Effective Online Teaching E-Book

Tina Stavredes

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 393

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Effective Online Teaching is an essential resource that offers a clear understanding of how cognition and learning theory applies to online learning. This much-needed resource provides specific strategies for incorporating this knowledge into effective learner-centered teaching that gets results. The book includes strategies on motivation, tailored instruction, interaction, collaboration, monitoring and communication, time and information management, student concerns, and legal and ethical issues. Designed as a text for online instructors, the chapters can be used for self-directed learning or in a formal training setting in concert with the companion Training Manual and CD. "Tina Stavredes has done something sorely needed in the online teaching world --she has successfully combined solid theory and research with the practical application of instructor training. Both the book and the training manual are a 'must' for any online education organization. Bravo!"--Dr. Darcy W. Hardy, assistant vice provost for Technology Education Initiatives, University of Texas at San Antonio, and chair emerita, United States Distance Learning Association "Drawing from years of experience and solidly grounded in an understanding of the adult learner and learning, Stavredes offers dozens of helpful instructor strategies, activities, and resources to support adult learners' success in an online environment. Effective Online Teaching and its accompanying training manual is a 'must-have' set for online instructors in higher education, corporate, and government settings."--Sharan B. Merriam, professor emeritus of adult education, University of Georgia, and coauthor, Learning in Adulthood "An eminently practical book that provides clear and unpretentious explanations of the learning theories that are essential knowledge for every online teacher, together with equally uncluttered and easy-to-follow guidance about how to apply this knowledge to achieve excellent teaching."--Michael Grahame Moore, Distinguished Professor of Education, The Pennsylvania State University, and editor, The American Journal of Distance Education

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Series Page

Exhibits and Figures

Dedication

Preface

Audience

Organization of the Book

Acknowledgments

About the Author

Part 1: Profile of the Online Learner

Chapter 1: Characteristics of the Online Learner

Cultural Differences

Impact of Culture in an Online Learning Environment

Chapter 2: Key Learning Attributes of Adults

Self-Directedness

Social Styles of Online Learners

Chapter 3: Challenges That Affect Learners' Persistence

Persistence Models

Addressing Persistence of Nontraditional, Distance Education Learners

Part 2: Foundations of Cognition and Learning

Chapter 4: Learning Theory

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

Summary of Learning Theories

Chapter 5: Understanding Cognition and Learning

Information Processing

Metacognition

Factors Influencing Learning

Chapter 6: Motivation Theory

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Self-Efficacy and an Internal Locus of Control

Communicating Enthusiasm for the Subject

Communication to Motivate Learners

The Impact of Isolation On Motivation

Part 3: Cognitive Strategies to Support Learners' Thinking

Chapter 7: Procedural Scaffolding

Orientation Scaffolds

Expectation Scaffolds

Resource Scaffolds

Chapter 8: Metacognitive Scaffolding

Planning Strategies

Monitoring Strategies

Evaluating Strategies

Chapter 9: Conceptual Scaffolding

Chapter 10: Strategic Scaffolding

Part 4: Developing Cognitive, Social, and Teaching Presence Online

Chapter 11: Developing Cognitive Presence Through Active Learning Strategies

Critical Thinking

Reflection

Problem-Based Learning

Debate

Chapter 12: Establishing Social Presence Through Learner-to-Learner Collaborative Strategies

Discussion

Team or Group Projects

Peer Reviews

Chapter 13: Establishing Instructor Presence Through Instructor-to-Learner Interaction Strategies

Instructor as a Facilitator

Interactions to Encourage Participation

Interactions to Encourage Knowledge Construction and Critical Thinking

Interactions to Monitor Progress

Interactions to Communicate Feedback on Performance

Interactions to Encourage Self-Directedness

Communication Checklist

Chapter 14: Communication Tools to Support Cognitive, Social, and Teaching Presence

Developing Presence

Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication

Communication Tools and Applications

Emerging Technologies

Communication Tools Plan

Part 5: Strategies for Managing Your Online Course

Chapter 15: Strategies for Managing Your Online Teaching Activities

Setting Expectations for the Course

Developing a Routine to Streamline Teaching Activities

Templates for Managing Instructor Interactions and Communications

Course Platform Capabilities

Chapter 16: Strategies for Managing Behavioral Issues

Learner Personalities

Flaming

Netiquette

Plagiarizing Other Learners' Ideas

Tone of Faculty When Managing Learner Issues

Managing Learner Motivation Issues

Chapter 17: Strategies for Managing Ethical and Legal Issues

Plagiarism

Copyright and Intellectual Property

Chapter 18: Developing an Online Teaching Philosophy

References

Index

Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Stavredes, Tina.

Effective online teaching : foundations and strategies for student success / Tina Stavredes.

p. cm.—(The Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-57838-4 (pbk.)

ISBN 978-1-118-03878-9 (ebk.)

ISBN 978-1-118-03879-6 (ebk.)

ISBN 978-1-118-03880-2 (ebk.)

1. Web-based instruction. 2. Web-based instruction—Social aspects. 3. Distance education—Social aspects. 4. Learning, Psychology of. I. Title.

