Practical Exercises in English
Practical Exercises in EnglishPREFACECHAPTER I.CHAPTER II.CHAPTER III.CHAPTER IVCHAPTER V.CHAPTER VI.CHAPTER VII.CHAPTER VIII.APPENDIXCopyright
Practical Exercises in English
Huber Gray Buehler
PREFACE
The art of using one's native tongue correctly and forcibly is
acquired for the most part through imitation and practice, and is
not so much a matter of knowledge as of habit. As regards English,
then, the first duty of our schools is to set before pupils
excellent models, and, in all departments of school-work, to keep a
watchful eye on the innumerable acts of expression, oral and
written, which go to form habit. Since, however, pupils come to
school with many of their habits of expression already formed on
bad models, our schools must give some attention to the special
work of pointing out common errors of speech, and of leading pupils
to convert knowledge of these errors into new and correct habits of
expression. This is the branch of English teaching in which this
little book hopes to be useful.
All the "Exercises in English" with which I am acquainted consist
chiefly of "sentences to be corrected." To such exercises there are
grave objections. If, on the one hand, the fault in the given
sentence is not seen at a glance, the pupil is likely, as
experience has shown, to pass it by and to change something that is
not wrong. If, on the other hand, the fault is obvious, the
exercise has no value in the formation of habit. Take, for example,
two "sentences for correction" which I select at random from one of
the most widely used books of its class: "I knew it was him," and
"Sit the plates on the table." A pupil of any wit will at once see
that the mistakes must be in "him" and "sit," and knowing that the
alternatives are "he" and "set," he will at once correct the
sentences without knowing, perhaps, why one form is wrong, the
other right. He has not gained anything valuable; he has simply
"slid" through his exercise. Moreover, such "sentences for
correction" violate a fundamental principle of teaching English by
setting before the impressionable minds of pupils bad models.
Finally, such exercises are unnatural, because the habit which we
hope to form in our pupils is not the habit of correcting mistakes,
but the habit of avoiding them.
Correct English is largely a matter of correct choice between two
or more forms of expression, and in this book an attempt has been
made, as a glance at the pages will show, to throw the exercises,
whenever possible, into a form consistent with this truth. Though a
pupil may change "who" to "whom" without knowing why, he cannot
repeatedly choose correctly between these forms without
strengthening his own habit of correct expression.
This book has been prepared primarily as a companion to Professor
A.S. Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," in answer to the request of
many teachers for exercises to use with that admirable work.[1]
Without the friendly encouragement of Professor Hill the task would
not have been undertaken, and to him above all others I am indebted
for assistance in completing it. He has permitted me to draw freely
on his published works; he has provided me with advance sheets of
the revised edition of "Principles of Rhetoric;" he has put at my
disposal much useful material gleaned from his own experience; he
has read the manuscript and proofs, and, without assuming any
responsibility for shortcomings, he has suggested many
improvements. I am also indebted to Mr. E.G. Coy, Headmaster of the
Hotchkiss School, for many valuable suggestions, and to my
colleague, Mr. J.E. Barss, for assistance in the
proof-reading.
The quotations from "The Century Dictionary" are made under an
arrangement with the owners of the copyright of that work. I am
also indebted to Professor Barrett Wendell, Messrs. Houghton,
Mifflin & Co., and Messrs. Macmillan & Co. for permission
to use brief quotations from their works.
CHAPTER I.
OF GOOD USE
Why is it that for the purposes of English composition
one word is not so good as another? To this question we shall get a
general answer if we examine the effect of certain classes of
expressions.Present Use.—Let us examine
first the effect produced by three passages in the authorized
version of the English Bible—a version made by order of King James
in 1611:—"For these two years hath the famine been in the land, and
yet there are five years, in the which there shall neither
be earing nor
harvest" (Gen. xlv. 6)."O ye sons of men, how long will ye turn my glory into shame?
how long will ye love vanity, and seek after leasing?" (Psa. iv. 2)."Now I would not have you ignorant, brethren, that oftentimes
I purposed to come unto you, but was let hitherto" (Rom. i.
