Racism and Racial Equity in Higher Education E-Book

Samuel D. Museus

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Serie: J-B ASHE-ERIC Report Series (AEHE)
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 209

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

What does it means to work toward racial equity in higher education in the 21st century? This monograph answers just that with a synthesis of theory, research, and evidence that illuminate the ways in which racism shapes higher education systems and the experiences of people who navigate them. Higher education leaders must move beyond vague notions of diversity and do the difficult work of pursuing systemic transformation and creating more inclusive environments in which racially diverse populations can thrive. Such work necessitates a deep understanding of the historic and contemporary role of racism in shaping postsecondary access and opportunity. This work will be of interest to those who recognize how advancing racial equity benefits all members of the campus community and larger society. This is the 1st issue of the 42nd volume of the Jossey-Bass series ASHE Higher Education Report. Each monograph is the definitive analysis of a tough higher education issue, based on thorough research of pertinent literature and institutional experiences. Topics are identified by a national survey. Noted practitioners and scholars are then commissioned to write the reports, with experts providing critical reviews of each manuscript before publication.

Leseprobe

ASHE Higher Education Report: Volume 42, Number 1

Kelly Ward, Lisa E. Wolf-Wendel, Series Editors

Racism and Racial Equity in Higher Education

Samuel D. Museus, María C. Ledesma,

Tara L. Parker

Racism and Racial Equity in Higher EducationSamuel D. Museus, María C. Ledesma, Tara L. Parker ASHE Higher Education Report: Volume 42, Number 1 Kelly Ward, Lisa E. Wolf‐Wendel, Series Editors

Copyright © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, c/o John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River St., Hoboken, NJ 07030; (201) 748‐8789, fax (201) 748‐6326, www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Cover image by © iStock.com/rusm

ISSN 1551‐6970  electronic ISSN 1554‐6306  ISBN 978‐1‐119‐20558‐6

The ASHE Higher Education Report is part of the Jossey‐Bass Higher and Adult Education Series and is published six times a year by Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company, at Jossey‐Bass, One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, California 94104‐4594.

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CALL FOR PROPOSALS: Prospective authors are strongly encouraged to contact Kelly Ward ([email protected]) or Lisa E. Wolf‐Wendel ([email protected]).

Visit the Jossey‐Bass Web site at www.josseybass.com.

The ASHE Higher Education Report is indexed in CIJE: Current Index to Journals in Education (ERIC), Education Index/Abstracts (H.W. Wilson), ERIC Database (Education Resources Information Center), Higher Education Abstracts (Claremont Graduate University), IBR & IBZ: International Bibliographies of Periodical Literature (K.G. Saur), and Resources in Education (ERIC).

Advisory Board

The ASHE Higher Education Report Series is sponsored by the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE), which provides an editorial advisory board of ASHE members.

Amy Bergerson

University of Utah

Bryan Brayboy

Arizona State University

Ryan Gildersleeve

University of Denver

Michael Harris

Southern Methodist University

Elizabeth Jones

Holy Family University

Adrianna Kezar

University of Southern California

Kevin Kinser

SUNY – Albany

Peter Magolda

Miami University of Ohio

Dina C. Maramba

SUNY – Binghamton

Susan Marine

Merrimack College

Christopher Morphew

University of Iowa

Robert Palmer

SUNY – Binghamton

Michael Paulsen

University of Iowa

Todd Ream

Taylor University

Barbara Tobolowsky

University of Texas at Arlington

Carolyn Thompson

University of Missouri, Kansas City

Diane Wright

Florida Atlantic University

Contents

Advisory Board

Executive Summary

Foreword

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Racism and Racial Equity as a Framework for Understanding Race in Higher Education