LB1044.87.S846 2011

371.33′44678—dc22

2011011126

The Jossey-Bass Higher and

Adult Education Series

Exhibits and Figures

Chapter 1

Exhibit 1.1 Diversity Characteristics of Online Learners

Exhibit 1.2 Impact of Cultural Differences on Learning

Chapter 2

Exhibit 2.1 Grow's Staged Self-Directed Learning (SSDL) Model

Exhibit 2.2 Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning Style Scales

Chapter 3

Exhibit 3.1 Comparison of Persistence Models That Address Traditional Students

Exhibit 3.2 Comparison of Persistence Models That Address Nontraditional, Distance Learning Students

Chapter 4

Exhibit 4.1 Comparison of Learning Theories

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Information Processing Model

Figure 5.2 Intrinsic and Extraneous Cognitive Load

Exhibit 5.1 Characteristics of Field Dependent and Field Independent Learners

Exhibit 5.2 Strategies to Support Field Dependent Learners

Exhibit 5.3 Learning Activities Based on Kolb's Learning Preferences

Chapter 6

Exhibit 6.1 Strategies to Increase Self-Efficacy

Exhibit 6.2 Example Welcome E-mail

Chapter 7

Exhibit 7.1 Course Orientation Template

Exhibit 7.2 Faculty Expectation Template

Chapter 8

Exhibit 8.1 Course Road Map

Exhibit 8.2 Unit Checklist Template

Exhibit 8.3 Time Log

Exhibit 8.4 Note-Taking Template

Chapter 9

Exhibit 9.1 Study Guide Excerpt

Exhibit 9.2 Types of Graphical Organizers

Chapter 10

Exhibit 10.1 Cognitive Scaffolding Planning Tool

Chapter 11

Exhibit 11.1 Research Analysis Worksheet

Exhibit 11.2 Writing Template

Exhibit 11.3 Setting Problem-Based Learning Context

Exhibit 11.4 Problem Analysis Worksheet

Exhibit 11.5 Credibility and Reliability Criteria for Evaluating Resources

Exhibit 11.6 Research Analysis Worksheet

Exhibit 11.7 Solution Analysis Worksheet

Exhibit 11.8 Debate Preparation Worksheet

Exhibit 11.9 Discussion Posting Standards

Exhibit 11.10 Counter-Argument Posting Standard

Exhibit 11.11 Summary Statement Posting Standard

Chapter 12

Exhibit 12.1 Stems for Discussion Questions

Exhibit 12.2 Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking

Exhibit 12.3 Dispositions of Discussion

Exhibit 12.4 How to Incorporate Critical Thinking in Your Discussion Interactions

Exhibit 12.5 Critical Thinking Grading Rubric for Discussions

Exhibit 12.6 Conflict Resolution Process Guide

Exhibit 12.7 Process for Resolving Issues with Inactive Team Members

Exhibit 12.8 Peer Review Questions

Chapter 13

Exhibit 13.1 Instructor Interactions to Encourage Knowledge Construction and Critical Thinking

Exhibit 13.2 Communications to Encourage Self-Directedness

Exhibit 13.3 Communication Checklist

Chapter 14

Exhibit 14.1 Communication Tools and Applications

Exhibit 14.2 Communication Plan

Chapter 15

Exhibit 15.1 Time Management Worksheet

Exhibit 15.2 Course Roster and Tracking Spreadsheet

Exhibit 15.3 Late Work Communication Example

Exhibit 15.4 At-Risk Proactive Communication Template

Exhibit 15.5 Components of Unit Overview

Exhibit 15.6 Grading Rubric Feedback Template

Exhibit 15.7 Microsoft Word Form for Discussion Feedback

Figure 15.1 Microsoft Form—“Choose an Item”

Exhibit 15.8 Microsoft Form—Completed

Chapter 16

Exhibit 16.1 Expectations and Guidelines for Interacting in the Online Environment

Chapter 17

Exhibit 17.1 Levels of Plagiarism

Exhibit 17.2 Example of Discussion on Academic Honesty

Exhibit 17.3 Plagiarism Communication Template

Exhibit 17.4 Summary of Copyright Law for the Online Environment

Exhibit 17.5 Permission to Use Student Work Template

This book is dedicated to my husband, Jim Stavredes, who provides unwavering love, endless encouragement, and support in everything I do.

Preface

Many colleges and universities are joining the ranks of institutions that offer online learning opportunities. The question that many of these institutions are facing is how to prepare faculty to teach in the online environment and address the motivations, needs, learning styles, and constraints of online learners while achieving the same learning outcomes as traditional, on-ground campuses. A major role for instructors is helping learners overcome constraints and persist in achieving their learning goals.

According to the Sloan Consortium report Learning on Demand: Online Education in the United States (Allen & Seaman, 2009):

Academic leaders at all types of institutions report increased demand for face-to-face and online courses, with those at public institutions seeing the largest impact. In all cases the demand for online offerings are greater than that for the corresponding face-to-face offerings.

