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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering
- Sprache: Englisch
Radio-Frequency Integrated-Circuit Engineering addresses the theory, analysis and design of passive and active RFIC's using Si-based CMOS and Bi-CMOS technologies, and other non-silicon based technologies. The materials covered are self-contained and presented in such detail that allows readers with only undergraduate electrical engineering knowledge in EM, RF, and circuits to understand and design RFICs. Organized into sixteen chapters, blending analog and microwave engineering, Radio-Frequency Integrated-Circuit Engineering emphasizes the microwave engineering approach for RFICs.
* Provides essential knowledge in EM and microwave engineering, passive and active RFICs, RFIC analysis and design techniques, and RF systems vital for RFIC students and engineers
* Blends analog and microwave engineering approaches for RFIC design at high frequencies
* Includes problems at the end of each chapter
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Seitenzahl: 1601
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
Problems
Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Electromagnetics
2.1 EM Field Parameters
2.2 Maxwell's Equations
2.3 Auxiliary Relations
2.4 Sinusoidal Time-Varying Steady State
2.5 Boundary Conditions
2.6 Wave Equations
2.7 Power
2.8 Loss and Propagation Constant in Medium
2.9 Skin Depth
2.10 Surface Impedance
Problems
Chapter 3: Lumped Elements
3.1 Fundamentals of Lumped Elements
3.2 Quality Factor of Lumped Elements
3.3 Modeling of Lumped Elements
3.4 Inductors
3.5 Lumped-Element Capacitors
3.6 Lumped-Element Resistors
References
Problems
Chapter 4: Transmission Lines
4.1 Essentials of Transmission Lines
4.2 Transmission-Line Equations
4.3 Transmission-Line Parameters
4.4 Per-Unit-Length Parameters
R
,
L
,
C
, and
G
4.5 Dielectric and Conductor Losses in Transmission Lines
4.6 Dispersion and Distortion in Transmission Lines
4.7 Group Velocity
4.8 Impedance, Reflection Coefficients, and Standing-Wave Ratios
4.9 Synthetic Transmission Lines
4.10 TEM and QUASI-TEM Transmission-Line Parameters
4.11 Printed-Circuit Transmission Lines
4.12 Transmission Lines in RFICs
4.13 Multi-Conductor Transmission Lines
References
Problems
Appendix 4: Transmission-Line Equations Derived from Maxwell's Equations
Chapter 5: Resonators
5.1 Fundamentals of Resonators
5.2 Quality Factor
5.3 Distributed Resonators
5.4 Resonator's Slope Parameters
5.5 Transformation of Resonators
References
Problems
Chapter 6: Impedance Matching
6.1 Basic Impedance Matching
6.2 Design of Impedance-Matching Networks
6.3 Kuroda Identities
References
Problems
Chapter 7: Scattering Parameters
7.1 Multiport Networks
7.2 Impedance Matrix
7.3 Admittance Matrix
7.4 Impedance and Admittance Matrix in RF Circuit Analysis
7.5 Scattering Matrix
7.6 Chain Matrix
7.7 Scattering Transmission Matrix
7.8 Conversion Between two-Port Parameters
References
Problems
Chapter 8: RF Passive Components
8.1 Characteristics of Multiport RF Passive Components
8.2 Directional Couplers
8.3 Hybrids
8.4 Power Dividers
8.5 Filters
References
Problems
Chapter 9: Fundamentals of CMOS Transistors for RFIC Design
9.1 MOSFET Basics
9.2 Mosfet Models
9.3 Important Mosfet Frquencies
9.4 Other Important MOSFET Parameters
9.5 Varactor DIODES
References
Problems
Chapter 10: Stability
10.1 Fundamentals of Stability
10.2 Determination of Stable and Unstable Regions
10.3 Stability Consideration for
N
-Port Circuits
References
Problems
Chapter 11: Amplifiers
11.1 Fundamentals of Amplifier Design
