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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
Unleash powerful teaching and the science of learning in your classroom
Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning empowers educators to harness rigorous research on how students learn and unleash it in their classrooms. In this book, cognitive scientist Pooja K. Agarwal, Ph.D., and veteran K–12 teacher Patrice M. Bain, Ed.S., decipher cognitive science research and illustrate ways to successfully apply the science of learning in classrooms settings. This practical resource is filled with evidence-based strategies that are easily implemented in less than a minute—without additional prepping, grading, or funding!
Research demonstrates that these powerful strategies raise student achievement by a letter grade or more; boost learning for diverse students, grade levels, and subject areas; and enhance students’ higher order learning and transfer of knowledge beyond the classroom. Drawing on a fifteen-year scientist-teacher collaboration, more than 100 years of research on learning, and rich experiences from educators in K–12 and higher education, the authors present highly accessible step-by-step guidance on how to transform teaching with four essential strategies: Retrieval practice, spacing, interleaving, and feedback-driven metacognition.
With Powerful Teaching, you will:
- Develop a deep understanding of powerful teaching strategies based on the science of learning
- Gain insight from real-world examples of how evidence-based strategies are being implemented in a variety of academic settings
- Think critically about your current teaching practices from a research-based perspective
- Develop tools to share the science of learning with students and parents, ensuring success inside and outside the classroom
Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning is an indispensable resource for educators who want to take their instruction to the next level. Equipped with scientific knowledge and evidence-based tools, turn your teaching into powerful teaching and unleash student learning in your classroom.
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Seitenzahl: 426
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019
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Table of Contents
Cover
Endorsements
Introduction
Chapter 1: Discover the Power Behind Power Tools
HOW DID PATRICE'S TEACHING EVOLVE INTO
POWERFUL
TEACHING?
THE FOUR POWER TOOLS: RESEARCH-BASED AND CLASSROOM-PROVEN
POWER TOOLS IMPROVE MORE THAN MEMORIZATION
POWER TOOLS ARE
DESIRABLE DIFFICULTIES
THAT ARE
GOOD
FOR LEARNING
WHAT EXACTLY IS THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE?
WE PRACTICE WHAT WE PREACH AND MODEL BEST PRACTICES
NOTES
Chapter 2: Build a Foundation with Retrieval Practice
THE THREE STAGES OF LEARNING AND THE CRITICAL IMPORTANCE OF RETRIEVAL
THE POWER OF RETRIEVAL PRACTICE IN PATRICE'S CLASSROOM
THE SCIENCE BEHIND POWER TOOL #1: RETRIEVAL PRACTICE IN THE LABORATORY
THE SCIENCE BEHIND POWER TOOL #1: RETRIEVAL PRACTICE IN AUTHENTIC CLASSROOMS
HOW TO DEFINE RETRIEVAL PRACTICE IN
YOUR
CLASSROOM
TEN BENEFITS OF RETRIEVAL PRACTICE
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE BOOSTS HIGHER-ORDER THINKING AND TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE IS NOT THE SAME AS FORMATIVE OR SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
TAKE RETRIEVAL PRACTICE FROM YOUR CLASSROOM TO YOUR EVERYDAY LIFE
NOTES
Chapter 3: Empower Teaching with Retrieval Practice Strategies
BRAIN DUMPS: WRITE DOWN EVERYTHING YOU CAN REMEMBER
TWO THINGS: A QUICK STRATEGY FOR THE BEGINNING, MIDDLE, AND END OF CLASS
RETRIEVE-TAKING: A POWERFUL SPIN ON TRADITIONAL NOTE-TAKING
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE STRATEGIES IN PATRICE'S CLASSROOM: RETRIEVAL GUIDES AND MINI-QUIZZES
RETRIEVAL PRACTICE STRATEGIES IN POOJA'S CLASSROOM: WEEKLY QUIZZES AND STRUCTURED CLASS DISCUSSION
THREE SYSTEMS TO BUILD RETRIEVAL ROUTINES INTO YOUR CLASSROOM
RESEARCH-BASED TIPS FOR POWERFUL RETRIEVAL PRACTICE STRATEGIES
USE RETRIEVAL PRACTICE TO CHALLENGE LEARNING
AND
SIMPLIFY TEACHING
NOTES
Chapter 4: Energize Learning with Spacing and Interleaving
THE SCIENCE BEHIND POWER TOOL #2: SPACING
THE POWER OF SPACING IN PATRICE'S CLASSROOM
THE KEY TO SPACING IS FORGETTING (BUT NOT TOO MUCH)
THE SCIENCE BEHIND POWER TOOL #3: INTERLEAVING
THE POWER OF INTERLEAVING IN PATRICE'S CLASSROOM
THE KEY TO INTERLEAVING IS DISCRIMINATION
POWERFUL CLASSROOM STRATEGIES FOR INTERLEAVING
NOTES
Chapter 5: Engage Students with Feedback-Driven Metacognition
POWER OF FEEDBACK-DRIVEN METACOGNITION IN PATRICE'S CLASSROOM
THE SCIENCE BEHIND POWER TOOL #4: FEEDBACK-DRIVEN METACOGNITION
RESEARCH-BASED RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FEEDBACK-DRIVEN METACOGNITION
FEEDBACK-DRIVEN METACOGNITION STRATEGIES IN PATRICE'S CLASSROOM
FEEDBACK-DRIVEN METACOGNITION STRATEGIES IN POOJA'S CLASSROOM
ENGAGE STUDENTS IN FEEDBACK WITH THREE QUICK STRATEGIES
NOTES
Chapter 6: Combine Power Tools and Harness Your Toolbox
THERE'S MORE THAN MEETS THE EYE WHEN HARNESSING YOUR TOOLBOX
CUMULATIVE EXAMS ARE NOT THE SAME THING AS SPACING AND INTERLEAVING
YOUR COURSE DESIGN DRIVES
STUDENTS'
TOOLBOXES
THE SCIENCE BEHIND COMBINING THE FOUR POWER TOOLS
PATRICE'S TOOLBOX FOR POWERFUL TEACHING
PRACTICAL STRATEGIES FOR A POWERFUL COMBINATION IN YOUR CLASSROOM
CLASSROOM STRATEGIES FOR YOUR POWERFUL TOOLBOX
NOTES
Chapter 7: Keeping It Real: Use Power Tools to Tackle Challenges,
Not
Add to Them
NINE HESITATIONS, CHALLENGES, AND MOUNTAINS BETWEEN YOU AND POWERFUL TEACHING
DO I HAVE TO SPEND MORE TIME PREPARING FOR CLASS IF I USE POWER TOOLS?