Over one-half (54 percent) of institutions report that the economic downturn has increased demand for existing face-to-face courses.The economic impact has been greatest on demand for online courses, with 66 percent of institutions reporting increased demand for new courses and programs and 73 percent seeing increased demand for existing online courses and programs.The economic impact on institutional budgets has been mixed; 50 percent have seen their budgets decrease as a result, but 25 percent have experienced an increase (p. 1).

Because the growth of online education has been rapid, the quality of trained online instructors is inconsistent. Comprehensive training of online instructors is important so instructors understand the variables that have an impact on teaching in the online environment. According to THE Journal (2004), “Experts agree that faculty need training to teach online, yet a survey of faculty who teach undergraduate mathematics courses online indicates that most faculty at two-year colleges are still not receiving adequate training. While 89% of the participants in this research received at least some training, about half said that the training they received did not adequately prepare them to teach online. In addition, 60% said that they would have benefited from more training in facilitating online interaction before they began teaching online” (Para. 1).

With the combination of the book Effective Online Teaching: Foundations and Strategies for Student Success and training manual, I hope to support the delivery of training to online instructors and staff so they gain an understanding of the needs of the online learner and how these needs affect learners' ability to persist and learn online.

Audience

The audience for this book is primarily online instructors; however, the concepts and ideas in this book are also applicable to instructors teaching face-to-face or hybrid courses. Many of the principles and techniques presented in the book will also be of interest to professionals involved in the design and delivery of online courses. Individuals involved with faculty development will be able to use this book in combination with the training manual to develop training for instructors and staff.

This book will also be of interest to administrators of distance learning programs to understand important variables that impact online learners as well as effective strategies to support online learners and help them persist in their programs of study. Individuals who manage instructors will gain important insight to support continuous quality improvement of their online instructors.

Finally, this book is applicable to individuals involved in corporate and government training and development. The principles presented in this book will apply to all types of learning and can be used to develop effective online training as well as develop instructors who deliver training online.

This book contributes to the body of knowledge of online teaching by focusing on an understanding of who online learners are, how they learn, and what they have to overcome to achieve their educational goals online. The instructional strategies that I recommend in the book are grounded in theories of learning and cognition and focus on specific strategies to help learners overcome challenges in learning. These challenges can stem from environmental and affective factors, difficulty establishing online presence, and other situations specific to thinking and learning in a computer-mediated learning environment.

Organization of the Book

The book is organized around five parts. Part 1 develops a profile of online learners, including who they are, how they prefer to learn, and why they choose the online environment in which to learn. Chapter 1 describes the diverse characteristics of online learners and includes a discussion of the impact culture can have on learning. Chapter 2 considers how adult learners prefer to learn and looks at social styles and self-directedness of adult learners. Chapter 3 looks at the challenges learners face in achieving their educational goals online. It considers internal factors that affect persistence, including learners' thinking skills and emotional disposition and how they develop presence online. It also looks at external factors, such as the difficulty for an online learner to integrate into the institution because of the computer-mediated environment.

Part 2 presents the foundations of cognition and learning. Teaching is effective when instructional strategies are grounded in an understanding of how learning occurs. Chapter 4 describes three learning theories—behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism—and provides an overview of how learning theories have evolved and how they can be used to support instruction. Chapter 5 looks at the foundations of cognition and the mental processes of learning. It discusses how emotions, environmental factors, and cognitive load influence information processes and describes metacognition, which supports the strategies learners use as they think and learn. It also addresses cognitive learning styles, which influence how they learn. Chapter 6 describes motivation theory and looks at how motivation influences learning, including how learners' motivation, locus of control, and self-efficacy play a role in their disposition toward learning. The chapter then talks about the distance learning environment, specifically the transactional distance that the computer-mediated environment imposes and how that affects learners.

Part 3 of the book describes four types of scaffolding strategies that can be used to support learning: procedural, metacognitive, conceptual, and strategic. Chapter 7 discusses procedural scaffolding, which emphasizes how a learner navigates the online environment and uses available resources and tools in the learning environment. Chapter 8 addresses metacognitive scaffolding, which supports the underlying processes associated with the management of thinking and learning. Chapter 9 describes conceptual scaffolding, which supports learners as they reason through complex concepts and problems. Chapter 10 looks at strategic scaffolding strategies, which assist learners just in time, and emphasizes alternative approaches that learners can use to support analysis, planning, strategy, and tactical decisions during learning.

Part 4 considers the development of a community of inquiry in the online class by fostering cognitive, social, and teaching presence that is mediated by appropriate communication tools. Chapter 11 presents ways to develop cognitive presence through using active learning strategies to support critical thinking and knowledge construction. Chapter 12 describes learner-to-learner interaction strategies to help develop social presence and build a community of inquiry. Strategies for developing social presence offer learners an opportunity to engage in critical thinking and knowledge construction through collaborative activity. Chapter 13 describes strategies to develop instructor presence in the course to support learners. Chapter 14 describes communication tools that can be used to establish cognitive, social, and instructor presence.

