. I, as a parent, author, seminar presenter and ‘learner', sincerely hope this this book will go some way towards helping with that aim.
This fifth edition of Dyslexia: A Practitioner's Handbook focuses on the child, the young person and the adult with dyslexia, but it also focuses on the school system, the school management, the curriculum, government policy, differentiation, learning styles, teaching approaches and learning strategies. The most effective method of dealing with dyslexia is dependent on good practice in learning and best practice in teaching. That is the focus of this book.
It is heartening to witness the general acceptance of dyslexia among teachers, administrators and governments. As the twenty-first century has progressed we have seen a number of countries actively seeking out expertise in dyslexia, through legislation and working parties, and thus paving the way for changes in school systems to accommodate the needs of students such as those with dyslexia. But as Sir Jackie Stewart indicates in the foreword to this book, there is still much to be done. This was the case in 2009 and it is still the case today in 2015!
One of these areas is in teacher education. There are still a number of unresolved issues, particularly in pre-service training, but there has been significant progress in professional development for teachers with the development of specialised training courses in dyslexia. This is extremely encouraging as it is readily acknowledged by those working in this field that every teacher in every classroom should have at least an awareness of dyslexia, and every school should have at least one teacher who has been on a higher-level training course in dyslexia.
There are now dyslexia courses being run at universities and colleges in many countries and these courses, with a mix of theory and practice, can provide teachers with the understanding of what dyslexia is and the practical knowledge to tackle it in the classroom situation. More than that, however, courses should help teachers to understand children with dyslexia, their needs, their challenges and their abilities.
When I wrote the first edition of this book in 1994, there were few courses available and even fewer at university level. It is encouraging to witness how the field has developed since then, but what has provided most satisfaction has been the efforts by schools and education authorities to request and endorse professional development and support the training of teachers in dyslexia. This has been at a number of levels—short courses, courses for teaching assistants and lengthier postgraduate university courses. It is these levels of training that will ensure that children with dyslexia are understood and their needs met.
It is important also to consider parents—they have much to offer; their experiences, their insights and their support can be invaluable to schools. It is perhaps this collaboration that is the key to eventual success. Research findings can inform, but the real impact can come with effective communication between home and school. The sharing of concerns and the exchange of ideas can prove invaluable.
I sincerely hope this book can facilitate this in some way and that the information and the reflection provided will help to reduce anxieties, raise hopes and foster collaboration, and that the success they deserve will come about for all those children, young people and adults who have encountered the challenges that being dyslexic can bring.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge those who have shared their experiences of dyslexia with me and helped in this way to contribute to the book, as well as the large number of teachers, psychologists, administrators and parents I have spoken with over the years. I would also like to thank Sir Jackie Stewart for writing the foreword to this book and for the dedication, conviction and ongoing support he has shown to the field of dyslexia in every way. This has helped a great many parents and teachers to be more equipped and better able to meet the challenges of dyslexia at school and at home.
Gavin Reid
Edinburgh, Scotland, August 2015 © Peter Dibdin. Reproduced with permission of the photographer.
Chapter 1Defining Dyslexia
This chapter will:
discuss the purpose of a definition for dyslexia;
provide pointers to indicate the current breadth of research in the area of dyslexia, which will be followed up in Chapter 2;
examine the factors that influence the development of a working definition of dyslexia;
look at the implications of DSM-5 for the use of the term ‘dyslexia’;
highlight the impact of different perspectives and agendas in developing an operational definition for dyslexia;
provide a focus on the area of positive dyslexia, looking at what they
can
do, not what they can’t do.
As indicated in the last point above, it is important to focus on the positive aspects of dyslexia. One of the earliest pioneers in this area was Tom West, whose landmark book In the Mind’s Eye (1997) provided a launch pad for a new wave of research into the positive aspects of dyslexia. Perhaps one of the more refreshing statements regarding the potential attributes of people with dyslexia is made by West himself when he says: ‘it is becoming increasingly clear [that much of the success attributed to people with dyslexia1] is because of the dyslexia not in spite of it’ (West, 2014, p.78). West goes on to say that for years now we ‘have too often focused on fixing the problems—and have totally ignored the development of talents’ (p.87).
Dyslexia is often seen as a hidden disability and the estimates from a range of sources suggest that 10–15% of the population have dyslexia and around 4–5% severely.