DO I HAVE TO SPEND MORE TIME GRADING IF I USE POWER TOOLS?
WHEN I SPEND TIME USING POWER TOOLS, HOW CAN I COVER THE SAME AMOUNT OF MATERIAL?
WILL MY STUDENTS GET LOWER GRADES IF I USE POWER TOOLS?
HOW CAN I ADAPT POWER TOOLS FOR DIVERSE STUDENTS FROM A RANGE OF BACKGROUNDS AND ABILITIES?
DO I HAVE TO SPEND MONEY ON POWER TOOLS?
THERE ARE SO MANY POWER TOOLS. WHERE DO I START?
THERE'S A LOT OF STUFF OUT THERE ABOUT “BRAIN-BASED LEARNING.” IS THAT THE SAME THING AS POWER TOOLS?
WHEN I USE POWER TOOLS, HOW CAN I FIND SUPPORT BEYOND MY SCHOOL?
WHAT IS ONE ADDITIONAL HESITATION OR CHALLENGE YOU HAVE?
NOTES
Chapter 8: Foster a Supportive Environment: Use Power Tools to Reduce Anxiety and Strengthen Community
WHERE DOES STUDENT ANXIETY COME FROM?
HOW PATRICE BUILDS A SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT WITH POWER TOOLS
DECREASE ANXIETY WITH POWER TOOLS AND RETRIEVAL ROUTINES
DECREASE ANXIETY WITH POWER TOOLS BY SPREADING THE WEALTH IN YOUR GRADEBOOK
DECREASE ANXIETY WITH RETRIEVAL PRACTICE THAT HAS NO RIGHT OR WRONG ANSWERS
NOTES
Chapter 9: Spark Conversations with Students About the Science of Learning
STEP 1: EMPOWER STUDENTS BY SPARKING A CONVERSATION
STEP 2: EMPOWER STUDENTS BY MODELING POWER TOOLS
STEP 3: EMPOWER STUDENTS BY FOSTERING AN UNDERSTANDING OF WHY POWER TOOLS WORK
STEP 4: EMPOWER STUDENTS TO HARNESS POWER TOOLS
INSIDE
THE CLASSROOM
STEP 5: EMPOWER STUDENTS TO HARNESS POWER TOOLS
OUTSIDE
THE CLASSROOM
STEP 6: EMPOWER STUDENTS TO PLAN, IMPLEMENT, AND REFLECT ON THEIR POWER TOOLS
NOTES
Chapter 10: Spark Conversations with Parents About the Science of Learning
MAKE THE MOST OF THE FEW, BRIEF CONVERSATIONS YOU HAVE WITH PARENTS
PATRICE'S EVIDENCE-BASED STRATEGIES PARENTS CAN HARNESS AT HOME
RESEARCH SNAPSHOTS TO EMPOWER PARENTS
NOTES
Chapter 11: Powerful Professional Development for Teachers and Leaders
IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY MAKING, EDUCATOR PREPARATION, AND LEADERSHIP
AN INFORMED TEACHER IS A POWERFUL LEADER
BECOME A POWERFUL LEADER ON POWER TOOLS
USE POWER TOOLS TO MOVE FROM
SIT-AND-GET
TO GETTING INFORMATION
OUT
USE POWER TOOLS TO MOVE FROM “ONE-AND-DONE” TO SPACING, INTERLEAVING, AND FEEDBACK
CREATE POWERFUL PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
REFLECTIONS TO SPARK POWERFUL CONVERSATIONS
POWER TOOL IMPLEMENTATION CHECKLISTS
NOTES
Chapter 12: Do It Yourself Retrieval Guide
INTRODUCTION TO POWERFUL TEACHING
CHAPTER 1: DISCOVER THE POWER BEHIND POWER TOOLS
CHAPTER 2: BUILD A FOUNDATION WITH RETRIEVAL PRACTICE
CHAPTER 3: EMPOWER TEACHING WITH RETRIEVAL PRACTICE STRATEGIES
CHAPTER 4: ENERGIZE LEARNING WITH SPACING AND INTERLEAVING
CHAPTER 5: ENGAGE STUDENTS WITH FEEDBACK-DRIVEN METACOGNITION
CHAPTER 6: COMBINE POWER TOOLS AND HARNESS YOUR TOOLBOX
CHAPTER 7: KEEPING IT REAL: USE POWER TOOLS TO TACKLE CHALLENGES,
NOT
ADD TO THEM
CHAPTER 8: FOSTERING A SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT: USE POWER TOOLS TO REDUCE ANXIETY AND STRENGTHEN COMMUNITY
CHAPTER 9: SPARK CONVERSATIONS WITH STUDENTS ABOUT THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING
CHAPTER 10: SPARK CONVERSATIONS WITH PARENTS ABOUT THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING
CHAPTER 11: POWERFUL PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHERS AND LEADERS
CONCLUSION: UNLEASH THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING
RETRIEVAL WARM-UPS AND EVERYDAY EXAMPLES
Conclusion: Unleash the Science of Learning
Acknowledgments
POOJA AGARWAL
PATRICE BAIN
Name Index
Subject Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 A simplified three-stage model of learning: encoding (getting info...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 College students remember information after re-reading in the
shor
...