This book would not be complete if it did not address strategies to help you manage your online course, which are outlined in Part 5, and include strategies to manage your teaching activities, behavior issues you may encounter, and ethical considerations. Chapter 15 offers specific strategies to help streamline your teaching activities. Because behavioral issues may manifest themselves differently in the online learning environment, Chapter 16 describes behavioral problems that arise in the online environment and provides ideas for how to deal with them effectively. Chapter 17 describes ethical issues that you may encounter in teaching online, offers strategies for overcoming plagiarism, and presents important information on copyright.

Throughout the book, you will have examined the profile of the online learning population, the impact that a computer-mediated environment has on thinking and learning, the issue of developing presence online, and the challenges of managing your online course. In the final chapter, Chapter 18, I invite you to revisit your philosophy of teaching and develop a new philosophy of online teaching. This philosophy will provide you with a strong foundation for applying the concepts and ideas from this book as you teach in the online environment and support learners in achieving their educational goals.

Acknowledgments

I want to thank Tiffany Herder for her amazing insight and expertise in designing online learning environments. Her review helped me expand my ideas and consider additional areas of exploration. Melissa Martyr-Wagner was a warrior in helping me put together the training manual and presentation slides. Her unique perspective in the field of technology helped me stretch my thinking. I also want to thank Mary Breslin, an expert in online faculty training, for the time she took to review the book. Her recommendations were excellent and helped refine my thinking. Finally, I want to thank my family. I could not have completed this book without their patience when I was overwhelmed, their support when I needed help, and their unconditional love.

About the Author

Tina Stavredes has worked for Capella University, an online higher education institution, for over eight years and is part of a leadership team that has continued to strive to build excellence in the delivery of a quality online learning experience for nontraditional adult learners. Currently she is the chair of the psychology program in the School of Undergraduate Studies at Capella University, where she works to manage and train a high-performing team of online faculty. She previously taught in the School of Undergraduate Studies and also served as Capella University's director of curriculum, a role in which she was responsible for creating the Office of Curriculum Development. In addition, she has held the positions of program chair and faculty director in Capella's School of Education. Prior to joining Capella, Stavredes worked as manager of academic technology support for the University of Minnesota's College of Education and Human Development.

Dr. Stavredes has a master's degree in education with a specialization in curriculum and instruction using information systems and technology in teaching and learning. Her PhD is in educational psychology with a specialization in cognition and learning as it relates to computer-based learning. For over 10 years, she has been involved with online education and demonstrated a passion and vision for how to build a quality and sustainable educational experience for online learners. She has an in-depth understanding of online learning communities, as well as communities of practice, from her experience teaching online and understands the pedagogy involved in building learning communities that are relevant and sustainable for the learner. She has also worked specifically with first-year online learners to understand the factors that lead to learner readiness and that affect persistence and retention. In her administrative roles she has developed innovative ways to support quality teaching and help faculty bring their expertise to the online classroom.

Part 1

Profile of the Online Learner

Part 1 presents the profile of an online learner and discusses the importance of knowing your online learning audience in order to deliver a quality learning experience that meets the needs of all learners to improve their ability to persist. Chapter 1 examines learner demographics and considers cultural differences that affect online learners. Chapter 2 looks at the general attributes of online learners, including their attributes as adult learners, their self-directedness, and their social learning styles. Chapter 3 considers issues online adult learners face as they engage in online learning and provides an understanding of critical factors that influence their ability to persist in the online environment to achieve their goals. Overall, Part 1 will help you develop an understanding of your learners, what motivates them, and what barriers may prevent them from being successful in an online learning environment. Understanding the characteristics and needs of the online learner may not necessarily guarantee success in an online course, but it may inform your pedagogy to help learners persist.

Chapter 1

Characteristics of the Online Learner

From its beginnings, online education has primarily been focused on nontraditional adult learners. However, this is changing, and we are beginning to see traditional learners considering online education. Because of the wide range of characteristics and needs that make up the online learner population, it is critical to understand the diversity of online learners in order to develop unique approaches that support learners and facilitate their ability to persist and learn.

Characteristics of diversity fall into two categories. Primary characteristics are those attributes of a person that do not change over time, such as age, gender, and ethnicity. Secondary characteristics are those that are acquired or change over time and include characteristics such as occupation, income, education, marital status, and parental status, to name a few. Exhibit 1.1 describes the primary and secondary diversity characteristics of online learners.

Exhibit 1.1 Diversity Characteristics of Online Learners.

