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- Herausgeber: Booksell-Verlag
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
Ovid's "Metamorphoses" is a masterful narrative poem, intricately weaving together over 250 mythological tales that explore themes of transformation and change. Composed in elegiac couplets, the work reflects a fluid style that mirrors the very transformations it narrates, employing vivid imagery and rich characterization to breathe life into both divine and mortal characters. Largely set against the backdrop of Greco-Roman mythology, Ovid encapsulates the philosophical underpinnings of his time, blending personal experience with universal human emotions, thus creating a work that resonates with the complexities of identity and the nature of existence. Publius Ovidius Naso, renowned for his eloquent poetry, lived during the time of Augustus and witnessed the transformative shift in Roman society. His exile from Rome after political missteps left him contemplating the ideas of change and loss, fueling the creative energy that would culminate in "Metamorphoses." This collection not only showcases his extraordinary poetic talent but also reveals the deep intertwining of personal and mythological narratives, suggesting a reflective exploration of his own life's metamorphosis. For readers seeking a profound engagement with ancient mythology and its relevance to human experience, Ovid's "Metamorphoses" is indispensable. It invites reflection on the transient nature of life and art itself, making it an essential text for scholars, poets, and anyone interested in the enduring legacy of myth. In this enriched edition, we have carefully created added value for your reading experience: - A succinct Introduction situates the work's timeless appeal and themes. - The Synopsis outlines the central plot, highlighting key developments without spoiling critical twists. - A detailed Historical Context immerses you in the era's events and influences that shaped the writing. - An Author Biography reveals milestones in the author's life, illuminating the personal insights behind the text. - A thorough Analysis dissects symbols, motifs, and character arcs to unearth underlying meanings. - Reflection questions prompt you to engage personally with the work's messages, connecting them to modern life. - Hand‐picked Memorable Quotes shine a spotlight on moments of literary brilliance. - Interactive footnotes clarify unusual references, historical allusions, and archaic phrases for an effortless, more informed read.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Metamorphoses
Table of Contents
Introduction
"Transformations are the core of life, the heartbeat of existence, the very essence of what it means to be human." These words echo the timeless sentiments encapsulated within Ovid’s 'Metamorphoses,' a masterwork that goes beyond mere storytelling to explore the constant flux of identity, love, and the nature of existence itself. This classic text invites readers to reconsider the boundaries of transformation, making it not just a tale of mythological shifts but a profound reflection on the human condition and the power of change.
Ovid's 'Metamorphoses' stands as a luminary in the literary canon, heralded as one of the foundational texts of Western literature. Written during the reign of Augustus in the early first century AD, this epic poem encompasses over 250 myths, each transforming into the next with fluidity and grace. The impact of Ovid’s work is monumental, influencing countless authors, poets, and artists throughout history, from the Renaissance to modern adaptations, and continues to resonate through its rich themes and intricate storytelling.
At its core, 'Metamorphoses' serves as a narrative tapestry that weaves together countless myths, legends, and histories. Ovid meticulously retells these ancient stories while emphasizing the fluidity of identity and the inevitability of change. The text itself comprises fifteen books, presenting a comprehensive mythic history of the world, from the creation to the deification of Julius Caesar. Ovid’s intention is to entertain while also imparting deeper philosophical insights into human nature, divinity, and morality, encouraging readers to reflect on the transformations that shape their lives.
Ovid, born Publius Ovidius Naso in 43 BC, was a Roman poet who became one of the most influential figures in literature due to his eloquent and innovative verse. His contemporary Virgil, alongside Horace, forms a triumvirate of great Roman poets. Ovid’s banishment from Rome by Emperor Augustus and the subsequent isolation shaped much of his poetry's tone and themes. Written during a period marked by stringent morality laws, 'Metamorphoses' emerges as both a celebration of creativity and a subversion of the restrictive norms of the time, showcasing the poet's complex relationship with power and authority.
In 'Metamorphoses', Ovid employs a narrative style rich in hyperbole and vivid imagery, creating a kaleidoscope of interlinked tales that reflect both beauty and tragedy. The fanciful nature of the stories, filled with gods, mortals, and mythical creatures, allows Ovid to explore a vast array of themes—love, loss, transformation, and redemption. Each story intertwines with another, blurring the lines between myth and reality, and engaging readers in a way that encourages introspection regarding their own transformations and the world around them.
One of the most striking features of 'Metamorphoses' is its structural innovation. Unlike traditional epic poems with linear narratives, Ovid adopts a fluid form where transitions occur almost seamlessly from one myth to the next. This unique structure facilitates an exploration of the theme of transformation itself, demonstrating that change is an inherent part of both human experiences and divine actions. By linking these disparate tales, Ovid crafts a narrative arch that reflects the interconnectedness of existence, challenge, and the power of storytelling itself.
The book's impact on literature cannot be overstated. Ovid’s themes of transformation and change have influenced myriad genres, from poetry and prose to visual arts and theatrical performances. His narratives have inspired writers such as Dante, Chaucer, and Shakespeare, who drew upon Ovid’s motifs and ideas to enrich their own works. The lasting legacy of 'Metamorphoses' is evident in its adaptation across cultures and eras, showcasing how a classic text can transcend its time and speak to universal human experiences and emotions.
Ovid’s exploration of love forms a poignant thread throughout 'Metamorphoses,' illustrating its often paradoxical nature. Characters fall in love, endure suffering, and experience profound longing, often leading them toward transformation—both internal and external. These love stories highlight the vulnerabilities of the human condition, unraveling the complexities of desire and its consequences. This thematic depth ensures that readers can connect with the text on an emotional level, rendering it timeless and relevant to each new generation that encounters it.
The theme of metamorphosis itself represents more than mere physical transformations; it embodies fundamental shifts in identity, circumstances, and perspectives. Ovid beckons his audience to reflect on their own capacity for change and growth, prompting deeper philosophical inquiries into the essence of being. The characters in 'Metamorphoses' undergo transformations that reveal profound truths about fear, hope, and the nature of existence, ultimately resonating with readers who are continually navigating their own metamorphoses in a rapidly changing world.
In addition to themes of love and transformation, Ovid delves into the relationship between humanity and the divine. The capricious nature of the gods is a recurring motif that illustrates their influence on mortal lives and the unpredictability of fate. Through stories of divine intervention and wrath, Ovid prompts readers to confront the complexities of belief, spirituality, and morality. This interplay between divine existence and human experience raises compelling questions about free will, destiny, and the nature of justice.
Visually rich and musically rhythmic, Ovid's language transcends its era, captivating modern readers with its poetic beauty. The urgency and emotion embedded in his lines evoke vivid imagery that resonates deeply, transforming words into art. Ovid's ability to create visual snapshots allows readers to immerse themselves in the world he portrays, prompting them to engage with the text not just as a narrative but as a sensory experience, filled with beauty, pain, and wonder.