Figure 2.2 Patrice's sixth-grade students had significantly higher exam p...
Figure 2.3 Move from
pyramid learning
to
powerful learning
by providing
a mix
Figure 2.4 Retrieval practice improves students' transfer of knowledge...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Thirty-five minutes into Patrice's Brain Drain, sixth-graders...
Figure 3.2 Examples of students' Brain Drains in Patrice's classroom.
Figure 3.3 Example of a student's Mini-Quiz in Patrice's classroom.
Figure 3.4 Example of a low-stakes weekly retrieval practice in Pooja's...
Figure 3.5 Example of a student's answer on a homemade whiteboard in resp...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 When college students completed practice problems using a crammed ...
Figure 4.2 Students received the biggest benefit from retrieval practice on r...
Figure 4.3 When fourth-grade students completed math problems, immediate exam...
Figure 4.4 Combining the Power Tools of retrieval, spacing, and interleaving ...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Retrieval Cards differ from flashcards because students make judgm...
Figure 5.2 With the Four Steps of Metacognition, students make judgments of l...
Figure 5.3 When college students completed Metacognition Sheets and reflectio...
Figure 5.4 Metacognition Sheets allow students to make judgments of learning,...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Combining the Power Tools of retrieval, spacing, and interleaving ...
Figure 6.2 A sample lesson plan Patrice uses to incorporate and combine Power...
Figure 6.3 Example of a Power Ticket: Retrieval, spacing, interleaving, and m...
Figure 6.4 Mnemonics and visual clues helped students remember that Sargon ru...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 When it comes to Power Tools, teach a little less content and get ...
Figure 7.2 It's just a brain!
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Share with students the importance of reflection and patience with...
Figure 8.2 Acknowledge everyday life with this sign: It's okay to make mi...
Figure 8.3 Share stories and examples of learning with this sign: We can lear...
Figure 8.4 Build students' confidence with this sign: It's okay to...
Figure 8.5 In a survey of 1,500 K–12 students, 94% of students reported that ...
Figure 8.6 Retrieval Warm-Ups have no right or wrong answer! They're a...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Learning is the responsibility of teachers
and
students.
Figure 9.2 One of Patrice's students recognizes the benefit of “met...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Use the Four Steps of Metacognition and explore what you've...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Endorsements
In recent years, educators' understanding of how people learn has shifted in some big ways, but we haven't had a go-to manual for applying that research in the classroom. Powerful Teaching is that manual and so much more. With specific examples, actionable strategies, and tips for realistic implementation, Agarwal and Bain bridge the gap between cognitive science and education, showing us exactly how to put four key strategies into practice in any subject area and any grade level. Teachers who want to see dramatic improvement in student learning must read this book!
—Jennifer Gonzalez, educator and director of Cult of Pedagogy
Teachers need this book. Students need this book. It's as simple as that. This book will create a more efficient and effective classroom and improve learning. Powerful Teaching should be required reading for all teachers. If this book isn't in your school's professional development library, you're missing out. Our classrooms are in dire need of this information and I cannot wait to lead a book study on Powerful Teaching.
—Blake Harvard, blogger and AP Psychology teacher, James Clemens High School
Powerful Teaching is an incredible book with a very powerful message for teachers as to how we can transform education. A practical read, explained clearly and explicitly, this book will impact and improve teaching and learning. I love the fusion of educational research with real-life practical classroom examples.
—Kate Jones, author of Love to Teach and History Teacher, Abu Dhabi
In Powerful Teaching, educators at every level will find a treasure trove of new techniques they can put to use in their classrooms, all of which are grounded in the latest research on how students learn. Accessible prose, practical strategies, and solid scientific support—these elements combine to make this a book that will benefit all teachers and, more importantly, their students.