Primary Diversity CharacteristicsLearnerGender (Noel-Levitz, 2009)60% Female 40% MaleAge distribution (Noel-Levitz, 2009)20% under 24 32%—25–34 26%—35–44 18%—45–54 4%—55 and overEthnicity (Noel-Levitz, 2005)74% White 12% African American 4% Hispanic 3% Asian 7% OtherSecondary Diversity CharacteristicsLearnerEnrollment status (Noel-Levitz, 2009)81% Primarily online 19% Primarily on campusWork status (Noel-Levitz, 2005)70% Employed full-time 17% Employed part-time 13% UnemployedMarital status (Noel-Levitz, 2005)37% Married with children 18% Married 31% Single 11% Single with children

Noel-Levitz publishes the yearly National Online Learners Priorities Report, which includes a comprehensive examination of online learners (Noel-Levitz, 2009). The 2009 study included 68,760 learners from 87 institutions and showed that the online learner population is 68% female and 32% male. The age distribution is 20% 24 years and younger, 32% between the ages of 25 and 34, 26% between 35 and 44, 18% between 45 and 54, and 4% 55 years and over. Ethnicity was not reported in the 2009 report, but the 2005 Noel-Levitz study reported ethnicity of online learners as 74% White, 12% African American, 4% Hispanic, 3% Asian, and 7% of other races (Noel-Levitz, 2005). The majority of online learners are between the ages of 25 and 44, which is a wide age distribution that has implications for the types of instructional strategies that you use in your online course. Although a large percentage are White, there are a growing number of African-American, Hispanic, and Asian learners, a trend to consider as you determine the appropriate teaching strategies for your online courses.

The 2005 and 2009 reports also describe secondary diversity characteristics of online learners. The 2009 report states that 81% of online learners are primarily online while 19% are primarily on campus. The 2005 report shows 37% of learners married with children, 18% married with no children, 31% single, and 11% single with children. The 2005 report also states that 70% are employed full-time, 17% employed part-time, and 13% not employed. Most of the online learner population are new to online learning, having taken fewer than three classes previously, and take from one to six credits at a time. Most plan to complete their degree online. The top reasons learners choose online learning are convenience, work schedule, flexible pacing, and program requirements (Noel-Levitz, 2009).

The online learner is different from the traditional learner, who is usually under the age of 25, single with no children, and attending school full-time while holding a part-time job. Most online learners have the responsibilities of children and full-time jobs, responsibilities that make it difficult to manage online learning with their already full lives. You will need to set clear expectations for learners along with some degree of flexibility. Being too flexible can result in learners getting behind and trying to catch up toward the end of the course, which can have an impact on persistence and achievement. Not having enough flexibility can cause learners to become anxious and discouraged, which may result in prematurely dropping the course.

Cultural Differences

As the diversity data show, the online learner population is a heterogeneous group of learners who come to the online learning environment with diverse values, beliefs, and perspectives. Cultural differences can have an impact on how learners engage in the online environment. Culture is the collective mind of a group or category of people that distinguishes it from other people based on a set of values (Hofstede, 2008). Geert Hofstede (Hofstede & Bond, 1984) has researched the effect of culture on psychological functioning, as well as its impact on sociological, political, and economic functioning of social systems. In his studies, he identified four cultural dimensions that influence social systems, including power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, and masculinity-femininity.

Power Distance

Power distance refers to the status position of individuals in society. It also signifies the extent to which less powerful members of a society accept that power is distributed unequally, and individuals of higher power exert influence on individuals or groups of lower power (Hofstede, 2008). Countries such as China, India, Czechia, Poland, Korea, Japan, Russia, and those in South America have high power distances, whereas countries such as the Netherlands, Sweden, Hungary, and Israel have low power distances.

The effect of power distance on teaching and learning is pronounced. In cultures where there are high power distances, learners tend to be dependent on the instructor to direct the learning experience and initiate all of the communications in the class. Learners treat the instructor with respect because they are considered gurus who transfer personal wisdom to the learners.

Cultures with low power distances are more learner-centered. Instructors and learners treat each other as equals, and learners initiate some of the communications in class. Instructors are viewed as experts who transfer their impersonal truths to learners, that is, they are more of a “guide on the side.”

Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance refers to the degree to which certain cultures are able to tolerate unstructured or ambiguous situations and environments. This relates to how a society deals with conflict and aggression, as well as life and death. Germany, Japan, South American countries, Korea, Russia, Hungary, and Israel have higher uncertainty avoidance, whereas Nordic countries, the Netherlands, China, and India have lower uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 2008).

Uncertainty avoidance has an impact on how a learning environment is organized. Learners who come from cultures with high uncertainty avoidance are concerned about knowing the right answers, which they believe the instructor holds. Learners are able to express emotions in class but they feel pressured to conform to other learners.

Cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are tolerant of individual differences; however, there is little tolerance for the expression of emotions in class. Learners enjoy good discussions and it is acceptable for the instructor to not know all of the answers.

Individualism Versus Collectivism

Individualism versus collectivism refers to the position of a culture along a continuum. On one pole is individualism, which refers to a group of people whose concern is looking after themselves and their family. On the other pole is collectivism, which refers to a group of people that look after each other in exchange for loyalty. Individualist societies include Spain, France, the Netherlands, Nordic countries, Poland, Hungary, Italy, German-speaking countries, and the United States. Collectivist societies include Thailand, Korea, Costa Rica, Chile, Russia, Bulgaria, Portugal, China, Japan, Mexico, Venezuela, Greece, and the Arab world (Hofstede, 2008).

Individualist cultures believe the purpose of education is learning how to learn. Learners are encouraged to seek individual goals and are expected to speak up in class when they need or want to. They collaborate with peers who have similar interests. The value of education is to increase one's self-respect and economic worth.