It is important to be clear when defining dyslexia; and a working definition must take the positive and creative aspects into account. Too often definitions can be general, vague and essentially serve little purpose. They can also be misinterpreted and misused. Definitions need to be contextualised so they are relevant to the teaching and learning context. This chapter will provide clarification on the use of definitions and highlight the need to consider a working definition for dyslexia.
Defining Dyslexia
The questions one needs to ask are—do we really need to define dyslexia and can we really encapsulate the features and the feelings that accompany dyslexia in a single statement? These points can be considered when one asks people with dyslexia questions such as ‘what is dyslexia?’ and ‘what does it mean to you?’ As part of the research for this book I asked some children and adults those questions! There was a considerable range of responses. Some of the responses are shown below.
‘A problem transferring my knowledge into written work.’
‘For me it is frustration at not being able to complete tasks on time.’
‘Being different from everyone else.’
‘Wanting to read books but not getting past the first page.’
‘Having a bad memory and being so disorganised.’
‘Feeling different from everyone else.’
‘Inconsistency in my work—some days I get it right and other days I get the same thing wrong.’
‘I find it difficult to listen to the teacher for more than a few minutes.’
The following comment came from a teacher who is dyslexic.
I do not define dyslexia as a bad aspect of my life, I would not be the person I am today if I did not have dyslexia as a part of my genetic and biological makeup. My characteristics of dyslexia have moulded my personality and the experiences and choices I have made in my life, for the good and for the bad. The negative aspects of dyslexia for me is the frustration, confusion and embarrassment I feel when I am involved with tasks which will highlight my difficulties—those which involve memory recall, sequencing, numbers and spelling. I will forget how to do things or misinterpret the instructions, particularly if they were given recently and quickly. The difficulties in being able to remember numbers is real and can cause problems, for example I do not know my parents’, partner’s or children’s telephone numbers. I also find it very difficult to find my way around the alphabet and this affects me on a daily basis. However, it is important to try and keep dyslexia in perspective and see the positive effect it can have on my life. I feel I can empathise with my pupils and their parents/carers. It helps me to keep working to create accessible teaching resources and approaches; perhaps it feeds my creativity and the speed of ideas, planning and focus which I have. These benefits outweigh the negative aspects because they have enabled me to create effective strategies which help me to carry out the vast majority of tasks and responsibilities I have. Despite the embarrassment dyslexia can and does cause me, I function quite well in this society. But I appreciate that I am fortunate and have opportunities and support which others may not.
Reading through these statements one is struck by the emotional feelings attached to them—and that is the problem with a definition of dyslexia: it provides a definitive and descriptive response to what for many can be an area of emotional stress and personal conflict. Yet for education and research purposes a definition is necessary: it is necessary to assist in developing identification and diagnostic criteria and to inform intervention. Definitions can help to provide a label. For many parents a label is necessary as it can help to kickstart the support process. For adults with dyslexia it can help them develop self-knowledge and eventually coping strategies. For teachers it can provide explanations as to why the child may not be responding to the intervention provided. A definition therefore can be an important catalyst in this process. This is why it is important to emphasise the positive aspects of dyslexia. A good source of information is the Dyslexia Advantage website (http://community.dyslexicadvantage.org).
This website highlights why it is important to understand the advantages of dyslexia and helps children and adults gain personal insights into their own learning traits, thereby providing the means for them to become independent, more insightful and more successful learners.
The problem, however, lies in the lack of a universally accepted definition of dyslexia. The recent revision of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM-5) (American Psychological Association, 2013) is unlikely to help the cause much as ‘specific learning disorder’ is now the generic term to be used for reading, writing and mathematical difficulties. There are certainly sub-categories, but the authors of the DSM see the generic term as a positive aspect and believe that it is less restrictive and less limiting than previously. DSM-5 indicates that the diagnosis requires persistent difficulties in reading, writing, arithmetic or mathematical reasoning skills during the formal years of schooling. Symptoms may include inaccurate or slow and effortful reading, poor written expression that lacks clarity, difficulties remembering number facts or inaccurate mathematical reasoning.
A very crucial comment is made in the factsheet that accompanies DSM-5 when it indicates that the DSM-5 Neurodevelopmental Work Group concluded that the many definitions of dyslexia and dyscalculia meant those terms would not be useful as disorder names or in the diagnostic criteria.