18).See also Gen. xxv. 29; Matt. iii 8; Acts viii. 3; 1 Thess.
iv. 15.An ordinary reader of our time cannot without assistance
fully understand these passages, because the words "earing,"
"leasing," and "let" convey to his mind either no idea at all or a
wrong idea. Two hundred and eighty years ago, when this
translation of the Bible was made, these words were common words
with plain meanings; but "earing" and "leasing" have since dropped
out of common use, and "let" has acquired a different meaning;
consequently an ordinary reader of the present time must consult a
dictionary before he can be sure what the passages mean. Words and
meanings which have gone out of use are called obsolete. There is not much temptation
to use obsolete words; but the temptation sometimes comes.
Therefore we note, as our first conclusion, that a person who
wishes to be understood must avoid expressions and meanings which
are not in present use.National Use.—A boy from
southern Pennsylvania was visiting in New York State. In the midst
of some preparations for a fishing excursion he said to his host,
"Shall I take my gums along?" His host burst out laughing and said, "Of
course; did you think of taking them out of your mouth and leaving
them at home?"[2] Unconsciously the boy had used a good
English word in a sense peculiar to the district in which he lived;
his host had understood the word in its proper sense.On another occasion a gentleman who had just arrived at a
hotel in Kennebunkport, Me., agreed to a proposal to "go down to
the beach in the barge."
Going to his room, he prepared for a little excursion on the river
which flowed by the hotel. When he returned, he was greatly
surprised to find his friends about to start for the beach
in a large omnibus.
Another gentleman once asked a young lady to go "riding" with him. At the appointed
hour he drove to her house in a buggy, and she came down to meet
him in her riding habit.These incidents show that if we use expressions that are
only local, or use words in local senses, we are liable either to
be misunderstood or not to be understood at all. Obscurity also
arises from the use of words in senses which are peculiar to a
certain class or profession. For example, to a person who is not
familiar with commercial slang, this sentence from the market
columns of a newspaper is a puzzle:—"Java coffees are dull and easy,
though they are statistically
strong."The following directions for anchoring in a gale of wind are
taken from a book called "How to Sail a Boat":—"When everything is ready, bring the yacht to the wind, and let
the sails shake in the wind's
eye; and, so soon as she getsstern-way, let go the best bower anchor, taking care
not tosnub her too
quickly, but to let considerable of the cable run
out before checking her; then take a turn or two around
theknight-heads,"
etc.If a landsman's safety depended on his understanding these
directions, there would not be much hope for him.The following extract is from a newspaper report of a game of
ball:—"In the eighth inning Anson jumped from one box into the
other and
whacked a wide one into extreme right. It was a three-base
jolt
and was made when Gastright intended to force the old man to
first. The Brooklyns howled and claimed that Anson was out,
but
McQuaid thought differently. Both teams were crippled. Lange
will
be laid up for a week or so. One pitcher was batted out of
the
box."This narrative may seem commonplace to school-boys, but to
their mothers and sisters it must seem alarming.Our second conclusion, therefore, is that a person who wishes
to be understood must avoid words and phrases that are not
understood, and understood in the same sense, in every part of
the country, and in every class or profession.[3]Reputable Use.—Let us examine
now the effect produced by a third kind of expression, namely,
words and phrases "not used by writers and speakers of established
reputation."[4] Let us take as our illustrations the familiar
expressions, "He done it" and "Pleaseset in this seat." Each of these expressions is common at
the present time, and its meaning is instantly clear to any one who
speaks English. But these expressions, not being used by
well-informed and careful speakers, produce in the mind of a
well-informed bearer an impression of vulgarity like that which we
get from seeing a person eat with his knife. In language, as in
manners and fashions, the law is found in the custom of the best
people; and persons who wish to be classed as cultivated people
must speak and write like cultivated people. There is no moral
wrong in a person's saying "Please set in this seat," and if he does
say it he will probably be understood; but persons who use this or
any other expression which is not in reputable use run the risk of
being classed as ignorant, affected, or vulgar.Good Use.—It appears,
therefore, that words and phrases, in order to be proper
expressions for use in English prose, (1) must be in common use at
the present time; (2) they must be used, and used in the same
sense, in every part of the country, and in every class and
profession; (3) they must be expressions used by writers and
speakers of established reputation. In other words, our expressions
must be in present, national, and reputable use. Expressions which fulfil these three conditions
are said to be in good use.The next question that presents itself to one who
wishes to use English correctly is, How am I to know what
words and expressions are in good use?Conversation and Good Use.—Good use cannot be determined solely by observing the
conversation of our associates; for the chances are that they use
many local expressions, some slang, and possibly some vulgarisms.