11.2 Low Noise Amplifiers
11.3 Design Examples
11.4 Power Amplifiers
11.5 Balanced Amplifiers
11.6 Broadband Amplifiers
11.7 Current Mirrors
References
Problems
Appendix 11: Signal Flow Graph
References
Chapter 12: Oscillators
12.1 Principle of Oscillation
12.2 Fundamentals of Oscillator Design
12.3 Phase Noise
12.4 Oscillator Circuits
References
Problems
Chapter 13: Mixers
13.1 Fundamentals of Mixers
13.2 Mixer Types
13.3 Other Mixers
13.4 Mixer Analysis and Design
13.5 Sampling Mixer
References
Problems
Chapter 14: Switches
14.1 Fundamentals of Switches
14.2 Analysis of Switching Mosfet
14.3 SPST Switches
14.4 SPDT Switches
14.5 Ultra-Wideband Switches
14.6 Ultra-High-Isolation Switches
14.7 Filter Switches
References
Problems
Chapter 15: RFIC Simulation, Layout, and Test
15.1 RFIC Simulation
15.2 RFIC Layout
15.3 RFIC Measurement
References
Problems
Chapter 16: Systems
16.1 Fundamentals of Systems
16.2 System Type
References
Problems
Appendix 1: RFIC Design Example: Mixer
A1.1 Circuit Design Specifications and General Design Information
A1.2 Mixer Design
A1.3 Mixer Optimization and Layout
A1.4 Simulation Results
A1.5 Measured Results
References
Index
Wiley Series In Microwave And Optical Engineering
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Figure 1.1
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
Figure 3.19
Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
Figure 3.22
Figure 3.23
Figure 3.24
Figure 3.25
Figure 3.26
Figure 3.27
Figure 3.28
Figure 3.29
Figure 3.30
Figure 3.31
Figure 3.32
Figure 3.33
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35
Figure 3.36
Figure 3.37
Figure 3.38
Figure 3.39
Figure 3.40
Figure 3.41
Figure 3.42
Figure 3.43
Figure 3.44
Figure 3.45
Figure 3.46
Figure 3.47
Figure 3.48
Figure 3.49
Figure 3.50
Figure 3.51
Figure 3.52
Figure 3.53
Figure P3.1
Figure P3.2
Figure P3.3
Figure P3.4
Figure P3.5
Figure P3.6
Figure P3.7
Figure P3.8
Figure P3.9
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13
Figure 4.14
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17
Figure 4.20
Figure 4.23
Figure 4.19
Figure 4.18
Figure 4.21
Figure 4.22
Figure 4.24
Figure 4.25
Figure 4.26
Figure 4.30
Figure 4.27
Figure 4.28
Figure 4.29
Figure 4.31
Figure 4.32
Figure 4.33
Figure 4.34
Figure 4.35
Figure 4.36
Figure 4.37
Figure 4.38
Figure P4.1
Figure P4.2
Figure P4.3
Figure P4.4
Figure P4.5
Figure P4.6
Figure P4.7
Figure P4.8
Figure P4.9
Figure P4.10
Figure A4.1
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.14
Figure 5.15
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.21
Figure 5.22
Figure 5.23
Figure 5.24
Figure 5.25
Figure 5.26
Figure 5.27
Figure 5.28
Figure 5.29
Figure 5.30
Figure 5.31
Figure 5.32
Figure 5.33
Figure 5.34
Figure 5.35
Figure 5.36
Figure 5.37
Figure 5.38
Figure 5.39
Figure 5.40
Figure 5.41
Figure 5.42
Figure 5.43
Figure P5.1
Figure P5.2
Figure P5.3
Figure P5.4
Figure P5.5
Figure P5.6
Figure P5.7
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.12
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
Figure 6.15
Figure 6.16
Figure 6.17
Figure 6.18
Figure 6.19
Figure 6.20
Figure 6.21
Figure 6.22
Figure P6.1
Figure P6.2
Figure P6.3
Figure P6.4
Figure P6.5
Figure P6.6
Figure P6.7
Figure P6.8
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Figure 7.9
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
Figure 7.12
Figure 7.13
Figure 7.14
Figure 7.15
Figure 7.16
Figure 7.17
Figure 7.18
Figure 7.19
Figure 7.20
Figure 7.21
Figure 7.22
Figure 7.23
Figure P7.1
Figure P7.2
Figure P7.3
Figure P7.4
Figure P7.5
Figure P7.6
Figure P7.7
Figure P7.8
Figure P7.9
Figure P7.10
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 8.7