It is true there are many different definitions of dyslexia, but there are many dimensions to dyslexia—dyslexia is not represented by a single entity (or caused by a single gene). Dyslexia is multifaceted and that can explain why a single, universally accepted definition has not yet been achieved. It can be argued, however, there is some agreement on the constellation of factors that can contribute to dyslexia, but controversy surrounds the respective weighting of these factors. For example, the range of factors that can be associated with dyslexia includes the following:
Structural and functional brain-related factors (Galaburda and Rosen, 2001; Hynd et al., 1995).
Genetic factors affecting the developmental migration of magnocells in utero and influencing their subsequent function (Stein, 2008).
Genetic correlations (Gilger, 2008).
Procedural timing of sequences in task accomplishment (Fawcett and Nicolson, 2008).
Processing speed (Wolf and Bowers, 2000).
Inter-hemisphere transfer (Breznitz, 2008).
Difficulty in automatising skills (Fawcett and Nicolson, 1992).
Working memory difficulties (Jeffries and Everatt, 2004).
Phonological deficit (Snowling, 2000).
Language features—orthographic transparency (Wimmer, 1993; Share, 2008; Everatt and Elbeheri, 2008).
Comorbidity between learning disabilities (Bishop and Snowling, 2004; Visser, 2003).
Literacy achievement levels and the role of IQ in diagnosis (Siegel and Lipka, 2008; Joshi and Aaron, 2008; Wagner, 2008).
Positive skills (West, 2014; Nicolson et al., 2012; Nicolson, 2014).
These points above illustrate the diversity found among the dyslexic population and are some of the factors that can influence our understanding of dyslexia. Each can have an impact on how dyslexia is perceived and how assessment and intervention are portrayed.
Purpose of Definitions
Definitions of dyslexia, particularly those used by education authorities, school districts, voluntary organisations and associations are abundant, and some will be shown here. Often they serve a particular purpose and it is possible to categorise the type of function they serve.
Allocation
—Used to allocate resources and develop provision, these definitions can focus on discrepancies and provide discrepancy criteria in order that those who need additional support and special provision can be readily identified. The controversial issue may arise with children who have very high ability and whose reading or writing is in the average range. Clearly they are underperforming and need additional support, but because they are not failing in reading they may be overlooked. It is crucial, therefore, that a full assessment is administered and takes in the whole picture, looking at the child’s complete profile.
Explanation
—Explain to teachers and professionals the key points for intervention and highlight the child’s strengths and weaknesses. These definitions may have a list of statements and characteristics and can merge into operational or working definitions, which provide explanations of the difficulty and how it can impact on practice. Ideally this should be contextualised for the school, or the area, and utilise the available resources provided by the education authority.
Understanding—
Help parents and teachers (and indeed the person with dyslexia) understand what it is and how it may impact on their learning. It is difficult for a definition to actually do this. Often parents want to know the cause of a difficulty as this helps them more fully understand the extent of the problem and how it might be tackled. Since it is difficult to encapsulate this in a definition it is advisable to spend time with parents or the person who has been identified explaining exactly how dyslexia can impact on their child’s learning. This is very important as one of the crucial aspects of dealing with dyslexia is the necessity for harmonious and effective links between home and school.
Research
—A research definition can help to provide a discrete and well-defined sample for researchers. This might include a set of criteria that is measurable, such as IQ scores and achievement scores.
Statement definitions—
These are becoming quite common where organisations have their own definition almost as a statement or a mark of status. Increasingly, organisations are seeking to have their own definition of dyslexia. This might be called a statement definition, which is developed and contextualised by the organisation, whether it is a voluntary body, parent group or an education authority.
How Should We Define Dyslexia?
A number of definitions will be shown below—they each have some commonalities but there can also be a difference in the emphasis placed on different characteristics. For example, some will mention neurological factors, others focus on educational characteristics and some will make reference to identification criteria.
The definition that has been developed by the author of this book is shown below.
Dyslexia is a processing difference, often characterised by difficulties in literacy acquisition affecting reading, writing and spelling. It can also have an impact on cognitive processes such as memory, speed of processing, time management, coordination and automaticity. There may be visual and/or phonological challenges and there are usually some discrepancies in educational performances.
It is important to recognise the strengths, which can also form part of a dyslexic profile, and people with dyslexia may need support to be able to utilise these strengths.
There will invariably be individual differences and individual variation and it is therefore important to consider individual learning preferences as well as the education and work context when planning and implementing intervention and accommodations.