"You often hear it" is not proof that an expression is in good
use.Newspapers and Good Use.—Nor
can good use be learned from what we see in newspapers. Newspapers
of high rank contain from time to time, especially in their
editorial columns, some of the best modern prose, and much
literature that has become standard was first printed in
periodicals; but most of the prose in newspapers is written
necessarily by contributors who do not belong to the class of
"speakers or writers whom the world deems the best." As the
newspaper in its news records the life of every day, so in its
style it too frequently records the slang of daily life and the
faults of ordinary conversation. A newspaper contains bits of
English prose from hundreds of different pens, some skilled, some
unskilled; and this jumble of styles does not determine good
use.No one Book or Writer Decisive.—Nor is good use to be learned from our favorite author,
unsupported by other authority; not even, as we have seen, from the
English Bible, when it stands alone. No writer, even the greatest,
is free from occasional errors; but these accidental slips are not
to be considered in determining good use. Good use is decided by
the prevailing usage of the writers whose works make up permanent
English literature, not by their inadvertencies. "The fact that
Shakspere uses a word, or Sir Walter Scott, or Burke, or Washington
Irving, or whoever happens to be writing earnestly in Melbourne or
Sidney, does not make it reputable. The fact that all five
of these authorities use the word in the same sense would go
very far to establish the usage. On the other hand, the fact that
any number of newspaper reporters agree in usage does not make the
usage reputable. The style of newspaper reporters is not without
merit; it is very rarely unreadable; but for all its virtue it is
rarely a well of English undefiled."[5]"Reputable use is fixed, not by the practice of those whom A
or B deems the best speakers or writers, but by the practice of
those whom the world deems the best,—those who are in the best
repute, not indeed as to thought, but as to expression, the manner
of communicating thought. The practice of no one writer, however
high he may stand in the public estimation, is enough to settle a
point; but the uniform or nearly uniform practice of reputable
speakers or writers is decisive."[6]Good Reading the Foundation of Good Speaking and
Writing.—To the question how to become
familiar with good use the first answer is, read the best
literature. Language, like manners, is learned for the most part by
imitation; and a person who is familiar with the language of
reputable writers and speakers will use good English without
conscious effort, just as a child brought up among refined people
generally has good manners without knowing it. Good reading is
indispensable to good speaking or writing. Without this, rules and
dictionaries are of no avail. In reading the biographies of eminent
writers, it is interesting to note how many of them were great
readers when they were young; and teachers can testify that the
best writers among their pupils are those who have read good
literature or who have been accustomed to hear good English at
home. The student of expression should begin at once to make
the acquaintance of good literature.The Use of Dictionaries.—To
become acquainted with good literature, however, takes a long time;
and to decide, by direct reference to the usage of the best
writers, every question that arises in composition, is not possible
for beginners. In certain cases beginners must go to dictionaries
to learn what good use approves. Dictionaries do not make good use,
but by recording the facts learned by professional investigators
they answer many questions regarding it. To one who wishes to speak
and write well a good dictionary is indispensable."The Foundations of Rhetoric."—Dictionaries, however, are not always a sufficient guide;
for, being records, they aim to give allthe senses in which a word is used,
and do not always tell which sense is approved by the best usage.