Ovid’s work is also profoundly intertextual, inviting readers to engage with a wide array of classical allusions and influences. By situating his stories within a larger literary context, Ovid fosters a dialogue with his predecessors, inviting reflection on how stories shape and reshape human understanding. This intertextuality fortifies the traditional connections between different myths while also presenting fresh perspectives, making 'Metamorphoses' an indispensable resource for literary scholars and casual readers alike who seek to understand the evolution of storytelling.
As a text that navigates the borders of mythology, history, and personal narrative, 'Metamorphoses' invites readers to ponder their own transformations and the enduring nature of change. In a rapidly evolving world, where identities can shift dramatically in the wake of personal experiences or societal movements, Ovid’s reflections on transformation remain astonishingly relevant. This universality allows contemporary audiences to connect with the text, raising questions about the contemporary human experience and its myriad forms of metamorphosis.
Additionally, Ovid’s blend of humor, irony, and tragedy enhances the emotional weight of the stories, making them impactful and relatable. The poet's astute observations often reveal the absurdity of the human experience, reflecting both the joys and the miseries that accompany transformation. This complexity mirrors contemporary life, where individuals grapple with their identities within a tapestry of societal expectations, personal aspirations, and cultural heritage.
Beyond its literary significance, 'Metamorphoses' has permeated various cultural realms, including art, music, and film. The impact of Ovid's myths on visual artists from the Renaissance to modern-day filmmakers underscores the story's broad appeal and adaptability. Adaptations of Ovid’s tales remind us that their core themes are not confined to the written word but extend into diverse mediums, allowing fresh interpretations and connections to be forged within contemporary contexts.
Ultimately, the lasting appeal of 'Metamorphoses' lies in its exploration of transformation as a perpetual part of life’s journey. This theme, along with the universal truths embedded in Ovid’s tales of love, loss, and redemption, resonated with readers throughout the ages. Their ability to adapt, empathize, and reflect on their personal metamorphoses is why Ovid’s work remains essential, cherished, and relevant. It speaks to the shared human experience, unveiling insights that transcend time, culture, and circumstance.
In conclusion, Ovid’s 'Metamorphoses' is not merely a collection of myths; it is a profound examination of transformation that continues to engage and inspire audiences today. The themes of love, identity, and the relationship between humans and the divine serve as a bridge connecting past and present, inviting readers to reflect on their journeys and the transformations they encounter. As a classic text, its appeal remains timeless, urging us to contemplate the fluidity of existence and the beautiful complexities of our own metamorphoses.
Synopsis
Ovid's 'Metamorphoses' is a narrative poem composed of 15 books, centered around the theme of transformation. Through a series of mythological tales, the work chronicles the complex relationships between gods, humans, and nature. The narrative begins with the creation of the world and transitions into various stories, each illustrating different forms of change. These transformations can be physical, emotional, or spiritual, representing significant shifts in identity and existence. Each tale unfolds with striking imagery and poetic language, making the theme of metamorphosis a central motif throughout the work.
The poem opens with the creation of the universe from chaos, introducing the primordial elements and the divine figures. From this foundational story, Ovid moves on to relate the tales of several famous mythological figures, including Apollo and Daphne. This particular story highlights unrequited love, where Apollo pursues the nymph Daphne, who, in her attempt to escape, transforms into a laurel tree. Such transformations symbolize both the desire and pain inherent in love and the lengths to which one can go to escape a fate.
Another notable transformation is the story of Narcissus and Echo. Narcissus, a beautiful youth, becomes infatuated with his own reflection, leading to tragic consequences. Echo, a nymph cursed to repeat the words of others, pines for Narcissus, who is oblivious to her love. In the end, Narcissus transforms into a flower, and Echo fades into the mountains, emphasizing themes of self-obsession and the fleeting nature of life and love. The stories continue to intertwine, unveiling complex interactions and transformations that influence the characters' fates.
Ovid also recounts the tale of Pygmalion, an artist who falls in love with a statue of a woman he has carved. His devotion leads the goddess Venus to bring the statue to life, highlighting the themes of creation and the power of love. This transformation points to the relationship between art and reality, suggesting that the act of creation can transcend mere craftsmanship into something divine. These stories explore notions of desire, artistry, and the transformative power of love, showing how they can lead to profound changes in life and identity.
The theme of vengeance is prominently featured in the stories of the gods, particularly in the narrative of Juno against the mortal woman Io. In a rage over her husband Jupiter's infidelity, Juno transforms Io into a cow to hide her from him. This story underscores the dynamics of jealousy, punishment, and the often tragic results of divine meddling. The resulting metamorphoses serve as a reminder of the vulnerability of mortals at the mercy of capricious gods and how divine transformations can reflect personal turmoil and emotional conflict in human experiences.
The narrative continues with the famed story of Prometheus, who defies Zeus by stealing fire for humanity. His act of rebellion leads to severe punishment and transformation, characterizing the themes of sacrifice and suffering inherent in human progress. Prometheus's transformation from a benefactor to a tormented figure illustrates the complexity of moral choices and the repercussions they yield. These tales amplify the narrative's message about the price of existence and the continual cycle of creation and destruction within the world.
In addition to personal stories, Ovid incorporates tales of collective transformations, such as the flood narrative reminiscent of other mythologies. This cataclysm transforms the world and its inhabitants, leading to the rebirth of humanity through Deucalion and Pyrrha. Their story symbolizes renewal and hope amid destruction, reinforcing the idea that transformation can lead to new beginnings. The recurring theme emphasizes that change is an intrinsic part of life, often driven by the actions and choices of individuals and deities alike.
As Ovid progresses through various myths, he introduces the concept of the metamorphosis of the self. The transformation of characters such as Arachne, who is turned into a spider for her hubris, illustrates the consequences of pride and self-perception. In contrast, characters like Orpheus experience transformations that reflect their emotional states, such as love and loss. Through these narratives, Ovid explores how external transformations often mirror internal struggles, showing a profound connection between one's identity and experiences.
Ultimately, 'Metamorphoses' serves as a rich tapestry of interconnected tales that explore the fluidity of identity and existence. The overarching message is that transformation is inevitable and essential, woven into the human experience. Ovid's poetic work illustrates the complexity of relationships, the interplay between mortals and the divine, and the myriad ways in which individuals can change. By embracing the theme of metamorphosis, Ovid articulates the essence of life itself, encouraging reflection on the constant state of becoming inherent in all beings.