Collectivist societies believe the purpose of education is learning how to do something. Individual goals are not encouraged and learners speak only when the group asks them to. Learners form collaborations based on popularity rather than similar interests. They believe that education will provide them entry into higher status groups.

Masculinity-Femininity

In Hofstede's construct, masculinity-femininity refers to how certain cultures look at differences based on gender differences and value differences. In masculine societies, men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success. In feminine cultures, emotional roles of both genders overlap and values focus on caring for others and the quality of life. Countries such as China, Japan, Mexico, Venezuela, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Arab world, and German-speaking countries are masculine cultures in which men are assertive and the main decision makers. Feminine cultures include Thailand, Korea, Costa Rica, Chile, Russia, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and Nordic countries, where roles overlap between men and women (Hofstede, 2008).

Education in masculine societies is very competitive. It is considered a disaster to fail in school. Instructors are admired for being experts and average learners seek to do their best. Because of the focus on being the best, learners tend to overrate their own performances.

Education in feminine cultures is less competitive. Failing in school is not considered a disaster but merely a minor incident. Instructors are liked for their friendliness, and they focus on praise of weak learners for their efforts. The average learner is the norm, so learners tend to underrate their performance.

Impact of Culture in an Online Learning Environment

Cultural differences can have a large impact on the online learning environment. Exhibit 1.2 summarizes the impact of cultural differences on learning.

Exhibit 1.2 Impact of Cultural Differences on Learning.

Source: Hofstede & Bond, 1984.

Differences in power distance can have an impact on learners' perceived position in the course and may result in some learners not being able to interact as equals with other learners. Bates (2001) describes how culture influences critical thinking skills, debate, and discussion. In an online environment, learners are often encouraged to critically evaluate and debate the content being presented and share their ideas and knowledge in discussion. Cultural differences may affect the degree to which individual learners interact and can interfere with their ability to challenge ideas or express opinions contrary to those of the instructor or other learners in the class (Bates & Poole, 2003). Cultural differences can also affect learners who consider the instructor a higher power. If you participate in discussions and other activities by offering opinions on a topic or issue, a learner who views you as a higher power may find it difficult to offer opinions or ideas that are contrary to your opinions. Instructional activities that are teacher-directed tend to be best for learners from cultures with higher power distance, whereas lower power distance cultures prefer more learner-directed learning strategies.

Learners from cultures with high uncertainty avoidance may not be able to learn in an environment that is open and unstructured and learners work at their own pace and determine the goals they want to pursue in the course. To meet the needs of learners with high uncertainty avoidance, you must provide alternatives to help them achieve the intended goals of an activity.

The element of individualism versus collectivism can affect the goals of learners and their overall motivation to collaborate with other learners. Learners from collectivist cultures may not be able to set goals and may not initiate interactions with other learners. The way you form groups may also be affected by culture. You may consider having learners select their own group to ensure they can successfully participate in teamwork activities with peers.

The issue of masculinity-femininity may have an impact on how learners interact with one another and how they interact with you as the instructor based on gender. For instance, in masculine cultures, men are more dominant and perceived as assertive and competitive, whereas women serve and care for the family. You may find that female learners from masculine cultures are resistant to interacting in the course, so they may benefit from encouragement to interact with their peers. You may also see differences in the competitiveness that is exhibited in male learners from masculine cultures. In feminine cultures, social gender roles overlap, so you will not find so many differences between males and females.

Being aware of cultural differences can help you develop appropriate teaching strategies that consider your diverse learner population. These strategies may include structuring discussions and activities so all learners feel comfortable, and providing specific instructions to help learners understand the expectations of the activities, including the expected level of interaction. Awareness of cultural differences can also help you plan strategies to help individual learners persist. If you find cultural differences in the degree to which learners engage and interact, you may want to consider communicating with them to offer understanding and advice for how to overcome their discomfort.

In this chapter, we looked at the diversity characteristics of the online learner. We noted that the average online learner is female, around 35 years of age, works full-time, and is married with children. The majority are undergraduate learners taking one to six credits online. They are primarily White, but there is a growing population of African-American, Hispanic, and Asian learners. We discussed cultural diversity and how it can influence how learners engage in your online course. As you can see, the online learner may differ from the typical learner in your face-to-face class, which can impact the instructional strategies you develop. Consider the characteristics of the adult learner as you develop unique approaches that support learners and facilitate engagement in your online course.

Chapter 2

Key Learning Attributes of Adults

Chapter 1 described the characteristics of adult learners in relationship to demographic characteristics and cultural differences. In Chapter 2, we will look at the learning attributes of adult learners. By understanding the characteristics of adult online learners and their learning attributes, you can target your pedagogy to meet the unique needs of adult learners. Such fine-tuning can have an impact on their satisfaction and motivation to persist.