Large dictionaries contain many words which have gone out of good
use and other words which have not yet come into good use.
Moreover, they treat of words only, not of constructions and long
expressions. Additional help in determining good use is required by
beginners, and this help is to be found in such books as Professor
A.S. Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric." The investigations of a
specialist are there recorded in a convenient form, with particular
reference to the needs of beginners and of those who have been
under the influence of bad models. Common errors are explained and
corrected, and the fundamental merits of good expression are set
forth and illustrated.Purpose of these Exercises.—In
the following exercises, which are intended for drill on some of
these elements of good expression, care has been taken to put the
questions into the forms in which they arise in actual composition.
The notes which precede the exercises are only hints;
for
full discussions of the principles involved the student must
consult
larger works.Some Convenient Names
BARBARISMS: Words and phrases not English; _i.e.,_ not
authorized by good English use. The name comes from a Greek word
meaning "foreign," "strange."
{
Phrases that have gone out of use, said to be ARCHAIC or
OBSOLETE.
Brand-new words which have not become established in good use: as,
"burglarize," "enthuse," "electrocute."
Phrases introduced from foreign countries (called FOREIGNISMS,
ALIENISMS), or peculiar to some district or province (called
PROVINCIALISMS). A phrase introduced from France is called
a Gallicism; from England,
an Anglicism. A phrase peculiar to America is called
anAmericanism. Similarly we have the
terms Latinism, Hellenism, Teutonism, etc. All these
names may be applied also to certain kinds of Improprieties and
Solecisms.
IMPROPRIETIES: Good English words or phrases used in wrong senses:
as, "I guess I'll go to bed;" "He
is stopping for a week at the Berkshire
Inn."
}
Most errors in the use of English are Improprieties, which are far
more common than Barbarisms and Solecisms. No classification of
them is here attempted.SOLECISMS: Constructions not English, commonly called
cases of "bad grammar" or "false syntax": as, "She invited Mrs. Roe
and Ito go driving with
her." "Solecism" is derived from Soli, the name of a Greek tribe who
lived in Cilicia and spoke bad Greek.SLANG is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized
language. It may take the form of barbarism, impropriety, or
solecism.A COLLOQUIALISM is an expression peculiar to familiar
conversation.A VULGARISM is an expression peculiar to vulgar or ignorant
people.[2] This and the two following incidents are from the
writer's own
observation.
[3] A.S. Hill: Foundations of Rhetoric, p. 28.
[4] Ibid., p. 20.
[5] Barrett Wendell: English Composition, p. 21.
[6] A.S. Hill: Principles of Rhetoric, revised edition, p.
16.EXERCISE I.1. Make a list of the provincial expressions you can think
of, and give their equivalents in national English.
2. Make a list of the slang or vulgar expressions you can think of,
and give their equivalents in reputable English.
3. Make a list of the words, forms, and phrases not in present use
which you can find in the second chapter of the Gospel of Matthew,
authorized version, and give their equivalents in modern
English.EXERCISE II.Which word in the following pairs should an American prefer?
Consult Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," pp. 28-29: Coal, coals;
jug, pitcher; street railway, tramway; post-card, postal-card;
depôt, station.EXERCISE III.1. Arrange the following words in two columns, putting in the
first column words that are in good use, in the second, words that
are not in good use. Consult Hill's "Foundations of Rhetoric," pp.
27-29: Omnibus, succotash, welkin, ere, née, depôt, veto, function
(in the sense of social entertainment), to pan out, twain, on the
docket, kine, gerrymander, carven, caucus, steed, to coast (on sled
or bicycle), posted (informed), to watch out, right (very).
2. Give good English equivalents for the words which are not in
good use.