—James M. Lang, author of Small Teaching: Everyday Lessons from the Science of Learning
We've arguably learned more about the brain—how it works and more pressingly how it learns—in the last 20 years than we did in all of human history up to that point. Yet many educators have done precious little to adjust their teaching to what we now know. Fortunately this book provides a golden opportunity to do that. “Golden” because the authors have taken the science and distilled it into its most powerful form: a limited number of simple but powerful ideas with guidance on how to use them with insight and fidelity. They've made it easy to be smarter about how you—and your students—learn. Who doesn't want that?
—Doug Lemov, author of Teach Like a Champion 2.0, Practice Perfect, and Reading Reconsidered
Powerful Teaching shines a spotlight on the partnership between teachers and students in learning, by emphasizing student responsibility in the classroom. Using a set of clearly defined Power Tools, this book equips educators to empower students to take charge of their own learning.
—Mandy Manning, 2018 National Teacher of the Year
Powerful Teaching brings cognitive science and education together in one book! It's a digestible, evidence-based resource for educators (of all subject matter and age groups), parents, and students alike to easily implement for tremendous impact. I've already shared multiple ideas and activities with co-workers and I'll be asking all our staff to read it!
—Megan Nellis, program director of Imagine Scholar, South Africa
Other books about learning draw on academic research or on experience in the classroom. In Powerful Teaching, Pooja Agarwal and Patrice Bain combine the best of both to offer teachers, parents, and others concerned with education the most accurate and most useful information on how students learn.
—Annie Murphy Paul, author of Origins and The Cult of Personality
I have been anxiously awaiting Powerful Teaching and I am especially excited to put Chapter 4: Energize Learning with Spacing and Interleaving to work in my school. The data behind the science are visually presented so that teachers can instantly see why they should be using these strategies. The authors provide multiple practical applications that can be adapted to any educational setting—a book that will truly create powerful teachers and learners!
—Lisa A. Pulley, District Instructional & Technology Coach and Social Studies teacher
Anxiety and fear of making mistakes was sometimes the culprit for failing to remember what I really knew at the right moment. Learning about retrieval strategies with Powerful Teaching not only clarified for me why I would get anxious in school about making mistakes, but also provided a toolbox of strategies to truly make learning low-stakes and even fun for our students. From the creation of a welcoming community on day one to the day of the test, the ideas and resources offered in this book ensure that students succeed, take advantage of mistakes, and feel enthusiastic about learning.
—Oscar Ramírez, adult education principal, The Next Step Public Charter School
This easy-to-read book makes the phrase “science of learning” real for anyone responsible for teaching students. It's chock full of practical tips (not fads) and, mercifully, devoid of academic mumbo jumbo. If you want to unlock the full power of students' minds, please read this!
—Benjamin Riley, founder of Deans for Impact
The authors have combined years of scientific expertise and practical experience to create a marvelous book about understanding and applying the science of learning in the classroom. This book is highly readable and a boon to all teachers who want to improve their students' learning.
—Henry L. Roediger, III, co-author of Make it Stick: The Science of Successful Learning
Powerful Teaching
Unleash the Science of Learning
Pooja K. Agarwal, Ph.D. and Patrice M. Bain, Ed.S.
Copyright © 2019 Pooja K. Agarwal and Patrice M. Bain. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Agarwal, Pooja K., author. | Bain, Patrice M., author.
Title: Powerful teaching : unleash the science of learning / Pooja K. Agarwal, Patrice M. Bain.
Description: First edition | San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, [2019] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019003939 (print) | LCCN 2019010951 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119521853 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119521839 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119521846 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Cognitive learning. | Effective teaching.
Classification: LCC LB1062 (ebook) | LCC LB1062 .A36 2019 (print) | DDC 371.102—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019003939
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © ARTQU/iStock.com
Author Photos: Henson Creative
FIRST EDITION
To the teacher who first asked me, “If you could build a school, what would it look like?” That single, simple question led to this book.— Pooja Agarwal
To educators who create classrooms where students internalize success.— Patrice Bain
Introduction
Do you remember your first day teaching, with students eagerly (or not eagerly) awaiting your instruction? Perhaps you felt terrified. Elated. Cautious. Ready. Not ready. Almost ready?
In the days leading up to that first day, you may wonder, “What am I going to say? What am I going to teach? What are they going to think of me? What should I do when my lesson plans tank?”
But how often do you ask, “How am I going to teach?”
__________________________
Let's travel back in time to 2006. Patrice was starting her twelfth year teaching and Pooja had just graduated from college with a degree in elementary education. A veteran teacher and a newly minted teacher. Strikingly, the critical question on their minds was identical: What works best in education?
By this point, Patrice had noticed that her students were remembering what they learned years after her class – much more than what they remembered from other classes. Patrice also noticed that most teaching strategies were based on anecdotes, passed down from teacher to teacher. Year after year, teachers would come and go, but ineffective teaching methods would stay. How could there be such a disconnect between what was working in Patrice's classroom and ineffective fads permeating many other classrooms?
A few years earlier, Pooja had taken a course in cognitive science, without really knowing what that meant. She was astounded to realize that there is rigorous research on how humans learn and remember. How could there be such a disconnect between Pooja's education classes on one side of campus and her cognitive science classes on the other side of campus – both all about learning, but one based on anecdotes and the other based on science?