Purpose of the Monograph

Outline of Monograph

Racial Frameworks in Higher Education

Foundations of Racial Theory in Higher Education

Critical Race Theory

Utility and Limitations of Critical Race Theory Scholarship in Higher Education

Racially Conscious Institutional Frameworks

Conclusion

Historical and Contemporary Racial Contexts

Historical Foundations of Racism in Society

From Old to New Forms of Racism in Society

Conclusion

Systemic Racism in Higher Education

Manifestations of Racism in Higher Education History

Racism in the Experiences of Higher Education Faculty

The Role of Racism in the Experiences of College Students

Conclusion

Advancing Scholarship and Advocacy to Achieve Equity in Higher Education

Advancing Racial Equity in Higher Education Scholarship

Advancing Racial Equity in Higher Education Policy

Advancing Racial Equity on College Campuses

Conclusion

Glossary: Key Terms and Definitions Related to Racism and Racial Equity

References

Recent Titles

Name Index

Subject Index

About the Authors

About the ASHE Higher Education Report Series

Call for Proposals

END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Percent of United States Population Living in Poverty by Race

Figure 2 Percent of Asian Americans Living in Poverty by Ethnicity

Figure 3 Educational Attainment Levels by Race

Figure 4 Asian American Educational Attainment Levels by Ethnicity

Figure 5 Annual Income Levels by Race

Figure 6 Annual Asian American Income Levels by Ethnicity

Figure 7 An Institutional Framework for Racial Justice Advocacy

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Racial Frameworks in Higher Education

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Executive Summary

Despite decades of work to eradicate racial inequalities throughout society, significant racial disparities continue to plague the nation. One factor contributing to these inequalities is the reality that racism continues to play a formative role in determining access to opportunities for historically marginalized populations. Given that higher education is a microcosm of society, racism also shapes the experiences of these minoritized communities within postsecondary education. In light of the persisting significance of racism in postsecondary education, it is essential that higher education scholars, policymakers, and practitioners better understand the ways in which racism operates in policymaking processes and throughout the walls of the nation's colleges and universities. Such knowledge is necessary for policymakers and institutional leaders to more effectively address race‐related problems on college campuses.

This volume is aimed at providing a much‐needed synthesis of theory, research, and evidence that illuminate the ways in which racism shapes higher education systems and the experiences of people who navigate them. By centering and synthesizing research on the role of racism in higher education, we offer a more comprehensive picture of how racism shapes postsecondary systems and seek to help readers better recognize and understand how racism continues to permeate these systems. Moreover, we attempt to advance the conversation on what it means to work toward eradicating racism and advancing racial equity agendas in higher education in the 21st century. Combatting racism and advancing racial equity begins with recognizing that racism in higher education is not limited to overt racial hostilities, but is a systemic phenomenon that permeates institutionalized norms, policies, and practices that are shaped by a long racial history.

This volume consists of five chapters. In the first chapter, we offer an introduction that outlines the purpose, context, and outline of the monograph. The second chapter provides an overview of race conscious frameworks that have been created and applied to understand racism and racial equity in postsecondary systems. In the third chapter, we synthesize research on the critical historical and contemporary racial contexts within which higher education exists today. The fourth chapter includes a discussion of how racism shapes higher education policies, as well as the experiences of faculty, administrators, and students of color within postsecondary education. The fifth chapter offers recommendations for higher education scholars, policymakers, and practitioners who are interested in supporting higher education policy and practice aimed at advancing systemic transformation toward racial justice.

At both local and national levels, political and community leaders continue to wrestle with questions regarding how to make sense of persisting racial inequalities in the 21st century. While there are no easy answers to such questions, if higher education is going to truly live up to its idealistic role of promoting social progress and mobility for all students regardless of their racial backgrounds, we believe that they must abandon some of the assumptions that drive higher education policy and practice. Federal and state policymakers can no longer advocate for higher persistence and graduation rates without pushing higher education institutions to fundamentally transform and adapt to the historically marginalized and growing populations of color entering their campuses. At the same time, postsecondary institutions can no longer superficially commit to vague concepts of diversity, multiculturalism, or equality in mission statements and recruiting materials while failing to do the difficult work of pursuing systemic transformation to create more inclusive environments so that racially diverse populations can thrive. If we are to make significant advances toward racial equity in the 21st century, we must account for the systemic nature of the race problem in higher education, and develop more systemic solutions to it. Such work requires a coordinated and multipronged approach by postsecondary education leaders to advance scholarship, policy, and practice that focuses on achieving equity in higher education.