Historical Context
Metamorphoses, authored by the Roman poet Ovid, emerges from a vibrant epoch of transformations spanning the transition from the Roman Republic to the early Empire under Augustus, mainly in the late first century BCE and the first decade CE. This period was marked by political upheavals and social reconfigurations under the principate of Augustus, during which Rome expanded its territories and patronage of art and literature flourished. Cultural activity in this era often aligned with the ideological aims of the ruling elite, emphasizing moral renewal and the grandeur of Rome’s imperial destiny, context that informs many themes in the poem.
One of the most consequential events preceding its composition was the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. The ensuing power struggles between Caesar’s heirs and rivals led to civil wars and ultimately to Octavian’s rise as Augustus, reshaping Roman governance from republic to principate. Although the poem does not directly narrate these political events, its overarching concern with transformation can be read against the backdrop of Rome’s own metamorphosis from republic to empire.
Under Augustus, a period of relative stability known as the Pax Romana took shape, fostering prosperity and cultural efflorescence. Composed during this time, the poem reflects an era when the virtues of peace and renewal were promoted by the regime. Its expansive narrative of gods and mortals undergoing change has been interpreted by some scholars as resonating with the ideals and tensions of Augustan rule, exploring both creativity and constraint within imperial culture.
Augustus also enacted social legislation, including the Leges Iuliae around 18 BCE, aiming to encourage marriage and childbirth and to discourage adultery. Ancient sources connect Ovid’s exile in 8 CE — ostensibly for a “poem and an error” — to these moral reforms, though the precise cause remains uncertain. While the poem itself predates his banishment, themes of identity, desire and boundary-crossing can be viewed as engaging, in a broad sense, with contemporary debates over social norms and personal freedom.
The Augustan Age saw poets such as Virgil and Horace composing works that often aligned with imperial ideology. In contrast, the poem’s playful tone and emphasis on change have led readers to see it as occupying a distinctive position within the literary landscape of its time. Its mythological episodes sometimes highlight unpredictability and flux rather than a steady march toward idealized order.
The Roman Empire’s expansion into Europe, North Africa and the Near East introduced Romans to a multitude of ethnicities and traditions. The poem travels through diverse settings and retells myths from a pan-Mediterranean repertoire, reflecting cultural syncretism and Rome’s interactions with Greece and other societies. This narrative geography parallels the empire’s own complexities of assimilation and cultural exchange.
Augustus famously undertook extensive building projects in Rome—marble monuments, temples and forums—that transformed the city’s appearance. The poem likewise abounds in images of transformation, from the metamorphosis of individuals into trees, animals or stars to shifts in form and status, suggesting an aesthetic attentiveness to change that resonates with the physical remaking of Rome.
Greek literature and myth provide a foundational source for the poem. Ovid adapts and reinterprets Greek stories, drawing on Hesiod, Callimachus and tragedians such as Euripides, among others. Through this engagement, the poem illustrates how Roman authors incorporated and reshaped Greek cultural material, at times offering playful or critical variation on familiar themes.
Public festivals such as the Ludi Romani, celebrating military victory and civic piety, formed an essential backdrop to Roman religious life. The poem’s narratives of divine-human interaction and ritual transformations evoke that interweaving of the sacred and the civic which underpinned Roman festivals, without directly depicting specific ceremonies.
Although slavery was central to Roman society, the poem seldom addresses it explicitly. Nevertheless, its frequent stories of compulsion, abduction and enforced change—whether divine or mortal—have been read by some modern scholars as resonating with questions of agency and power in a society structured by hierarchies.
Augustan ideology promoted pietas—dutiful loyalty to gods, family and state—as a defining virtue. Many characters experience transformations that challenge their personal desires or social roles, and readers have noted how these narratives can evoke inner conflicts between individual impulse and external obligation.
The poet’s own interests in love and desire surface in numerous episodes, often depicting the intricate power dynamics of attraction and rejection. These stories, set within a mythic framework, engage with themes of consent, boundary and metamorphic consequence, offering a rich exploration of human emotion.
Rome’s cosmopolitan character is mirrored in the poem’s pluralistic voice and its range of cultural references. By weaving together Greek and Roman, mortal and divine, the work articulates a poetic vision of a world in constant motion, where identity and form are never fixed.
Composed during the height of the Augustan period, the poem has long been regarded as both a celebration of mythic creativity and, by some interpreters, a subtle commentary on the ideals and contradictions of its age. Its enduring power lies in the way it transforms familiar tales into a tapestry of change, inviting readers to reflect on permanence and flux in both personal and collective life.
Author Biography
Introduction
Publius Ovidius Naso, known as Ovid, was a leading poet of Augustan Rome whose refined wit, technical mastery, and imaginative scope secured him a lasting place in world literature. Born in the late Roman Republic and flourishing under the early Principate, he authored influential works across genres: love elegy (Amores, Heroides), didactic poetry on love and cosmetics (Ars Amatoria, Remedia Amoris, Medicamina Faciei Femineae), mythic epic (Metamorphoses), the Roman calendar (Fasti), and exile poetry (Tristia, Epistulae ex Ponto, Ibis). Exiled by Augustus to Tomis on the Black Sea, Ovid transformed personal misfortune into compelling art. His narratives of transformation shaped European literature, visual arts, and cultural imagination for centuries.
Education and Literary Influences
Ovid was born at Sulmo (modern Sulmona) to an equestrian family and was educated in Rome, where boys of his rank trained in grammar and rhetoric. He reports in Tristia that he pursued the standard cursus toward public service, even holding minor magistracies, before turning decisively to poetry. Travel to Athens, Asia Minor, and Sicily provided him with additional cultural grounding. Though trained for oratory, he preferred the more flexible and playful medium of verse. His own autobiographical verses stress an early and irresistible inclination toward poetry, an inclination that redirected a conventional elite education toward literary innovation.
His writing reveals sustained engagement with Hellenistic poetics—especially Callimachean elegance and learned allusion—alongside deep dialogue with Latin predecessors. The Roman love elegists Gallus (known through later testimony), Tibullus, and Propertius shaped his early practice, even as he broadened the register of elegy with humor and narrative experiment. He admired Virgil and Horace and absorbed lessons from their refinement and craft. Rhetorical schooling left a permanent imprint: Ovid’s argumentative turns, antitheses, and declamatory set pieces attest to training in the schools. Across genres, he blends erudition with urbane wit, creating a style at once learned, lucid, and theatrically inventive.