Suddenly, just like pieces in a puzzle, it all came together. Researchers at Washington University in St. Louis received grant funding to conduct cognitive science research in classrooms. Up until this point, most research within this specific field took place in laboratory settings with college students, using fairly simple materials to examine how students learn and remember information. Now, with this new grant, the long-overdue opportunity to bridge the gap between learning in the classroom and learning in the lab had arrived.
On a sunny Wednesday in August, Patrice and Pooja met for the first time – just inside the school's entrance, near the cafeteria, next to the principal's office. Shaking hands and walking up the stairs to Patrice's classroom, the energy was unmistakable; Patrice would be one of the first K–12 teachers to partner with cognitive scientists in her classroom, and Pooja would be one of the first cognitive scientists to conduct full-time research in an authentic school setting. This initial meeting of the minds became a teacher-scientist bond that continues today.
__________________________
This book is the culmination of our extensive collaboration to understand what works best in education. Enter the science of learning. What, exactly, is the “science of learning?” It's so simple, and yet counterintuitive. Why can we remember scenes from our favorite movies but struggle to remember our students' names? Why is it easy to learn some things and hard to learn other things? Why can we read a book and feel we learned a lot, only to find that we've forgotten most of it a year later? Why can we think back and remember our first day of teaching, but not our tenth day of teaching?
Cognitive scientists conduct research on all of these things – how we learn stories, names, facts, important events, unimportant events, and more. Research on the science of learning dates back more than 100 years. Fads feel like they've persisted for 100 years, too. Sometimes we run into fads during pre-service programs and professional development, and other times through word of mouth or online blogs. We've all had the experience of being excited about a “new” teaching idea, only to file the materials away for a rainy day. Rarely are these new strategies utilized. Professional development programs often feel like a waste of time.
So why do we keep reinventing the wheel with teaching strategies based on the “fad of the semester,” when scientifically based strategies are waiting to be unleashed? We feel there are two main reasons:
The science of learning sits dormant in academic journals, rather than easily accessible in pre-service textbooks and professional development materials.
The science of learning has recently been featured in newspapers, blogs, and social media, but it's hard to know if these are trusted sources or simply people concocting more fads.
For these reasons (and more), teachers are given the impossible challenge of finding time to seek out good research, make sense of it, and apply it in classrooms. We frequently get asked, “Why haven't I heard about this research before? Why didn't I learn about this in my pre-service program or professional development?” It's because this research isn't accessible – literally and figuratively. There is valuable research on the science of learning out there, but it's sitting behind lock and key.
There is valuable research on the science of learning out there, sitting behind lock and key. Until now.
Until now. For more than a decade, we have developed a rare partnership of scientist-and-teacher, research-into-practice – one that is true to the rigors of cognitive science and also practical with today's teachers in mind. In Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning, we decipher cognitive science research, illustrate how we have applied the science of learning in our own teaching, and provide evidence-based recommendations to empower educators to unleash the science of learning in their classrooms.
By drawing on empirical research by fellow cognitive scientists and practical strategies from educators around the world, we focus on four powerful teaching strategies based on the science of learning: retrieval practice, spaced practice, interleaving, and feedback-driven metacognition.
Retrieval practice
boosts learning by pulling information
out
of students' heads (e.g., quizzes and flashcards), rather than cramming information into students heads (e.g., lectures). Retrieval practice is a no-stakes learning opportunity that increases student performance, beyond formative and summative assessments.
Spaced practice
boosts learning by spreading lessons and retrieval opportunities out over time so learning is not crammed all at once. By returning to content every so often, students' knowledge has had time to rest and be refreshed.
Interleaving
boosts learning by mixing up closely related topics and encouraging discrimination. For example, learning increases when students practice addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems all mixed up, rather than one type of problem at a time.
Feedback
boosts learning by providing the student the opportunity to know what they know, and know what they don't know. This increases students'
metacognition
or understanding about their own learning progress.
Critically, research demonstrates that these four powerful strategies:
Raise student achievement by a letter grade, or even two –
from a C to an A
. Research we conducted in Patrice's classroom and additional classrooms demonstrated a consistent and reliable increase in students' grades, confidence, and engagement.
Boost learning for diverse students and subject areas. Our book applies to all grade levels and disciplines (e.g., STEM, social studies, language arts, fine arts, special education, and foreign languages).
Enhance higher-order learning and students' transfer of knowledge. We provide research and examples demonstrating that these strategies apply for basic fact knowledge, skill learning, and critical thinking.
When it comes to retrieval practice, spaced practice, interleaving, and feedback-driven metacognition, the combination of being research-based and classroom-proven is paramount. The rigor of science gives us confidence that these strategies aren't fads, and successful classroom implementation gives us confidence that these strategies work in the real world, not just in the laboratory. In addition, the better you understand the research behind the strategies, the more effectively you can adapt them in your classroom – and you know your classroom best.
By this point, you may be thinking, “These strategies sound great, but they probably take a lot of time and effort to use them.” Actually, they don't! The research-based strategies we describe in this book can be implemented in less than a minute without additional prep or grading time. In addition, as teachers, we already use many of these strategies: retrieving what we know, spacing it out over time, mixing it up, and giving our students feedback. The difference is that we share how to use these evidence-based strategies purposefully, intentionally, and frequently.