Most importantly, this volume is based on the belief that eradicating persisting racial inequalities in higher education and the racism that helps perpetuate them is a moral imperative. Indeed, while persisting racial inequities pose potentially devastating economic consequences for larger society, this monograph is based on the assumption that eradicating racial inequities, combatting systemic racism, and supporting communities of color that suffer from systemic oppression are critical matters in and of themselves. Therefore, we present this work with a sense of urgency and with a hope that higher education scholars, policymakers, and practitioners will recognize how advancing racial equity benefits all members of the campus community and larger society.

Foreword

The landscape of higher education has never been so diverse. At the same time, society has never been so rife with racial conflicts and racial inequity. As a microcosm of society, colleges and universities are well positioned to lead critical conversation about race and racism in society. The Racism and Racial Equity in Higher Education monograph by Samuel D. Museus, María C. Ledesma, Tara L. Parker leads readers to an ongoing understanding of the critical significance of race and racism in postsecondary education. The book posits that to further equity agendas, scholars, policymakers, and practitioners in higher education need to better understand how racism operates in policy, practice, and scholarship in higher education. It is important to recognize racism and its many manifestations before moving forward with equity agendas. Absent such knowledge, faculty, staff, students, and institutional leaders will lack the foundation they need to directly address race‐related problems on college campuses and in society. The most well‐meaning, well‐funded, and well‐planned programs can be foiled if difficult dialogues around the core constructs of race and racism are missing. The monograph helps guide the reader to think differently about racial equity by looking at the systemic nature of race and racism and how this shapes the conduct of higher education and the people who are part of the higher education community, both in general and within any particular organization.

There are many strengths to this monograph worth noting. In particular, the monograph offers an insightful presentation of demographic data that provides a foundation for the reader about race and social class and links between the two. The monograph offers an analysis of existing literature, identifies gaps in understanding, and provides a call to action. The authors provide not only insight and understanding, but also frameworks to guide practitioners in their pursuits to uncover and address systemic and persistent racial inequities. In addition, the monograph covers topics that have been somewhat undertheorized and serves as a replacement for conversations about why people “can't just get along” and why programs to remediate the situation often do not work. Without a systemic understanding of racism, well‐meaning programs and policies can be misused or lack impact due to their lack of foundations in critical understanding of race, racism, and racial equity.

The monograph will be of great use and merit to scholars and practitioners. From the perspective of practice, the monograph gives language and offers recommendations to name racist practices and provide movement into equity. From a research perspective, the monograph provides a much needed synthesis and analysis of existing research related to different aspects of the role of racism in higher education. Theoretically, the monograph is also rich and practical. The authors provide critical race‐conscious frameworks that have been used in research and practice. The monograph offers readers critical understandings of the theoretical constructs that have been used not just to understand racial inequities, but also to create communities where racial equity is present.

The ASHE Higher Education Report Series has been dedicated to critical examinations of diversity in higher education. We have done this by publishing monographs that look at groups of faculty, staff, and students who are from racial, ethnic, and cultural groups that have been historically underrepresented in higher education. We have also included monograph topics related to critical race theory and research methods that strive to provide conceptual and methodological grounding for research and practice that is inclusive of multiple perspectives. Underlying all these topics is an examination of the structure of higher education. To fully realize diversity and equity agendas in higher education necessitates critical conversations about core concepts and underlying challenges associated with racism. In this monograph, Drs. Museus, Ledesma, and Parker provide a much‐needed synthesis on research perspectives, theory, and practice related to different aspects of race, racism, and racial inequities in higher education. When read together, these monographs can provide readers with theoretical and practical information to understand problems associated with racism, underlying constructs that help analyze situations from the perspective of race, and the ways that race shapes the practice of higher education. Further, all these monographs provide practical information and direct recommendations on how to acknowledge problems associated with racism and actions to take to create equitable spaces.

Lisa E. Wolf‐Wendel

Kelly Ward

Series Editors

Acknowledgments

Sam Museus would like to thank his coauthors for their contributions, Christen T. Sasaki for her feedback, and Natasha Saelua for her assistance with the production of this volume.

María C. Ledesma would like to thank her coauthors as well as Dolores Calderon and Clay Pierce for their feedback and encouragement. Tara L. Parker thanks her coauthors and her graduate students (past and present) who helped to inform my thinking and rethinking of these important issues.