Literary Career
Ovid’s earliest major publications were in elegiac couplets. The Amores, initially issued in more books and later revised into three, set a tone of playful sophistication toward love, literary tradition, and urban life. The Heroides presents letters voiced by mythic heroines to absent lovers, an inventive form that melds epistolary rhetoric with elegiac pathos. Shorter didactic works—Medicamina Faciei Femineae on cosmetics, Ars Amatoria on seduction, and Remedia Amoris on unlearning love—extend elegy into instructional performance, balancing irony with practical detail. These poems quickly established him among Rome’s most popular authors, admired for verbal finesse, narrative agility, and a distinctive, self-conscious persona.
The Metamorphoses crowns Ovid’s ambition: a fifteen-book epic in dactylic hexameter collecting and interweaving hundreds of myths of change from the world’s origins to Ovid’s present. Its seamless transitions, multiple perspectives, and tonal variety create a capacious mythological encyclopedia guided by metamorphosis as organizing principle. In parallel, the Fasti undertakes a poetic calendar of Roman festivals, cults, and rituals, designed as twelve books keyed to the months. The extant six books blend antiquarian learning with narrative and aetiology, offering insights into Roman religious practice and Augustan cultural self-fashioning. Both works demonstrate Ovid’s ability to fuse erudition, narrative architecture, and stylistic brilliance.
Though now lost, Ovid’s Medea was highly regarded in antiquity. Ancient criticism indicates that this tragedy revealed a capacity for severe, elevated style beyond his characteristic elegance. The fragmentary evidence and later testimonia suggest that contemporaries and successors recognized in it a different register of Ovid’s talent, one aligned with tragic intensity rather than erotic wit. Its disappearance has long fueled scholarly interest in the breadth of Ovid’s generic range and the counterfactual possibilities of his career. The reported esteem for Medea complements the surviving corpus by underscoring his technical versatility and his responsiveness to multiple literary traditions within Roman culture.
Ovid’s popularity was accompanied by controversy. He famously attributes his exile to a “carmen et error”—a poem and a mistake—without specifying the latter. The Ars Amatoria is often identified by later readers as the poem in question, given its playful treatment of love and seduction during an era of Augustan moral legislation, but Ovid himself remains deliberately opaque. In Rome, public recitation and circulation secured his celebrity, while some critics viewed his style as luxuriant. Even so, his rhetorical sparkle, intertextual dexterity, and ability to reinvent inherited forms made him a touchstone for contemporaries navigating the literary dynamics of the Augustan age.
Exile reshaped Ovid’s themes and tone without diminishing craft. In Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto he adapts elegy to epistolary petition, fashioning a poetics of absence, hardship, and supplication. These collections address friends, family, and powerful figures at Rome, constructing a sustained record of alienation and appeal. The invective Ibis displays his range in another mode, channeling learned malediction. Even as he laments climate, culture, and danger at Tomis, Ovid continues to experiment with voice, structure, and learned reference. The exilic works extend his career’s central preoccupations—identity, change, and performance—into a starkly altered personal and political situation.
Beliefs and Advocacy
Ovid’s poetry articulates an aesthetic creed of playful sophistication, learned economy, and formal experiment. He privileges ingenuity, surprise, and elegance, often dramatizing the instability of identities and narratives. While not a political advocate in a modern sense, his erotic didacticism can appear at odds with Augustan moral projects, and his poems examine how law, custom, and desire interact in urban Rome. The Fasti, by contrast, engages respectfully with civic religion, recounting rites and their origins while acknowledging imperial presence. Across genres, Ovid implicitly defends poetic autonomy: art thrives, his work suggests, by transforming norms through wit, intertext, and inventive craft.
Ovid habitually stages alternative perspectives, granting mythic women in the Heroides eloquent interiority and dramatizing the costs of desire and abandonment. This is not advocacy in a programmatic sense, yet it foregrounds empathy and rhetorical agency within inherited myths. His exile poetry models public self-fashioning: professions of loyalty to the emperor, appeals for clemency, and scrupulous respect for authority coexist with candid depictions of displacement. The Metamorphoses elevates change itself into a principle of understanding, inviting readers to see power, passion, and violence as part of a mutable human and divine order. Such thematic breadth sustains his continuing interpretive resonance.
Final Years & Legacy
In the early first century CE, Augustus relegated Ovid to Tomis on the Black Sea, where he remained for the rest of his life. He continued to write, sending poems to Rome that narrate isolation, negotiate patronage, and document his efforts to adapt. He reports persistent petitions for mercy directed to the imperial household, but no recall followed. The unfinished state of the Fasti is commonly linked to his exile, while the Metamorphoses appears to have been completed shortly before it. Ovid died in Tomis in the late teens CE. Contemporary reactions beyond his own testimony are sparsely recorded in surviving sources.
Ovid’s afterlife is immense. Late antique and medieval readers preserved and moralized his myths; the Ovide moralisé and encyclopedic commentary traditions made him central to European education. Dante cites him as an authority on metamorphosis; Chaucer adapts his tales; Renaissance translations and retellings, notably of the Metamorphoses, informed poets and playwrights across Europe, including Shakespeare and Spenser. Painters and sculptors repeatedly mined his narratives for subjects. Modern scholarship regards Ovid as indispensable to understanding Augustan literature, intertextuality, and reception. His blend of technical precision, narrative inventiveness, and reflective irony ensures a secure place in today’s literary canon and cultural imagination.
Metamorphoses
INTRODUCTION.
P. Ovidius Naso—commonly known as Ovid—was born at Sulmo, about, ninety miles from Rome, in the year 43 B.C. His father belonged to an old equestrian family, and at an early age brought his son to Rome, where he was educated under the most distinguished masters. Very little is known of the poetís life, except that which is gathered from his own writings. After finishing his education at home he visited Athens, in company with the poet Macer, for the purpose of completing his studies, and before returning visited the magnificent cities of Asia Minor and spent nearly a year in Sicily.
Although as a young man Ovid showed a natural taste and inclination for poetical composition, he was by no means encouraged to indulge in this pursuit. His father thought that the profession of law was much more apt to lead to distinction and political eminence than the vocation of a poet. He therefore dissuaded his son from writing poetry and urged him to devote himself to the legal profession. Compliance with his father’s wishes led him to spend much time in the forum, and for a while poetry was abandoned. Upon attaining his majority, he held several minor offices of state; but neither his health nor his inclinations would permit him to perform the duties of public life. Poetry was his love, and in spite of the strong objections of his father, he resolved to abandon the law courts and devote himself to a more congenial occupation. He sought the society of the most distinguished poets of the day, and his admiration for them amounted almost to reverence. He numbered among his intimate friends the poets Macer, Propertius, Ponticus and Bassus, while Æmilius Macer, Virgil’s contemporary, used to read his compositions to him, and even the fastidious Horace, it is said, occasionally delighted the young man’s ear with the charm of his verse.