The main points in this definition are:
Processing difference
—This can highlight the differences among individuals and the need to use multi-sensory intervention strategies and to monitor their progress when they are engaged in tasks—particularly lengthier tasks.
Difficulties in literacy acquisition
—This is one of the key areas as it is usually these difficulties that first alert the teacher or the parent. It is important to note that this can take the form of difficulties with decoding (reading), encoding (spelling) and the production of written output (expressive writing).
Cognitive processes
—Cognition means learning and processing any type of information and it is this that can be challenging for students with dyslexia. Cognition refers to how information is processed and how this affects retention, processing speed, the ability to transfer information, to utilise prior learning and to eventually be able to develop automaticity in that skill, whether it be reading or writing. Effective teaching and a perceptive teacher can have an important impact in recognising and helping to deal with cognitive issues. That is why it is important to identify the nature of the learning issues the child experiences. In the UK, the British Psychological Association (BPS) definition (see below) has been widely used as a baseline for intervention. It focuses specifically on a failure to read and spell single words despite appropriate teaching (British Psychological Society, 1999a). It is now widely accepted that this definition is too narrow and does not take into account the cognitive and processing challenges that can be experienced by children with dyslexia. The Rose Report on dyslexia teaching (Rose, 2009) recognised this and widened its scope by proposing a working definition that takes into account a number of other characteristics, such as verbal memory and processing speed.
Discrepancies in educational performances
—This is often one of the most obvious indicators of dyslexia. There can be a difference between reasoning abilities (oral verbal comprehension or visual/perceptual reasoning) and processing performances, i.e. working memory and processing speed. This means that children and adults with dyslexia can solve problems and can reason and understand information, but may have difficulty in processing the information and accessing the information to help them solve current and future problems. For example, they may need more time to reread and even discuss the new information before effectively processing it.
Individual differences
—It is important to recognise that students with dyslexia are individuals and their individual learning preferences and differences need to be acknowledged. Not all children and adults with dyslexia will have the same profile although they may meet the criteria for dyslexia.
Strengths
—As indicated earlier in this chapter, recognising the strengths of a dyslexic is essential, not only in terms of boosting the child’s self-esteem but also to identify the most appropriate strategies that can be used by the teacher and the parents. Children will be more motivated if new material is initially presented to them through their stronger areas. Usually this will be the visual or kinaesthetic modalities. This means they need to see and experience the new learning.
Education and work context
—Some educational and work contexts can highlight the person’s dyslexic traits while others can minimise these traits. For example, if a dyslexic person is attempting to locate information in a library they may have difficulty in accessing an index, finding the appropriate book and locating the information in that book. Without guidance this kind of task can be challenging for students with dyslexia. Other tasks such as those that involve some degree of creativity or visual processing may be easier. Getting the task and the environment right for learning is highly important for the person with dyslexia. It is important, therefore, to ask yourself questions about the task before presenting it to the child. In other words, there is a possibility the child may need more information to be able to respond to the task.
Definitions
What do definitions actually do?
Provide some guidance to teachers and researchers.
Provide information on the nature of the child’s challenges.
Provide pointers for intervention.
Develop an awareness of dyslexia.
Box 1.1 What do definitions do?
But what might definitions do?
Cause confusion because of the variation.
Generalise a difficulty that in fact can be very individual.
Mislead the public and practitioners.
Provide little guidance for assessment or intervention.
Box 1.2 What might definitions do?
Reid-Lyon (1995) suggests that the lack of an appropriate definition has had an impact on research in dyslexia and this has resulted in a reliance on exclusionary criteria and a lack of clear selection criteria for the sample being studied. He suggests that a definition must be governed by a theoretical view supported by substantial research and clinical evidence. This should be based on ‘constructs’ that can be measured directly and consistently, and should provide clear indications of how to identify whether a person is dyslexic. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) definition was developed from this premise.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) definition is as follows:
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede the growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.