We dedicate this volume to those who tirelessly dedicate their lives to fighting intolerance, ending oppression, and advancing justice…

Introduction

Immediately following the 2008 presidential election, many people perceived the victory by President Barack Obama to be a symbol of the ways in which the United States had transcended its long-lasting racial challenges and arrived in a post-racial era (Burnham, 2009). However, a plethora of evidence underscores the reality that race, the socially constructed phenomenon utilized to categorize people who share similar physical traits, is still a significant factor shaping the experiences of people within U.S. society. For example, since President Obama's victory in 2008, U.S. society has witnessed many high-profile racially motivated incidents and racially charged debates. During this time frame, the racial incidents that have received national media attention include, but are not limited to, the following:

In 2009, a Black Harvard professor named Henry Louis Gates Jr. was interrogated for breaking into his own home in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and arrested, sparking national debates about racial profiling (Thompson, 2010).

In 2010, the Governor of Arizona banned ethnic studies in Tucson schools under accusations that the Tucson Chicano Studies Program was anti-American, catalyzing national outrage and protest within Arizona's Mexican American community (Carcamo, 2013). The battle over this decision to ban ethnic studies is still being fought in the U.S. court system.

In a 2012 racially motivated hate crime, a White gunman walked into a Sikh temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin, and opened fire, murdering six members of the Sikh community (Romell, 2012).

In 2014, a large number of alleged racial profiling and police brutality cases were recorded and distributed online, leading to rising racial tensions across the nation (Barrett, Vilensky, & Jackson, 2014; Davey & Bossman, 2014). These incidents led to protesters filling the streets to express their discontent with police abuse of power and widespread national media attention on racism in law enforcement and judicial systems.

In 2014, national media outlets reported a rise in Ku Klux Klan recruitment efforts around the nation (Sgueglia, Marcellino, & Sanchez, 2014).

These are just a few of the many noteworthy racially charged occurrences in U.S. society that have permeated national media over the past few years.

Given that higher education is a microcosm of society, it is not surprising that racially charged events and resulting racial tensions continue to emerge on college campuses around the nation as well. In some cases, students of color and their allies have organized to speak out against these racial incidents at their institutions. Recent examples of incidents that spark racial tension on campuses include, but are not limited to, the following:

In 2011, a University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) student named Alexandra Wallace posted a racially charged rant on YouTube, in which she mocked Asians and Asian Americans using “

ching chong, ling long, ting tong

” sounds and disparaged these students for talking on their phones in the library and having their parents visit campus. The video prompted a backlash from the Asian American community nationally and at UCLA, eventually leading to Wallace leaving the university (Gordon & Rojas, 2011).

In 2014, the University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign (UIUC) hired Dr. Steven Salaita for a faculty position in its American Indian studies program. However, after Salaita posted tweets sharing his views about the conflict between Israel and Palestine that some found offensive, the UIUC Chancellor retracted Salaita's job offer just before he was supposed to assume the position (Hiltzik, 2014). Scholars around the country and both faculty and students across the UIUC campus subsequently spoke out against the decision, resulting in multiple national associations boycotting the campus, the UIUC faculty issuing a vote of no confidence in their Chancellor, and a barrage of student protests against the administration's actions on that campus.

In 2014, Northwestern University released a report indicating that one of its founders, John Evans, might be partially responsible for the notorious massacre of an innocent community of Native Americans at Sand Creek in Colorado (Northwestern University, 2014). Evans also helped found the University of Denver, where part of the campus community has organized to pressure the institution to acknowledge and address the racial history surrounding their founder.

Over the past few years, several institutions, such as the University of California, San Diego, and Santa Clara University, have witnessed their students hosting race-themed parties in which students dress up as people of color using face paint and racist costumes (Museus & Truong, 2013).

These examples are just a handful of the many high-profile incidents that have sparked racial tensions in higher education over the past few years, and they signify the reality that college campuses continue to grapple with issues of race in the present day.