Much of the research on learning does not differentiate adults from children (Merriam, 2001). There was, however, a drive to develop a knowledge base unique to adults, and from this emerged two fields of inquiry to describe how adults learn—andragogy and self-directed learning. Malcolm Knowles (1992), a recognized leader in the field of adult education, coined the term “andragogy.” Andragogy describes a learner-centered approach to learning in which the adult learner determines the goals for learning and how they will be achieved. Knowles and colleagues (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998) developed a set of assumptions to describe key attributes of adults, including their need to know, self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation to learn.

Need to know. Adults need to know why they should learn something and how it benefits them.Self-concept. Adult learners may have difficulty with someone telling them what to do and how to think, which may make them resistant to learning in some situations.Experience. Previous experience is important to adult learners. Adults have a lifetime of experience and want to use and share what they know to enhance their learning.Readiness to learn. Adults become ready to learn something when they have a need to solve a problem. Older adults may be more ready to learn than younger adults.Orientation to learning. Learners' orientation to learning can be life-, task-, or problem-centered. They want to see how what they are learning will apply to their life, a task they need to perform, or a problem they need to solve.Motivation to learn. Although learners may respond to external motivators, internal priorities are more important. Incentives such as increased job satisfaction, self-esteem, and quality of life are important in giving them a reason to learn.

These assumptions should be viewed relative to your learners' individual levels of self-directedness, motivation, and life experience in order to ensure that your instructional approach functions positively in the given learning situation (Merriam, 2001). For learners who have high motivation, an established knowledge base in the subject matter, and life experience to support their knowledge base, many of these assumptions will be useful. For learners new to the subject, with little life experience, or with low motivation, making these assumptions can lead to a poor learning experience and affect their ability to persist. All learners will benefit from contextual descriptions that allow them to understand the need to know the content. They also will respond well to being treated with respect, which can be communicated by the tone of your interactions. As previously mentioned, it can be difficult for an adult to be told what to do or how to think. How you communicate with adult learners can help build a mutual respect, which can have a positive effect on their satisfaction, motivation, and ability to persist and learn.

Self-Directedness

One of the assumptions of Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) regarding adult learners is that adults are self-directed in their learning. Self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes (Grow, 1996). Many online courses are designed based on the assumption that adults are self-directed; however, this is not always the case. David Grow (1996) points out the need to reconsider the assumption that all adult learners are self-directed. He believes that self-directedness is situational; a learner may be self-directed in one situation but may require more direction in another. He makes the assertion that self-direction can be learned and taught, which has implications for the strategies you use to support learners (Grow, 1996).

Grow proposes a four-stage model, the Staged Self-Directed Learning (SSDL) model (Grow, 1996), which suggests how you can support learners in becoming more self-directed in learning. His model takes into consideration a wide range of learner characteristics to help determine the appropriate level of support for learners, as shown in Exhibit 2.1.

Exhibit 2.1 Grow's Staged Self-Directed Learning (SSDL) Model.

StageCharacteristicsInstructorStage 1: Dependent learnerLittle prior knowledge in subjectUnsure of the focus of his or her learningLow self-confidenceLow motivationHas difficulty organizing informationHas difficulty making decisionsInstructor as authority: Directs activitiesProvides explicit directionsOffers frequent feedbackStage 2: Interested learnerBasic understanding of what needs to be doneNot confidentLow motivationInstructor as motivator: Provides encouragementBuilds confidenceGives frequent feedbackStage 3: Involved learnerHas skills and knowledge in subjectHas learning goalsConfidentMotivatedInstructor as facilitator: Facilitates progress through contentOffers appropriate tools, methods, and techniquesProvides choicesEncourages learners to share experiencesStage 4: Self-directed learnerHas skills and knowledge in subjectAbility to set learning goalsConfidentMotivatedGood time management skillsAbility to self-evaluateInstructor as consultant or guide on the side: Provides self-evaluation strategiesGives support when needed

Source:Grow, 1996.

Stage 1 represents the dependent learner. This learner generally has little prior knowledge in the subject, is unsure of the focus of his or her learning, and has low self-confidence and motivation. Dependent learners do best when the instructor role is one of an authority figure who will lead them through the activities and instructions and provide them with explicit directions on what to do, how to do it, and when to do it. Dependent learners require more frequent feedback to let them know how they are doing and whether they are meeting your expectations. They may have difficulty sorting through information and making choices. The amount of information presented to a dependent learner may have an impact on their ability to learn, so caution should be taken when determining content and resources. Dependent learners may also find it difficult to make choices on their own. For instance, they may have difficulty choosing a topic of interest, if given an opportunity. Therefore, if you assign an activity in which the learners are to choose a topic of interest to them, be sure to provide dependent learners a list of topics from which to choose.

In stage 2, learners may have little or no prior knowledge, but they are interested in learning. They have a basic understanding of what they need to do but are not confident that they can achieve the course objectives; therefore, their motivation may be low. They respond to instructors who are motivators. You will need to encourage these learners to build their confidence so that they can accomplish the objectives of the course.