CHAPTER II.
OF ARTICLES
A or An.[7]—The choice between
these forms is determined by
sound, not by spelling. Before a consonant sound "a" is used;
before a
vowel sound "an" is used.[7] "Foundations," pp. 32-36.EXERCISE IV.Put the proper form, "a" or "an," before each of these
expressions:—Elephant, apple, egg, union of
states, uniform, uninformed person, universal custom, umpire,
Unitarian church, anthem, unfortunate man, united people, American,
European, Englishman, one, high hill, horse, honorable career,
hypocrite, humble spirit, honest boy, hypothesis, history,
historical sketch, heir, hundred, hereditary disease,
household.The or A.[8]—"The" is a broken-down
form of the old English thoet, from which we also get "that," and is used to point out
some particular person, thing, or class: as, "The headmaster of the school gave the boys permission." When "the"
is used before the name of a particular class of persons or things
it is called the "generic" article (from genus, "a class"): as, "None
but the brave
deserve thefair";
"The eagle is our
national bird.""An" ("a") is a broken-down form of the old English
word ane, meaning "one."
It is properly used when the object is thought of as one of a
class: as, "There is an eagle in the zoological garden." It cannot properly be
used before a word which is used as a class name, because a class
name includes in its meaning more than "one."Superfluous and Omitted
Articles.[9]—The use of a superfluous "a" or
"an" before a class name, especially after the words "sort" and
"kind," is a common and obstinate error. We may say, "This is an
eagle," meaning "one eagle." But we may not say, "An eagle is our national bird,"
"This is a rare kind of an eagle," or, "It is not worthy of the name
of an eagle";
because in these sentences "eagle" is used as the name, not of a
single bird, but of a class of birds, and includes in its meaning
all the birds which belong to the class called "eagle." The
sentences are equivalent to: "The kind of bird called 'eagle' is
our national bird;" "This is a rare species of the class of birds
called 'eagle;'" "It is not worthy of the name given to the birds
which belong to the class called 'eagle.'"[8] Ibid., pp. 33-34.EXERCISE V.Tell the difference in meaning between:—1. The (a) house is on fire.
2. Yes, I heard (the) shouts in the street.
3. About eight o'clock (the) guests began to come.
4. Yes, I heard (the) noises in the next room.
5. The (an) elephant stood on a cask, and the (a) clown sat on the
elephant's back.
6. The President has appointed a commission to investigate the
cause of (the) strikes.
7. Will he let us look at (the) stars through the (a)
telescope?
8. (The) teacher and (the) pupil are interested in this
question.
9. He told us about an (the) accident.
10. Fire is beautiful. The fire is beautiful.
11. He was a better scholar than (an) athlete.
12. A young and (a) delicate girl.
13. He liked the bread and (the) butter.
14. A pink and (a) lavender gown.
15. The wise and (the) good.
16. Wanted, a cook and (a) housemaid.
17. The black and (the) white cow.
18. The athlete, (the) soldier, (the) statesman, and (the)
poet.
19. A secretary and (a) treasurer.
20. The corresponding and (the) recording secretary.
21. The honest, (the) wise, and (the) patriotic senators voted
against the bill.
22. A cotton and (a) silk umbrella.
23. The tenth and (the) last chapter.[9] "Foundations," pp. 34-39.EXERCISE VI.Insert the proper article ("a," "an," or "the") in each
blank place in
the following, if an article is needed; if no article is needed,
leave the
place blank:—1. I began to suffer from —— want of food.
2. There are two articles, the definite and —— indefinite.
3. He did not say what kind of —— horse he wanted to buy.
4. Did Macaulay die of —— heart disease?
5. Nouns have two numbers, —— singular and —— plural.
6. —— third and —— fourth page are to be learned.
7. —— third and —— fourth pages are to be learned.
8. Many names of —— states are derived from —— Indian
tongues.