Figure 8.8
Figure 8.9
Figure 8.10
Figure 8.11
Figure 8.12
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
Figure 8.16
Figure 8.17
Figure 8.18
Figure 8.20
Figure 8.21
Figure 8.22
Figure 8.23
Figure 8.24
Figure 8.25
Figure 8.26
Figure 8.27
Figure 8.28
Figure 8.29
Figure 8.30
Figure 8.32
Figure 8.33
Figure 8.34
Figure 8.35
Figure 8.36
Figure 8.37
Figure 8.38
Figure 8.39
Figure 8.40
Figure 8.41
Figure 8.42
Figure 8.51
Figure 8.43
Figure 8.44
Figure 8.45
Figure 8.46
Figure 8.47
Figure 8.48
Figure 8.49
Figure 8.50
Figure 8.52
Figure 8.53
Figure 8.54
Figure 8.55
Figure 8.56
Figure 8.57
Figure 8.58
Figure 8.59
Figure 8.60
Figure 8.61
Figure 8.62
Figure 8.63
Figure 8.64
Figure 8.65
Figure 8.66
Figure 8.67
Figure P8.1
Figure P8.2
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Figure 9.11(a)
Figure 9.12
Figure 9.13
Figure 9.17
Figure 9.18
Figure 9.19
Figure 9.20
Figure 9.21
Figure 9.22
Figure 9.23
Figure 9.24
Figure 9.25
Figure 9.26
Figure 9.27
Figure 9.28
Figure 9.29
Figure 9.30
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.4
Figure 10.5
Figure 10.6
Figure 10.7
Figure 10.8
Figure 11.1
Figure 11.2
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.4
Figure 11.5
Figure 11.6
Figure 11.7
Figure 11.8
Figure 11.9
Figure 11.10
Figure 11.11
Figure 11.12
Figure 11.13
Figure 11.14
Figure 11.15
Figure 11.16
Figure 11.17
Figure 11.18
Figure 11.19
Figure 11.20
Figure 11.21
Figure 11.22
Figure 11.23
Figure 11.24
Figure 11.25
Figure 11.26
Figure 11.27
Figure 11.28
Figure 11.29
Figure 11.30
Figure 11.31
Figure 11.32
Figure 11.33
Figure 11.34
Figure 11.35
Figure 11.36
Figure 11.37
Figure 11.38
Figure 11.39
Figure 11.40
Figure 11.41
Figure 11.57
Figure 11.42
Figure 11.43
Figure 11.44
Figure 11.45
Figure 11.46
Figure 11.47
Figure 11.48
Figure 11.49
Figure 11.50
Figure 11.51
Figure 11.53
Figure 11.52
Figure 11.54
Figure 11.55
Figure 11.56
Figure 11.58
Figure 11.59
Figure 11.60
Figure 11.61
Figure 11.62
Figure 11.63
Figure 11.64
Figure 11.65
Figure 11.66
Figure 11.67
Figure 11.68
Figure 11.69
Figure 11.70
Figure 11.71
Figure 11.72
Figure 11.73
Figure 11.74
Figure 11.75
Figure 11.76
Figure 11.77
Figure 11.78
Figure 11.79
Figure 11.80
Figure 11.81
Figure 11.82
Figure 11.83
Figure 11.84
Figure 11.85
Figure 11.86
Figure 11.87
Figure 11.88
Figure 11.89
Figure 11.90
Figure 11.91
Figure 11.92
Figure 11.93
Figure 11.94
Figure 11.95
Figure 11.96
Figure 11.97
Figure 11.98
Figure 11.99
Figure 11.100
Figure 11.101
Figure 11.102
Figure 11.103
Figure 11.104
Figure 11.105
Figure 11.106
Figure 11.107
Figure 11.108
Figure 11.109
Figure 11.110
Figure 11.111
Figure 11.112
Figure 11.113
Figure 11.114
Figure 11.115
Figure 11.116
Figure 11.117
Figure 11.118
Figure 11.119
Figure 11.120
Figure 11.121
Figure 11.122
Figure 11.123
Figure 11.124
Figure 11.125
Figure 11.126
Figure 11.127
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2
Figure 12.3
Figure 12.4
Figure 12.5
Figure 12.6
Figure 12.7
Figure 12.8
Figure 12.9
Figure 12.10
Figure 12.11
Figure 12.12
Figure 12.13
Figure 12.14
Figure 12.15
Figure 12.16
Figure 12.17
Figure 12.18
Figure 12.19
Figure 12.20
Figure 12.21
Figure 12.22
Figure 12.23
Figure 12.24
Figure 12.25
Figure 12.26
Figure 12.27
Figure 12.28
Figure 12.29
Figure 12.30
Figure 12.31
Figure 12.32
Figure 12.33
Figure 12.34
Figure 12.35
Figure 12.36
Figure 12.37
Figure 12.38
Figure 12.39
Figure 12.40
Figure 12.41
Figure 12.42
Figure 12.43
Figure 12.44
Figure 12.45
Figure 12.46
Figure 12.47
Figure 12.48
Figure 12.49
Figure 12.50
Figure 12.51
Figure 12.52
Figure 12.53
Figure 12.54
Figure 12.55
Figure 12.56
Figure 12.57
Figure 12.58
Figure 13.1
Figure 13.2
Figure 13.3