(Adopted by the Board of Directors, 12 November 2002)
(http://www.interdys.org/FactSheets.htm)
Box 1.3 IDA definition
Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty which mainly affects the development of literacy and language related skills. It is likely to be present at birth and to be lifelong in its effects. It is characterised by difficulties with phonological processing, rapid naming, working memory, processing speed, and the automatic development of skills that may not match up to an individual’s other cognitive abilities. It tends to be resistant to conventional teaching methods, but its effects can be mitigated by appropriately specific intervention, including the application of information technology and supportive counselling.(http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/whatisdyslexia.html 2008)
Box 1.4 BDA definition
The main thrust of the BDA’s work, however, can be seen in the Dyslexia Friendly campaigns and in monitoring and accrediting teacher training programmes. They recognise that they are in the position to set the standards for and accredit dyslexia knowledge and professional expertise and this is usually done through the BDA Accreditation Board (AB). The board sets the criteria for and evaluates proposals for courses wishing to be accredited by the BDA. The highest accreditation provided by the BDA is AMBDA. This acknowledges the holder’s expertise in both theory and practice (teaching/tutoring). The UK Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) approves AMBDA: this means that it is a recognised Level 7 (postgraduate) qualification giving the holder the right to assess, diagnose and make recommendations for provisions for external examinations (Exam Access Arrangements). Holders of AMBDA may be admitted onto the BDA’s list of specialist teachers/tutors and assessors, and are also eligible for an Assessment Practising Certificate and/or Teaching Practising Certificate. It should be noted that from September 2015, Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) was no longer a requirement for AMBDA.
Dyslexia is manifested in a continuum of specific learning difficulties related to the acquisition of basic skills in reading, spelling, and/or writing, such difficulties being unexpected in relation to an individual’s other abilities and educational experiences. Dyslexia can be described at the neurological, cognitive and behavioural levels. It is typically characterised by inefficient information processing, including difficulties in phonological processing, working memory, rapid naming, and automaticity of basic skills. Difficulties in organisation, sequencing and motor skills may also be present.
(Task Force on Dyslexia in Republic of Ireland, 2001, p.28)
Box 1.6 Task Force on Dyslexia in Republic of Ireland definition
In Scotland the Scottish government has accepted the following definition:
Dyslexia can be described as a continuum of difficulties in learning to read, write and/or spell, which persist despite the provision of appropriate learning opportunities. These difficulties often do not reflect an individual’s cognitive abilities and may not be typical of performance in other areas. (The Dyslexia Trail, 2014; http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/MakingSenseDyslexiaLearningTrail_tcm4-837345.pdf)
Box 1.7 Scottish government definition
Four points seem to emerge from the definitions above; these are:
a recognition that dyslexia is developmental;
an understanding that the central characteristics relate to literacy;
an appreciation that different and special teaching and learning approaches are necessary;
an acknowledgement that there can be additional secondary factors associated with dyslexia.
Definitions can differ in how they phrase these points and much of that depends on the purpose of the definition. One of the important points, however, is the need to understand that it is crucial for education authorities to develop an operational definition that can be accessed and understood by teachers and parents.
An operational definition should:
provide a statement on dyslexia;
indicate precisely the identification criteria;
indicate how these criteria will be used, and by whom;
describe the kinds of challenges the students will experience at different stages of schooling and in different areas of the curriculum;
indicate the types of support that will be necessary;
provide pointers to resources, books, programmes, approaches and technology that may be appropriate;
clearly define the roles of teachers, teaching assistants, management and support/resource teachers in carrying out interventions;
indicate the role that parents can/will play in the process of identification and support;
discuss the implications for preparing the student for formal examinations and the type of additional supports and accommodations that can be made available to the student;
discuss the implications of curricular choice and curricular access and show how the school can accommodate the student’s learning needs;
indicate the different levels of training the staff will require and show how these can be achieved;
indicate the long-term post-school study and career opportunities and show how the school will ensure that appropriate support and information are provided to the student and his or her parents.
It is feasible that these points can be developed and integrated into a policy for dyslexia. Many of these points can be seen in the Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland Task Group and Task Force documents (see www.deni.gov.uk).
Crombie (2002a) developed a definition that focuses not on deficits but on accommodations:
Dyslexia is a difficulty with literacy which results in a person requiring a set of accommodations to be made to enable them to demonstrate their abilities. Accommodations can be defined as a set of enabling arrangements that are put in place to ensure that the dyslexic person can demonstrate their strengths and abilities and show attainment. (Crombie, 2002a, as cited in Clark, 2003, p.9)
This type of definition can lead to identifying the barriers to learning in both policy and practice that can have some impact on the need to develop accommodations. The strength of this approach is that it is positive, focuses on teaching and learning and can be set within the classroom context.
Barriers to Implementing Policy
Some of the barriers that could prevent policies from being fully implemented are shown below:
concern over numbers of children requiring support;