Ovid was married three times. His first wife he married when little more than a boy, and the union does not seem to have been a happy one, though it was probably due to no fault of the wife. His second wife seems also to have been of blameless character, but his love for her was of short duration. His third wife was a lady of the great Fabian house and a friend of the Empress Livia. She appears to have been a woman in every way worthy of the great and lasting love which the poet lavished upon her to the day of his death.
Up to the age of fifty Ovid had lived a life of prosperity and happiness. Though not a wealthy man, his means were such as to permit him to indulge in the luxuries of refined life, and his attainments as a poet had surrounded him with a circle of most desirable friends and admirers. He had even obtained the favor and patronage of the royal family. About the year 8 A.D. he, however, incurred the great displeasure of Augustus[1], and was ordered by him to withdraw from Rome and dwell in the colony of Tomi, on the shore of the Euxine sea[2]. Leaving behind him a wife to whom he was devotedly attached he obeyed the edict of his emperor and entered upon an exile from which he was destined never to return. He died in banishment at Tomi in the year 18 A.D.
The exact reason for Ovid’s banishment has never been clear, though there have been many conjectures as to the cause. About two years previous to his exile Ovid had published a composition which had greatly displeased Augustus, on account of its immoral tendency. Almost coincident with this publication was the discovery of the scandal relating to Julia, daughter of the emperor. It is probable that the proximity of these two events tended to intensify the imperial displeasure, and when some time later there was made public the intrigue of the emperor’s granddaughter, the indignation of Augustus gave itself vent in the banishment of Ovid.
The writings of Ovid consist of the Amores in three books; the Heroic Epistles, twenty-one in number; the Ars Amatoria; the Remedia Amoris; the Metamorphoses, in fifteen books; the Fasti, in six books; the Tristia, in five books; the Epistles, in four books, and a few minor poems. In the following pages will be found a translation of the Metamorphoses.
The Metamorphoses of Ovid are a compendium of the Mythological narratives of ancient Greece and Rome, so ingeniously framed, as to embrace a large amount of information upon almost every subject connected with the learning, traditions, manners, and customs of antiquity, and have afforded a fertile field of investigation to the learned of the civilized world. To present to the public a faithful translation of a work, universally esteemed, not only for its varied information, but as being the masterpiece of one of the greatest Poets of ancient Rome, is the object of the present volume.
To render the work, which, from its nature and design, must, of necessity, be replete with matter of obscure meaning, more inviting to the scholar, and more intelligible to those who are unversed in Classical literature, the translation is accompanied with Notes and Explanations, which, it is believed, will be found to throw considerable light upon the origin and meaning of some of the traditions of heathen Mythology.
In the translation, the text of the Delphin edition has been generally adopted; and no deviation has been made from it, except in a few instances, where the reason for such a step is stated in the notes; at the same time, the texts of Burmann and Gierig have throughout been carefully consulted. The several editions vary materially in respect to punctuation; the Translator has consequently used his own discretion in adopting that which seemed to him the most fully to convey in each passage the intended meaning of the writer.
The Metamorphoses of Ovid have been frequently translated into the English language. On referring to Mr. Bohn’s excellent Catalogue of the Greek and Latin Classics and their Translations, we find that the whole of the work has been twice translated into English Prose, while five translations in Verse are there enumerated. A prose version of the Metamorphoses was published by Joseph Davidson, about the middle of the last century, which professes to be “as near the original as the different idioms of the Latin and English will allow;” and to be “printed for the use of schools, as well as of private gentlemen.” A few moments’ perusal of this work will satisfy the reader that it has not the slightest pretension to be considered a literal translation, while, by its departure from the strict letter of the author, it has gained nothing in elegance of diction. It is accompanied by “critical, historical, geographical, and classical notes in English, from the best Commentators, both ancient and modern, beside a great number of notes, entirely new;” but notwithstanding this announcement, these annotations will be found to be but few in number, and, with some exceptions in the early part of the volume, to throw very little light on the obscurities of the text. A fifth edition of this translation was published so recently as 1822, but without any improvement, beyond the furbishing up of the old-fashioned language of the original preface. A far more literal translation of the Metamorphoses is that by John Clarke, which was first published about the year 1735, and had attained to a seventh edition in 1779. Although this version may be pronounced very nearly to fulfil the promise set forth in its title page, of being “as literal as possible,” still, from the singular inelegance of its style, and the fact of its being couched in the conversational language of the early part of the last century, and being unaccompanied by any attempt at explanation, it may safely be pronounced to be ill adapted to the requirements of the present age. Indeed, it would not, perhaps, be too much to assert, that, although the translator may, in his own words, “have done an acceptable service to such gentlemen as are desirous of regaining or improving the skill they acquired at school,” he has, in many instances, burlesqued rather than translated his author. Some of the curiosities of his version will be found set forth in the notes; but, for the purpose of the more readily justifying this assertion, a few of them are adduced: the word “nitidus” is always rendered “neat,” whether applied to a fish, a cow, a chariot, a laurel, the steps of a temple, or the art of wrestling. He renders “horridus,” “in a rude pickle;” “virgo” is generally translated “the young lady;” “vir” is “a gentleman;” “senex” and “senior” are indifferently “the old blade,” “the old fellow,” or “the old gentleman;” while “summa arx” is “the very tip-top.” “Misera” is “poor soul;” “exsilio” means “to bounce forth;” “pellex” is “a miss;” “lumina” are “the peepers;” “turbatum fugere” is “to scower off in a mighty bustle;” “confundor” is “to be jumbled;” and “squalidus” is “in a sorry pickle.” “Importuna” is “a plaguy baggage;” “adulterium” is rendered “her pranks;” “ambages” becomes either “a long rabble of words,” “a long-winded detail,” or “a tale of a tub;” “miserabile carmen” is “a dismal ditty;” “increpare hos” is “to rattle these blades;” “penetralia” means “the parlour;” while “accingere,” more literally than elegantly, is translated “buckle to.” “Situs” is “nasty stuff;” “oscula jungere” is “to tip him a kiss;” “pingue ingenium” is a circumlocution for “a blockhead;” “anilia instrumenta” are “his old woman’s accoutrements;” and “repetito munere Bacchi” is conveyed to the sense of the reader as, “they return again to their bottle, and take the other glass.” These are but a specimen of the blemishes which disfigure the most literal of the English translations of the Metamorphoses.