9. This is a curious species of —— rose.
10. Study carefully —— first and —— second chapters.
11. A black and —— white boy were walking together.
12. —— violet is my favorite flower; —— robin, my favorite
bird.
13. There is an impenetrable veil between —— visible and ——
invisible world.
14. —— lion is —— king of beasts.
15. Thackeray was a greater writer than —— artist. Thackeray was
greater as —— writer than as —— artist.
16. The bank closed its doors from —— lack of ready money.
17. I despise not —— giver, but —— gift.
18. —— whole is greater than any of its parts.
19. He is entitled to the name of —— scholar.
20. I do not use that sort of —— pen.
21. In —— warm weather you do not need so many wraps as in —— cold
weather.
22. The Queen conferred on Tennyson the title of —— baron.
23. It does not matter what kind of —— man is appointed.
24. It is found in both —— old and —— new editions.
25. The fourth and —— fifth verse.
26. The fourth and —— fifth verses.
27. Abraham Lincoln was —— great and —— good man.
28. —— families of —— strikers are sadly in —— need of food.
29. Here are two bottles, —— one empty, —— other full of —— red
liquid.
30. Ariel had —— power to control —— sea.
31. Evangeline travelled far in —— search of Gabriel.
33. Illustrate by an original sentence —— preterite and —— past
participle of the following verbs.
33. To —— student of Latin or Greek a knowledge of —— difference in
meaning in English between —— indicative and —— subjunctive is
especially important.
34. In the verb "to be" —— present and —— past subjunctives have
different forms.
35. —— life in Madras in —— time of Clive was different from what
it is now.
36. I like so many sports that it is hard to tell which I like ——
best.
I like swimming, foot-ball, and riding more than —— others, but I
do not know which of these three I like —— best.
CHAPTER III.
OF NOUNS
How to Form the Possessive Case.[10]—As a rule, the possessive of nouns in the SINGULAR
number is formed by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as,
"The boy's coat."
Often the pronunciation of the added "s" makes a new syllable; and
if this additional syllable makes an unpleasant sound, the
possessive is indicated by the apostrophe alone ('): as,
"For goodness' sake." The putting in or the leaving out of the "s" in
such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. If the "s" is sounded, it
is always written; and whenever there is doubt, it is well to
follow the regular rule: as, "Horace's odes," "Charles's ball," "Dickens's David
Copperfield."In the PLURAL number, when the nominative plural ends in "s,"
the possessive case is formed by adding an apostrophe alone ('). If
the nominative plural does not end in "s," an apostrophe and an "s"
('s) are both added, as in the singular: as, "Men's and boys'shoes."The possessive case of COMPOUND nouns and expressions used as
compound nouns is formed by adding the proper sign of the
possessive to the end of the compound: as, "That is my sister-in-law's pony," "This is
the Prince of Wales's palace."[10] "Foundations," pp. 41-43.EXERCISE VII.[11]1. Write the possessive case, singular
and plural, of: Actor, king, fairy, calf,
child, goose, lady, monkey, mouse, ox, woman, deer, eagle,
princess, elephant, man, witness, prince, fox, farmer, countess,
mouth, horse, day, year, lion, wolf, thief, Englishman.
2. Write the possessive case of: James, Dickens, his sister Mary, Miss Austen, the
Prince of Wales, Frederick the Great, Harper and Brothers,
father-in-law, Charles, Jones, William the Conqueror, Henry the
Eighth, man-of-war, Douglas, Eggleston and Company.Use and Misuse of
the Possessive Case.[12]—It is sometimes a question whether to use the possessive
form or the preposition of. "As a general rule, the possessive case should be confined
to cases of possession."[13][11] TO THE TEACHER.—To have its full value this should
be given as a dictation exercise.
[12] "Foundations," pp. 43-44.
[13] Ibid., p. 44.EXERCISE VIII.Express relation between the words in the following pairs
by putting one of them in the possessive case or by using the
preposition "of," as may seem best:—