We start this book by sharing the research behind retrieval practice and why it's foundational for learning. Next, we share specific, actionable strategies to implement retrieval practice in the classroom. We continue with research and classroom strategies for spacing, interleaving, and metacognition, followed by recommendations on how to overcome potential challenges, engage in conversations with students and parents, and lead evidence-driven professional development at the school, district and university level.
We have even more activities, templates, and downloads available on our website, www.powerfulteaching.org. Lastly, we have intentionally embedded retrieval, spacing, interleaving, and feedback throughout this book. In other words, we practice what we preach, we model these strategies in each chapter, and we boost your learning from this book!
With Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning, you will:
Develop a deep understanding of powerful teaching strategies based on the science of learning, whether you are a past, present, or future educator.
Go behind the scenes and explore key findings from cognitive science research.
Gain insight into how scientifically-based strategies are effectively implemented in a variety of academic settings without additional preparation, classroom, or grading time.
Think critically about your current teaching practices and classroom environment from a research-based perspective.
Develop tools to share the science of learning with students and parents, ensuring success inside and outside the classroom.
Identify next steps to transform teaching and unleash the science of learning in your classroom.
As educators, we must look forward – using evidence-based strategies – to propel and guide student learning. We must stop driving instruction with anecdotes and fads, we must stop reinventing the wheel, and we must stop riding in circles when it comes to classroom instruction.
Instead, it's our responsibility to ask for evidence. Evidence for which strategies are effective, not just which strategies are popular. Evidence for why we teach the way we teach, not just because we've always taught that way.
Most importantly, after reading this book, we hope that on the first day of the school year, you won't be asking, “What should I teach?” Instead, you'll be asking, “How should I teach? How can I turn my teaching into powerful teaching?”
The science of learning exists. Now, it's time to unleash it.
Chapter 1Discover the Power Behind Power Tools
Before we dive into all the powerful research and strategies in this book, I (Pooja) would like to tell you a story.
I was visiting family in Oakland, California, on Christmas Eve, 2017. I needed to write and so I asked my brother if he had a favorite coffee shop nearby. “Yes!” he said. “It's only a few blocks away from the house, and it's an easy walk.” Perfect, I thought – I can get some peace and quiet and write (while avoiding chaotic family time back at the house). He told me which streets to walk on and where to turn. It sounded pretty simple.
Except the next morning, when I wanted to walk to the coffee shop, I couldn't remember where it was or how to get there. Thanks to my smartphone, I got directions and I took one last look at the map. After my five-minute walk, I arrived! It's a good thing I found my way, too – it had great coffee, a cozy atmosphere, and very kind owners.
You may be thinking “Gee, I thought this was a book about learning.” It is! Learning is as complex as remembering and using directions to a coffee shop, even if we don't think about it that way. To explore something so complex, cognitive scientists often refer to the three stages of learning: encoding, storage, and retrieval.1
Figure 1.1 illustrates the three stages of learning:
Figure 1.1 A simplified three-stage model of learning: encoding (getting information in), storage (when information sticks), and retrieval (getting information out).
Encoding
is when we get information in and absorb knowledge, almost like a sponge.
Storage
is where we hope that once we encode information, our knowledge sticks around.
Retrieval
is when we reach back and bring something we previously learned into mind.
Now, what do these three stages of learning have to do with my trip to a coffee shop? Let's relive my journey, but this time through the lens of learning.
First, I asked my brother about a nearby coffee shop and he gave me the name of one down the street. At this point, I encoded or “inputted” the coffee shop details, but I was distracted by Christmas celebrations in the background. I expected that the coffee shop's name would be stored in my memory until the next morning. When I woke up, however, I tried to retrieve the directions to the coffee shop, but I couldn't. How could I forget something so simple?
A few days later, I wanted to return to the same coffee shop. And yet again, I couldn't remember how to get there! It was literally four blocks away from my brother's house, but the directions had vanished from my head. This is a perfect example of a quirk when it comes to learning: Just because you know something once doesn't mean you'll always remember it.
One of the best ways to make sure something sticks and gets stored is to focus on the retrieval stage, not the encoding stage. In my situation, for example, if I had practiced retrieving the coffee shop directions before going to bed, I would have remembered them the next morning.
This brings us to the first Power Tool that will serve as the foundation for our book: retrieval practice. Retrieval practice is the same thing as the retrieval stage of the learning process: It's when we practice bringing information to mind. We tend to think that most learning occurs during the encoding stage, but a wealth of research demonstrates that learning is strengthened during retrieval.2
When I couldn't remember the directions, what did I do? I looked up the coffee shop on my phone, of course! Without even thinking about it, I gave myself feedback. It's second nature for us to seek more information, fill in the gaps, and check whether we're on the right track. First, I had to recognize I needed help, and then I gave myself feedback using my phone. This mental process is what's called metacognition, or, literally, “thinking about thinking.” Feedback-driven metacognition is another Power Tool that significantly boosts learning. It isn't new and you probably give students feedback all the time; the difference is that how you give feedback has a large impact on encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Now, I can't help but re-retrieve the directions to the coffee shop. I'm 99% sure I'll remember them the next time I visit my brother in Oakland! This act of retrieving something over time is another Power Tool called spacing, which strengthens long-term learning and decreases forgetting. Lastly, interleaving is a Power Tool where learning increases when we mix up what we need to learn – like learning the directions to multiple coffee shops and trying to keep them all straight. It might sound challenging, but as we'll discuss in greater depth, challenges are a good thing for learning.