In stage 3, learners have skills in and knowledge of the subject, and they have a sense of where they are going and how the course fits with their goals. They feel confident and motivated that they can get there. These learners respond to an instructor who will help facilitate their progress through unfamiliar content and offer appropriate tools, methods, and techniques to foster success. Learners with knowledge of the subject may prefer having opportunities to customize activities and assignments to their specific needs, so providing several choices of activities to accomplish the objectives can have a positive impact on these learners. In addition, encouraging learners to share their real-world experiences can give them a sense of satisfaction that they are able to share expertise and experience with the rest of the class to enhance discussions.

In the final stage, stage 4, learners are considered self-directed. These learners have skills and knowledge in the subject and can take responsibility for their learning, direction, and productivity. They also have skills in time management, project management, goal setting, and self-evaluation. An instructor is challenged with finding ways to enhance these learners' experience, while at the same time allowing them the freedom to work independently. Providing opportunities for learners to self-evaluate their performance can enhance their critical thinking skills and help them understand the direction they want to go with their learning. It is also important to be available to learners when they have questions or need support.

Grow's Staged Self-Directed Learning is a representative model of the different characteristics of learners that you will find in your online course. It demonstrates the need to adapt your teaching style to match learners' degree of self-directedness in order to provide appropriate support to help them increase self-directedness. This is a critical factor in learners' ability to persist. For this to be successful, you must have an understanding of where your learners are in terms of self-directedness and carefully monitor their progress throughout the course. This will require you to adjust your teaching to meet the needs of learners based on their stage of self-directedness.

Social Styles of Online Learners

Anthony Grasha (1996) defined learning styles as “personal qualities that influence a learner's ability to acquire information, interact with peers and the instructor, and otherwise participate in the learning experience” (p. 41). Grasha's definition is focused on the social styles of learners and the interaction that occurs between peers and with the instructor in a given learning environment, all of which has an impact on learning.

The Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning Style Scales developed by Anthony Grasha and Sheryl Riechmann (Grasha, 1996) describes how learners interact with the instructor, other learners, and the learning environment. Learners' social characteristics have a direct impact on how they will engage in the online environment. The scale spans six categories and looks at preferences along three dimensions: independent–dependent, competitive–collaborative, and avoidant–participant, as shown in Exhibit 2.2.

Exhibit 2.2 Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning Style Scales.

StylePreferencesIndependentPrefers to work aloneNot interested in discussion and other learner interactionNot interested in team workDependentLooks to instructor and learners as guidesPrefers an authority figure to tell them what to doPrefers highly structured environmentsCompetitiveInterested in learning for reward and recognitionPrefers exams to projectsCollaborativeLearns by sharing and cooperating with instructor and learnersPrefers group work and discussionsAvoidantNot excited about attending class or studyingUninterestedOverwhelmedParticipativeInterested in class activities and discussionWorks hardWants to meet instructor's expectations

Source:Grasha, 1996.

Independent learners like to work alone on course activities and are not interested in interaction with learners. Dependent learners look to the instructor and to peers as a source of guidance and prefer an authority figure to tell them what to do. Competitive learners are interested in learning for the sake of performing and are interested in the extrinsic reward of recognition for their academic accomplishments. Collaborative learners learn by sharing and cooperating with the instructor and learners. They prefer small group discussions and group projects. Avoidant learners are not excited about attending class or studying. Generally, these learners appear uninterested or overwhelmed. Participative learners are interested in class activities and discussion and are eager to do as much class work as possible. They typically are interested in meeting all of the expectations that the instructor sets.

You have probably seen all of these preferences in learners. The extent to which they appear in the online environment is different, however. Strategies must be in place to accommodate the different social preferences of learners and provide a variety of activities that offer an opportunity for each learner to feel comfortable. For dependent learners, a highly structured environment that is instructor-directed with little learner choice is preferred. This includes having the content set out in units or modules with specific deliverables and due dates. Independent learners prefer to work independently via projects and individual assignments. They may be resistant to working in teams and may find discussions “busy work.” The more you can engage them in activities that allow them to determine appropriate ways to meet the requirements, the greater satisfaction they will have. Competitive learners prefer exams to projects and are interested in grades. Collaborative learners prefer working together in groups and enjoy discussions and other opportunities to interact with others in projects or socially. It is difficult to engage avoidant learners because they tend not to be “present” in an online environment. Posting instructor expectations can help avoidant learners understand what you expect in terms of how often they should be active in the course. Also include the requirements for interactions with peers and specific learning activities. In addition, strict deadlines and consequences for not meeting them will encourage avoidant learners to stay focused. Providing time management strategies will also assist avoidant learners. Participative learners enjoy class discussions and team activities, so the more active the learning environment, the better. You will find that participative learners are the first to post to discussions and serve as guides for dependent learners. They will also be interested in team projects and can serve as leaders.

Although learners may have specific social styles, you are not expected to cater to their social styles. But by providing a variety of opportunities, you can meet their learning preferences and expose learners to new ways of learning and collaborating.

In this chapter, we looked at the learning attributes of adult learners, which set them apart from traditional learners. These attributes include their need to know, self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation. Adult learners' level of self-directedness and social style also has an impact on how they engage in the online learning environment. By focusing on learning attributes specific to adults, you can target your teaching to meet the unique needs of adult learners and help improve their satisfaction and motivation to persist.