In the year 1656, a little volume was published, by J[ohn] B[ulloker,] entitled “Ovid’s Metamorphosis, translated grammatically, and, according to the propriety of our English tongue, so far as grammar and the verse will bear, written chiefly for the use of schools, to be used according to the directions in the preface to the painfull schoolmaster, and more fully in the book called, ‘Ludus Literarius, or the Grammar school, chap. 8.’” Notwithstanding a title so pretentious, it contains a translation of no more than the first 567 lines of the first Book, executed in a fanciful and pedantic manner; and its rarity is now the only merit of the volume. A literal interlinear translation of the first Book “on the plan recommended by Mr. Locke,” was published in 1839, which had been already preceded by “a selection from the Metamorphoses of Ovid, adapted to the Hamiltonian system, by a literal and interlineal translation,” published by James Hamilton, the author of the Hamiltonian system. This work contains selections only from the first six books, and consequently embraces but a very small portion of the entire work.
For the better elucidation of the different fabulous narratives and allusions, explanations have been added, which are principally derived from the writings of Herodotus, Apollodorus, Pausanias, Dio Cassius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Strabo, Hyginus, Nonnus, and others of the historians, philosophers, and mythologists of antiquity. A great number of these illustrations are collected in the elaborate edition of Ovid, published by the Abbé Banier, one of the most learned scholars of the last century; who has, therein, and in his “Explanations of the Fables of Antiquity,” with indefatigable labour and research, culled from the works of ancient authors, all such information as he considered likely to throw any light upon the Mythology and history of Greece and Rome.
This course has been adopted, because it was considered that a statement of the opinions of contemporary authors would be the most likely to enable the reader to form his own ideas upon the various subjects presented to his notice. Indeed, except in two or three instances, space has been found too limited to allow of more than an occasional reference to the opinions of modern scholars. Such being the object of the explanations, the reader will not be surprised at the absence of critical and lengthened discussions on many of those moot points of Mythology and early history which have occupied, with no very positive result, the attention of Niebuhr, Lobeck, Müller, Buttmann, and many other scholars of profound learning.
A SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL TRANSFORMATIONS MENTIONED IN THE METAMORPHOSES.
BOOK I.
Chaos is divided by the Deity into four Elements: to these their respective inhabitants are assigned, and man is created from earth and water. The four Ages follow, and in the last of these the Giants aspire to the sovereignty of the heavens; being slain by Jupiter, a new race of men springs up from their blood. These becoming noted for their impiety, Jupiter not only transforms Lycaon into a wolf, but destroys the whole race of men and animals by a Deluge, with the exception of Deucalion and Pyrrha, who, when the waters have abated, renew the human race, by throwing stones behind them. Other animated beings are produced by heat and moisture: and, among them, the serpent Python. Phœbus slays him, and institutes the Pythian games[3] as a memorial of the event, in which the conquerors are crowned with beech; for as yet the laurel does not exist, into which Daphne is changed soon after, while flying from Phœbus. On this taking place, the other rivers repair to her father Peneus, either to congratulate or to console him; but Inachus is not there, as he is grieving for his daughter Io, whom Jupiter, having first ravished her, has changed into a cow. She is entrusted by Juno to the care of Argus; Mercury having first related to him the transformation of the Nymph Syrinx into reeds, slays him, on which his eyes are placed by Juno in the tail of the peacock. Io, having recovered human shape, becomes the mother of Epaphus.
BOOK II.
Epaphus, having accused Phaëton of falsely asserting that Phœbus is his father, Phaëton requests Phœbus, as a proof of his affection towards his child, to allow him the guidance of the chariot of the Sun for one day. This being granted, the whole earth is set on fire by him, and the Æthiopians are turned black by the heat. Jupiter strikes Phaëton with a thunderbolt, and while his sisters and his kinsman Cyenus are lamenting him, the former are changed into trees, and Cyenus into a swan. On visiting the earth, that he may repair the damage caused by the conflagration, Jupiter sees Calisto, and, assuming the form of Diana, he debauches her. Juno, being enraged, changes Calisto into a bear; and her own son Arcas being about to pierce her with an arrow, Jupiter places them both among the Constellations. Juno having complained of this to Oceanus, is borne back to the heavens by her peacocks, who have so lately changed their colour; a thing which has also happened to the raven, which has been lately changed from white to black, he having refused to listen to the warnings of the crow (who relates the story of its own transformation, and of that of Nyctimene into an owl), and having persisted in informing Phœbus of the intrigues of Coronis. Her son Æsculapius being cut out of the womb of Coronis and carried to the cave of Chiron the Centaur, Ocyrrhoë, the daughter of Chiron, is changed into a mare, while she is prophesying. Her father in vain invokes the assistance of Apollo, for he, in the guise of a shepherd, is tending his oxen in the country of Elis. He neglecting his herd, Mercury takes the opportunity of stealing it; after which he changes Battus into a touchstone, for betraying him. Flying thence, Mercury beholds Herse, the daughter of Cecrops, and debauches her. Her sister Aglauros, being envious of her, is changed into a rock. Mercury returns to heaven, on which Jupiter orders him to drive the herds of Agenor towards the shore; and then, assuming the form of a bull, he carries Europa over the sea to the isle of Crete.
BOOK III.
Agenor commands his son Cadmus to seek his sister Europa. While he is doing this, he slays a dragon in Bœotia; and having sowed its teeth in the earth, men are produced, with whose assistance he builds the walls of Thebes. His first cause of grief is the fate of his grandson Actæon, who, being changed into a stag, is torn to pieces by his own hounds. This, however, gives pleasure to Juno, who hates not only Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, and the favourite of Jupiter, but all the house of Agenor as well. Assuming the form of Beroë, she contrives the destruction of Semele by the lightnings of Jupiter; while Bacchus, being saved alive from his mother’s womb, is brought up on the earth. Jupiter has a discussion with Juno on the relative pleasures of the sexes, and they agree to refer the question to Tiresias, who has been of both sexes. He gives his decision in favour of Jupiter, on which Juno deprives him of sight; and, by way of recompense, Jupiter bestows on him the gift of prophesy. His first prediction is fulfilled in the case of Narcissus, who, despising the advances of all females (in whose number is Echo, who has been transformed into a sound), at last pines away with love for himself, and is changed into a flower which bears his name. Pentheus, however, derides the prophet; who predicts his fate, and his predictions are soon verified; for, on the celebration of the orgies, Bacchus having assumed a disguise, is brought before him; and having related to Pentheus the story of the transformation of the Etrurian sailors into dolphins, he is thrown into prison. On this, Pentheus is torn in pieces by the Bacchanals, and great respect is afterwards paid to the rites of Bacchus.
BOOK IV.