In this brief, everyday situation, I engaged in the three stages of learning. Even when we try to remember names, birthdates, or our favorite recipe, we engage in encoding, storage, and retrieval. But what does this mean when it comes to your classroom? Students encode, store, and retrieve, too! In this book, you'll learn quick, simple, everyday tools that transform learning. Each Power Tool we share has been supported by decades of scientific research and decades of classroom implementation. You probably use many of these strategies already; the difference is that when you understand how learning works, you can harness these evidence-based strategies and increase student achievement even more.
Get ready to move beyond the coffee shop and on to unleashing the science of learning. Let Powerful Teaching begin!
HOW DID PATRICE'S TEACHING EVOLVE INTO POWERFUL TEACHING?
I (Patrice) made a discovery at the end of my first year working with Pooja.
In my sixth-grade history class, Pooja and I gave a “pop” final exam. The students were not told in advance, so there was no opportunity to study or “cram.” Students' exam scores were not recorded in the grade book, so test anxiety was minimal.
My discovery occurred when, after the pop final exam, I looked at the score of my top GPA (grade point average) student. She had done well on all homework, quizzes, and tests throughout the year. However, she was not number one on this pop final exam. In fact, although she did well, she was only in the top half of the class. Why?
Indeed, I had several questions to ponder. Why didn't my highest-GPA student score higher at the end of the year? Knowing exactly what I had taught, why would I get confused looks upon bringing up something from earlier in the year? How could students get a 100% on homework and not be able to discuss it in class a day or two later? Why do I prioritize grading homework and having it returned 24 hours later, when none of this seems to increase learning?
A summer of pondering allowed me to realize the solution to all of my questions was retrieval practice. Digging into research and applying my own years of teaching experience helped me make changes the following year. It took me, however, a few more years to perfect my tools.
My own essential question turned into, “How can I support my students to become more accountable for learning?” I realized that many of my students, including my top GPA student, had mastered the system of doing homework. Look for the correct answer, copy it down, next question. Their homework grades were 100%. But learning was negligible. And, to be honest, some papers looked surprisingly similar – copying from friends? Copying from the book? A little too much parental involvement? I was also extremely frustrated at the hours I had spent grading those “A” papers when my students lacked the breadth and depth to answer essential questions. What could I do differently? How could I evolve my teaching into powerful teaching?
THE FOUR POWER TOOLS: RESEARCH-BASED AND CLASSROOM-PROVEN
As we all know, we could fill warehouses with all the books, blogs, and worksheets out there promising to transform classrooms.
Powerful Teaching is more than just another promise. Powerful Teaching is different. How?
It's based on rigorous research by cognitive scientists.
It's based on decades of experience by classroom teachers.
In Powerful Teaching, we show you how to harness four evidence-based strategies, which we call Power Tools:
When it comes to Power Tools, we're all about being practical. No need to revamp what you're already doing! Here's why:
You already use Power Tools
. Retrieving what we know, spacing it out over time, mixing it up, and giving our students feedback are no-brainers! They're intuitive strategies, and that's what makes them so simple and flexible. And they're not new –
100 years of research
demonstrate they significantly improve learning. You can harness these evidence-based strategies that have stood the test of time and make them a regular part of your classroom practice.
You don't have to spend more time grading
. Will Power Tools increase grading time? No! In fact, keeping these strategies as grade-free as possible lowers the stakes and increases learning. In fact, we'll talk about how to remove grades all together. There's no need to collect papers, assign points, or enter anything into the gradebook.
You'll save time, not spend it
. Engaging students in Power Tools might take a tiny amount of class time (one minute or less, we promise). But in the long term, students will remember
more
and you can re-teach
less
. In fact, just a few quick quizzes in K–12 classrooms have raised students' grades from a C to an A. You'll learn more about small strategies that make a big difference for students.
Yo
u can use Power Tools your way, in your classroom
. From preschool through medical school, and biology to sign language, these strategies increase learning for diverse students, grade levels, and subject areas. There are multiple ways to use these strategies to boost students' learning, making them flexible in
your
classroom, not just any classroom.
You can use Power Tools for free
. Yes, free. There are many great technology websites, tools, and apps available that take advantage of these strategies, but old-fashioned paper and pencil are perfect, too.
Evidence-based strategies that are simple, quick, flexible, and free – too good to be true? Definitely not! By the end of this book, we hope to convince you that these strategies answer a number of today's challenges when it comes to teaching and learning – precisely because they're research-based and classroom-proven.
Even if you're already using Power Tools, how learning works isn't always intuitive. Consider these myths about learning, which you'll read more about throughout the book:
Myth
: When students learn something easily, they will remember it well.
Myth
: Forgetting should be prevented as much as possible.
Myth
: It's better for learning if we give feedback
before
students make errors.
Unleash these four Power Tools your way, with your content, in your classroom.
In this book, we focus on how students learn, not what students learn. While we give examples from teachers in a variety of content areas, we don't focus on content-specific knowledge because research demonstrates that Power Tools are effective for all content areas. Because you know your classroom best, we will help you take these flexible research-based strategies and unleash them your way, with your content, in your classroom.