The ways in which race permeates higher education discourse are not limited to incidents that spark racial tension on college campuses. National conversations about the ways that race permeates higher education policy and practice also abound. At the policy level, in 2013, the legality of affirmative action at the University of Texas was first challenged before the Supreme Court in Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, reinvigorating national debates about the utilization of race-conscious admissions policies in higher education (Resmovits, 2014). In addition, an increasing number of states are adopting outcomes-based and performance funding policies that have been criticized for disadvantaging colleges and universities with high concentrations of people of color, leading to increased conversations about the role of such policies in systemically limiting opportunities for already disadvantaged racial communities and perpetuating racial inequities throughout the system (National Center for Higher Education Management Systems, 2013). Moreover, the plight and fight of young men of color has been given increased national attention by the federal government, regional policy arenas, and national media outlets (College Board, 2014).

A plethora of empirical evidence also indicates that racial inequalities continue to permeate society (Bonilla-Silva, 2003). For example, evidence indicates that people of color are more likely to be born into poverty than their majority counterparts. Indeed, in 2013, approximately 11% of Whites lived at or below the poverty line, while that same figure was 18% for Pacific Islanders, 21% for Hispanics, 22% for Blacks, and 25% for Native Americans (Figure 1). While Asian American communities exhibited poverty rates below 11%, which is a rate lower than all other racial groups, there are drastic disparities in poverty within the Asian American population. In fact, some Asian American ethnic groups exhibit poverty rates well below Whites and others witnessing far higher rates of poverty than the White majority (Figure 2).

Figure 1 Percent of United States Population Living in Poverty by Race

Source: Data are from the U.S. Census 2013 American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Microdata System (PUMS).

Note: The sample was limited to those 25 years of age and older, and appropriate sample weights were applied.

Figure 2 Percent of Asian Americans Living in Poverty by Ethnicity

Source: Data are from the U.S. Census 2013 American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Microdata System (PUMS).

Note: The sample was limited to those 25 years of age and older, and appropriate sample weights were applied. To demonstrate disparities, five ethnic groups exhibiting the highest and five ethnic groups exhibiting the lowest poverty levels were included.

These racial disparities in poverty have also been linked to racial disparities in health, with communities of color experiencing more frequent health problems than their majority counterparts (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). Indeed, communities of color experiencing high poverty rates have also been more likely to witness increased health problems and unable to access adequate health care. Moreover, this combination of increased susceptibility to health problems and lack of access to quality health care has been associated with higher mortality rates among people of color across the nation (Satcher et al., 2005). While President Obama's universal health care plan is now in effect, the extent of the impact that this plan will have on health disparities among various racial and ethnic groups remains to be seen. It can also be hypothesized that increased susceptibility to health problems and inadequate health care among people of color hinder their capacity to meet basic needs required to focus on academics. Moreover, decreases in the number of students of color applying to and enrolling in medical schools in states with affirmative action bans and the reality that White physicians are less likely to serve historically marginalized populations than their peer physicians of color raise concerns that extant health disparities could be exacerbated (Bowen & Bok, 1998; Garces & Mikey-Pabello, 2015).

Within education, racial and ethnic disparities are omnipresent, with people of color being underrepresented among those who attain credentials at every level of education. Indeed, national data from the Department of Education indicate that race is a divisive factor throughout K–12 education. Indeed, students of color are concentrated in underresourced schools, are more likely to be suspended, have less access to high-quality rigorous curriculum, and are taught by lower-paid teachers with lower qualifications (Rich, 2014). Not surprisingly, these inequities channel students of color on a pathway of decreased educational opportunity. Recent data show that approximately 13.5% of Whites have earned less than a high school diploma or equivalent, 16% of Black, 14.5% of Pacific Islander, 21% of Native American, and 38% of Hispanic populations (Figure 3). At the same time, approximately 29% of Whites hold a bachelor's degree or higher, while far fewer of their Black (20%), Pacific Islander (14%), Native American (13%), and Hispanic (13%) counterparts have earned a baccalaureate degree.

Figure 3 Educational Attainment Levels by Race

Source: Data are from the U.S. Census 2013 American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Microdata System (PUMS).

Note: The sample was limited to those 25 years of age and older, and appropriate sample weights were applied.

While aggregate statistics suggest that Asian Americans exhibit greater levels of achievement than other racial groups, these figures mask substantial