Still Alcithoë and her sisters, neglecting the rites, attend to their spinning, during the festivities, and pass the time in telling stories; and, among others, that of Pyramus and Thisbe, by whose blood the mulberry is turned from white to black, and that of the discovery of the intrigues of Mars and Venus, on the information of the Sun. They also tell how the Sun assumed the form of Eurynome, that he might enjoy her daughter Leucothoë; how Clytie, becoming jealous of her sister, was transformed into a sun-flower; and how Salmacis and Hermaphroditus had become united into one body. After this, through the agency of Bacchus, the sisters are transformed into bats, and their webs are changed into vines. Ino rejoicing at this, Juno, in her hatred and indignation, sends one of the Furies to her, who causes her to be struck with insanity, on which she leaps into the sea, with her son Melicerta in her arms; but by the intercession of Venus, they become sea Deities, and their Sidonian attendants, who are bewailing them as dead, are changed into rocks. Cadmus, afflicted at this fresh calamity, retires from Thebes, and flies to Illyria, together with his wife, where they are both transformed into serpents. Of those who despise Bacchus, Acrisius alone remains, the grandfather of Perseus, who, having cut off the head of the Gorgon Medusa, serpents are produced by her blood. Perseus turns Atlas into a mountain, and having liberated Andromeda, he changes sea-weed into coral, and afterwards marries her.
BOOK V.
A tumult arising during the celebration of the nuptials, Phineus claims Andromeda, who has been betrothed to him; and together with Prœtus, he and Polydectes are turned into stone. Pallas, who has aided Perseus, now leaves him, and goes to Helicon, to see the fountain of Hippocrene. The Muses tell her the story of Pyreneus and the Pierides, who were transformed into magpies after they had repeated various songs on the subjects of the transformation of the Deities into various forms of animals; the rape of Proserpine, the wanderings of Ceres, the change of Cyane into a fountain, of a boy into a lizard, of Ascalaphus into an owl, of the Sirens into birds in part, of Arethusa into a spring, of Lyncus into a lynx, and of the invention of agriculture by Triptolemus.
BOOK VI.
Influenced by the example of the Muses, Pallas determines on the destruction of Arachne. She enters with her into a contest for the superiority in the art of weaving. Each represents various transformations on her web, and then Arachne is changed into a spider. Niobe, however, is not deterred thereby from preferring her own lot to that of Latona; on account of which, all her children are slain by Apollo and Diana, and she is changed into a rock. On learning this, while one person relates the transformation by Latona of the Lycian rustics into frogs, another calls to mind how Marsyas was flayed by Apollo. Niobe is lamented by Pelops, whose shoulder is of ivory. To console the Thebans in their afflictions, ambassadors come from the adjacent cities. The Athenians alone are absent, as they are attacked by hordes of barbarians, who are routed by Tereus, who marries Progne, the daughter of Pandion. Tereus coming a second time to Athens, takes back with him to his kingdom Philomela, his wife’s sister; and having committed violence on her, with other enormities, he is transformed into a hoopoe, while Philomela is changed into a nightingale, and Progne becomes a swallow. Pandion, hearing of these wondrous events dies of grief. Erectheus succeeds him, whose daughter, Orithyia, is ravished by Boreas, and by him is the mother of Calais and Zethes, who are of the number of the Argonauts on the following occasion.
BOOK VII.
Jason, by the aid of Medea, having conquered the bulls that breathe forth flames, having sowed the teeth of a serpent, from which armed men are produced, and having lulled the dragon to sleep, recovers the Golden Fleece. Medea, accompanying Jason to Greece, restores Æson to youth by the aid of drugs; and promising the same to Pelias, having first, as a specimen, changed a ram into a lamb, by stratagem she kills him. Passing through many places made remarkable by various transformations, and having slain her children, she marries Ægeus, when Theseus returns home, and narrowly escapes being poisoned by her magic potions. Minos interrupts the joy of Ægeus on the return of his son, and wages war against him; having collected troops from all parts, even from Paros, where Arne has been changed into a jackdaw. Minos endeavours to gain the alliance of Æacus, who, however, refuses it, and sends the Myrmidons, (who have been changed into ants from men after a severe pestilence), under the command of Cephalus to assist Ægeus. Cephalus relates to Phocus, the son of Æacus, how, being carried off by Aurora and assuming another shape, he had induced his wife Procris to prove faithless; and how he had received from her a dog and a javelin, the former of which, together with a fox, was changed into stone; while the latter, by inadvertence, caused the death of his wife.
BOOK VIII.
In the mean time Minos besieges Megara. Scylla, becoming enamoured of him, betrays her country, the safety of which depends upon the purple lock of her father Nisu. Being afterwards rejected by Minos, she clings to his ship, and is changed into a bird, while her father becomes a sea eagle. Minos returns to Crete, and having erected the Labyrinth with the assistance of Dædalus, he there encloses the Minotaur, the disgrace of his family, and feeds it with his Athenian captives. Theseus being one of these, slays the monster: and having escaped from the Labyrinth by the aid of Ariadne, he takes her with him, but deserts her in the isle of Dia, where Bacchus meets with her, and places her crown among the Constellations. Dædalus being unable to escape from the island of Crete, invents wings and flies away; while Icarus, accompanying his father, is drowned. The partridge beholds the father celebrating his funeral rites, and testifies his joy: Perdix, or Talus, who had been envied by Minos for his ingenuity, and had been thrown by him from the temple of Minerva, having been transformed into that bird. Theseus, having now become celebrated, is invited to the chase of the Calydonian boar, which Atalanta is the first to wound. Meleager slays the monster; and his death is accelerated by his mother Althæa, who places in the fire the fatal billet. Returning from the expedition, Theseus comes to Acheloüs, and sees the islands called the Echinades, into which the Naiads have been transformed. Pirithoüs denies the possibility of this; but Lelex quotes, as an example, the case of Baucis and Philemon, who were changed into trees, while their house became a temple, and the neighbouring country a pool of water. Acheloüs then tells the story of the transformations of Proteus and of Metra, xii and how Metra supported her father Erisicthon, while afflicted with violent hunger.
BOOK IX.
Acheloüs then relates his own transformations, when he was contending with Hercules for the hand of Deïanira. Hercules wins her, and Nessus attempts to carry her off: on which Hercules pierces him with one of his arrows that has been dipped in the blood of the Hydra. In revenge, Nessus, as he is dying, gives to Deïanira his garment stained with his blood. She, distrusting her husband’s affection, sends him the garment; he puts it on, and his vitals are consumed by the venom. As he is dying, he hurls his attendant Lychas into the sea, where he becomes a rock. Hercules is conveyed to heaven, and is enrolled in the number of the Deities. Alcmena, his mother, goes to her daughter-in-law Iole, and tells her how Galanthis was changed into a weasel; while she, in her turn, tells the story of the transformation of her sister Dryope into the lotus. In the meantime Iolaüs comes, whose youth has been restored by Hebe. Jupiter shows, by the example of his sons Æacus and Minos, that all are not so blessed. Miletus, flying from Minos, arrives in Asia, and becomes the father of Byblis and Caunus. Byblis falls in love with her brother, and is transformed into a fountain. This would have appeared more surprising to all, if Iphis had not a short time before, on the day of her nuptials, been changed into a man.