When it comes to Powerful Teaching and Power Tools, one teacher put it best:
I do this all the time, but it's nice to have a name and know why it works.
POWER TOOLS IMPROVE MORE THAN MEMORIZATION
In the following chapters, we dive into each Power Tool, the research behind it, and how to unleash it in your classroom. Before we do, we want to address the single most frequent question we are asked: “Do these strategies improve more than just memorization?” Here's our answer, based on years of cognitive science research and classroom practice:
Yes!
These four Power Tools improve students' higher-order learning, ranging from a deep understanding of mitosis to effectively resuscitating someone using CPR.3 As educators, we know that boosting learning beyond the memorization of facts is critical. And that's why we advocate for the use of these strategies – because decades of research demonstrates that they improve much more than just memorization. We share specific research studies and teaching tips to emphasize that retrieval practice, spacing, interleaving, and feedback-driven metacognition boost students' basic understanding of information, and students' higher-order learning and transfer of knowledge, too.
Power Up
Earlier, we talked about three stages of learning in the context of going to a coffee shop.
Challenge yourself: Describe the three stages of learning in a situation from your everyday life!
POWER TOOLS ARE DESIRABLE DIFFICULTIES THAT ARE GOOD FOR LEARNING
When it comes to teaching, we might lecture, show videos, and encourage note-taking during class. When it comes to studying, students might re-read their textbooks, highlight information, and review their notes before an exam. We've all had the experience of feeling like these teaching and studying methods work. So what's the problem?
The problem is that these methods only lead to short-term learning. Have you ever asked students about material you covered months earlier, only to find that they've forgotten everything? This common situation arises because of an assumption we make about learning. We assume that when information comes to mind easily and it feels fluent, we'll remember it.
When it comes to learning, easier isn't better.
In contrast, researchers have demonstrated that the opposite is true: When information feels fluent, we forget it. In other words, just because we learn something easily does not guarantee we'll remember it. As Anne Agostinelli, a math teacher from Illinois, put it, “I thought my students learned it, but then they forgot it. Which makes me wonder: Did they ever really know it in the first place?”
Power Tools are desirable difficulties. They challenge learning, and that's a good thing!
Why do retrieval practice, spacing, interleaving, and feedback-driven metacognition boost learning? It's because they challenge learning. This is what's called a desirable difficulty, a term coined by cognitive scientist Robert Bjork in 1994.4 Power Tools are challenging, and that's a good thing! Decades of research have shown that fast, easy strategies lead to short-term learning, whereas slower effortful strategies lead to long-term learning.
Power Up
When it comes to your teaching, ask yourself: Are you supporting short-term learning or long-term learning?
There's a second component to unleashing powerful, challenging strategies: Students can be resistant because of the added struggle. Remember Patrice's top GPA student from earlier? Sometimes students who have done really well up to this point are the most resistant to desirable difficulties. In addition, students who struggle most can be even more reluctant to engage in challenging strategies like retrieval practice and spacing.
In other words, desirable difficulties are good for learning, but they can be tough for us and also for our students. In the first half of this book, we highlight how retrieval practice, spacing, interleaving, and feedback-driven metacognition challenge learning, which is why they improve learning. In the second half of this book, we discuss how to make desirable difficulties a regular part of your classroom, how to foster buy-in with students, and how to engage in conversations with parents about this shift from short-term learning to long-term learning.
From here on out, if a student says, “My brain hurts,” you'll say, “That's a good thing!”
WHAT EXACTLY IS THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE?
In the next chapters, we dive into the four Power Tools and specific research-based teaching strategies. Before we do, we want to answer this common question: What exactly is “the science of learning” and “cognitive science?”
Fundamentally, because learning is an incredibly complex behavior, the science of learning is actually an umbrella term that spans many research fields including psychology, computer science, and neuroscience.
Our research sits in the field of cognitive science or, more specifically, cognitive psychology. In cognitive psychology, we typically examine mental operations, or “behind the scenes” behaviors occurring inside our heads, like perceiving, attending, remembering, thinking, and decision making. One way to think about it is that the word cognition comes from the Latin word for “to know,” similar to the word cognizant, which means “to be aware.”
Cognitive psychologists examine “invisible” everyday behaviors we rarely stop to reflect on. For example, have you ever talked on a cellphone while driving a car? There's a lot that goes into being able to multi-task and do both things at once: We have to pay attention to a lot of information, we need to react quickly, and we're talking while moving our hands and arms – all pretty seamlessly. (Or so we think! Based on cognitive science research, talking on a cellphone while driving is much more dangerous than we realize.5)
Here's another example: You meet someone at a party and later you remember details about your new friend – where she lives, where she works, and so on – but you struggle to remember her name. Strategies from cognitive psychology can help you remember names, concepts, and much more – just like learning in the classroom!
In contrast to cognitive psychology, research on social-emotional learning (e.g., growth mindsets and character development) investigates how we interact with the world around us; in other words, what happens outside our heads. This field is typically referred to as social and personality psychology, and social psychologists examine behaviors such as how we develop relationships, how we're affected by culture, and why we form stereotypes. Of course, how we learn and how we interact with our environment are intertwined, and learning doesn't happen in a vacuum (especially not in education!). Even so, think of cognitive psychology and social psychology as looking at the same human behavior – learning – but using different approaches.