BOOK X.
Hymenæus attends these nuptials, and then goes to those of Orpheus; but with a bad omen, as Eurydice dies soon after, and cannot be brought to life. In his sorrow, Orpheus repairs to the solitudes of the mountains, where the trees flock around him at the sound of his lyre; and, among others, the pine, into which Atys has been changed; and the cypress, produced from the transformation of Cyparissus. Orpheus sings of the rape of Ganymede; of the change of Hyacinthus, who was beloved and slain by Apollo, into a flower; of the transformation of the Cerastæ into bulls; of the Propœtides, who were changed into stones; and of the statue of Pygmalion, which was changed into a living woman, who became the mother of Paphos. He then sings, how Myrrha, for her incestuous intercourse with her father, was changed into the myrrh tree; and how Adonis (to whom Venus relates the transformation of Hippomenes and Atalanta into lions) was transformed into an anemone.
BOOK XI.
Orpheus is torn to pieces by the Thracian women; on which, a serpent, which attacks his face, is changed into stone. The xiii women are transformed into trees by Bacchus, who deserts Thrace, and betakes himself to Phrygia; where Midas, for his care of Silenus, receives the power of making gold. He loathes this gift; and bathing in the river Pactolus, its sands become golden. For his stupidity, his ears are changed by Apollo into those of an ass. After this, that God goes to Troy, and aids Laomedon in building its walls. Hercules rescues his daughter Hesione, when fastened to a rock, and his companion Telamon receives her as his wife; while his brother Peleus marries the sea Goddess, Thetis. Going to visit Ceyx, he learns how Dædalion has been changed into a hawk, and sees a wolf changed into a rock. Ceyx goes to consult the oracle of Claros, and perishes by shipwreck. On this, Morpheus appears to Halcyone, in the form of her husband, and she is changed into a kingfisher; into which bird Ceyx is also transformed. Persons who observe them, as they fly, call to mind how Æsacus, the son of Priam, was changed into a sea bird, called the didapper.
BOOK XII.
Priam performs the obsequies for Æsacus, believing him to be dead. The children of Priam attend, with the exception of Paris, who, having gone to Greece, carries off Helen, the wife of Menelaüs. The Greeks pursue Paris, but are detained at Aulis, where they see a serpent changed into stone, and prepare to sacrifice Iphigenia to Diana; but a hind is substituted for her. The Trojans hearing of the approach of the Greeks, in arms await their arrival. At the first onset, Cygnus, dashed by Achilles against a stone, is changed by Neptune into the swan, a bird of the same name, he having been vulnerable by no weapon. At the banquet of the chiefs, Nestor calls to mind Cæneus, who was also invulnerable; and who having been changed from a woman into a man, on being buried under a heap of trees, was transformed into a bird. This Cæneus was one of the Lapithæ, at the battle of whom with the Centaurs, Nestor was present. Nestor also tells how his brother, Periclymenus, was changed into an eagle. Meanwhile, Neptune laments the death of Cygnus, and entreats Apollo to direct the arrow of Paris against the heel of Achilles, which is done, and that hero is slain.
BOOK XIII.
Ajax Telamon and Ulysses contend for the arms of Achilles. Ihe former slays himself, on which a hyacinth springs up from his blood. Troy being taken, Hecuba is carried to Thrace, where she tears out the eyes of Polymnestor, and is afterwards changed into a bitch. While the Gods deplore her misfortunes, Aurora is occupied with grief for the death of her xiv son Memnon, from whose ashes the birds called Memnonides arise. Æneas flying from Troy, visits Anius, whose daughters have been changed into doves; and after touching at other places, remarkable for various transformations, he arrives in Sicily, where is the maiden Scylla, to whom Galatea relates how Polyphemus courted her, and how he slew Acis. On this, Glaucus, who has been changed into a sea Deity, makes his appearance.
BOOK XIV.
Circe changes Scylla into a monster. Æneas arrives in Africa, and is entertained by Dido. Passing by the islands called Pithecusæ, where the Cecropes have been transformed from men into apes, he comes to Italy; and landing near the spot which he calls Caicta, he learns from Macareus many particulars respecting Ulysses and the incantations of Circe, and how king Picus was changed into a woodpecker. He afterwards wages war with Turnus. Through Venulus, Turnus asks assistance of Diomedes, whose companions have been transformed into birds, and he is refused. Venulus, as he returns, sees the spot where an Apulian shepherd had been changed into an olive tree. The ships of Æneas, when on fire, become sea Nymphs, just as a heron formerly arose from the flames of the city of Ardea. Æneas is now made a Deity. Other kings succeed him, and in the time of Procas Pomona lives. She is beloved by Vertumnus, who first assumes the form of an old woman; and having told the story of Anaxarete, who was changed into a stone for her cruelty, he reassumes the shape of a youth, and prevails upon the Goddess. Cold waters, by the aid of the Naiads become warm. Romulus having succeeded Numitor, he is made a Deity under the name of Quirinus, while his wife Hersilia becomes the Goddess Hora.
BOOK XV.
Numa succeeds; who, on making inquiry respecting the origin of the city of Crotona, learns how black pebbles were changed into white; he also attends the lectures of Pythagoras, on the changes which all matter is eternally undergoing. Egeria laments the death of Numa, and will not listen to the consolations of Hippolytus, who tells her of his own transformation, and she pines away into a fountain. This is not less wonderful, than how Tages sprang from a clod of earth; or how the lance of Romulus became a tree; or how Cippus became decked with horns. The Poet concludes by passing to recent events; and after shewing how Æsculapius was first worshipped by the Romans, in the sacred isle of the Tiber, he relates the Deification of Julius Cæsar and his change into a Star; and foretells imperishable fame for himself.
BOOK THE FIRST.
THE ARGUMENT.
My design leads me to speak of forms changed into new bodies.1 Ye Gods, (for you it was who changed them,) favor my attempts,2 and bring down the lengthened narrative from the very beginning of the world, even to my own times.3
FABLE I.
God reduces Chaos[4] into order.[1q] He separates the four elements, and disposes the several bodies, of which the universe is formed, into their proper situations.
At first, the sea, the earth, and the heaven, which covers all things, were the only face of nature throughout the whole universe, which men have named Chaos; arude and undigested mass,4 and nothing more than an inert weight, and the discordant atoms of things not harmonizing, heaped together in the same spot. No Sun5 as yet gave light to the world; nor did the Moon,6 by increasing, recover her horns anew. The Earth did not as yet