Figure 13.4
Figure 13.5
Figure 13.6
Figure 13.7
Figure 13.8
Figure 13.9
Figure 13.10
Figure 13.11
Figure 13.12
Figure 13.13
Figure 13.14
Figure 13.15
Figure 13.16
Figure 13.17
Figure 13.18
Figure 13.19
Figure 13.20
Figure 13.21
Figure 13.22
Figure 13.23
Figure 13.24
Figure 13.25
Figure 13.26
Figure 13.27
Figure 13.28
Figure 13.29
Figure 13.30
Figure 13.31
Figure 13.32
Figure 13.33
Figure 13.34
Figure 13.35
Figure 13.36
Figure 13.37
Figure 13.38
Figure 13.39
Figure 13.40
Figure 13.41
Figure 13.42
Figure 13.43
Figure 13.44
Figure 13.45
Figure 13.46
Figure 13.47
Figure 13.51
Figure 13.48
Figure 13.49
Figure 13.50
Figure 13.52
Figure 13.53
Figure 13.54
Figure 13.55
Figure 13.56
Figure 13.57
Figure 13.58
Figure 13.59
Figure 13.60
Figure 13.61
Figure 13.62
Figure 13.63
Figure 14.1
Figure 14.2
Figure 14.3
Figure 14.4
Figure 14.5
Figure 14.6
Figure 14.7
Figure 14.8
Figure 14.9
Figure 14.10
Figure 14.11
Figure 14.13
Figure 14.12
Figure 14.14
Figure 14.16
Figure 14.15
Figure 14.17
Figure 14.18
Figure 14.19
Figure 14.20
Figure 14.21
Figure 14.22
Figure 14.23
Figure 14.24
Figure 14.25
Figure 14.26
Figure 14.27
Figure 14.28
Figure 14.29
Figure 14.30
Figure 14.31
Figure 14.32
Figure 14.33
Figure 14.34
Figure 14.35
Figure 14.36
Figure 14.37
Figure 14.38
Figure 14.39
Figure 14.40
Figure 14.41
Figure 14.42
Figure 14.43
Figure 14.44
Figure 14.45
Figure 14.46
Figure 14.47
Figure 14.48
Figure 14.49
Figure 14.50
Figure P14.1
Figure P14.2
Figure P14.3
Figure P14.4
Figure P14.5
Figure 15.1
Figure 15.2
Figure 15.3
Figure 15.4
Figure 15.5
Figure 15.6
Figure 15.7
Figure 15.8
Figure 15.9
Figure 15.10
Figure 15.11
Figure 15.12
Figure 15.13
Figure 15.14
Figure 15.15
Figure 15.16
Figure 15.17
Figure 15.18
Figure 15.21
Figure 15.22
Figure 15.23
Figure 15.26
Figure 15.24
Figure 15.25
Figure 15.27
Figure P15.2
Figure P15.1
Figure 16.1
Figure 16.2
Figure 16.3
Figure 16.4
Figure 16.5
Figure 16.6
Figure 16.7
Figure 16.8
Figure 16.9
Figure 16.10
Figure 16.11
Figure 16.12
Figure 16.13
Figure 16.14
Figure 16.15
Figure 16.16
Figure 16.17
Figure 16.18
Figure 16.19
Figure 16.20
Figure 16.21
Figure 16.22
Figure 16.23
Figure 16.24
Figure 16.25
Figure 16.26
Figure 16.27
Figure 16.28
Figure 16.29
Figure 16.30
Figure 16.31
Figure 16.32
Figure 16.33
Figure 16.34
Figure 16.35
Figure 16.36
Figure 16.37
Figure 16.38
Figure P16.1
Figure P16.2
Figure P16.3
Figure A1.1
Figure A1.2
Figure A1.3
Figure A1.4
Figure A1.5
Figure A1.6
Figure A1.7
Figure A1.8
Figure A1.9
Figure A1.10
Figure A1.11
Figure A1.12
Figure A1.13
Figure A1.14
Figure A1.15
Figure A1.16
List of Tables
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 5.1
Table 6.1
Table 7.1
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
Table 8.3
Table 8.4
Table 9.1
Table 9.2
Table 9.3
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Table 11.3
Table 12.1
Table 12.2
Table 12.3
Table 12.4
Table 13.1
Table 14.1
Table 14.2
Table 14.3
Table 15.1
Table 15.2
Table A1.1
Table A1.2
Table A1.3
Table A1.4
Table A1.5
Radio-Frequency Integrated-Circuit Engineering
Cam Nguyen
Copyright © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Nguyen, Cam.
Radio-frequency integrated-circuit engineering / Cam Nguyen.
1 online resource. – (Wiley series in microwave and optical engineering ; 128)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.
ISBN 978-1-118-93648-1 (ePub) – ISBN 978-1-118-90047-5 (Adobe PDF) – ISBN 978-0-471-39820-2
(hardback) 1. Radio frequency integrated circuits. I. Title.
TK7874.78
621.382–dc23
2014024757
This book is dedicated to my parents (Mr. and Mrs. Nguyn Xuân Sng), my wife (Trn Ngc-Dip), and my children (Christine Nhã-Uyên, Devon, and Andrew-Đình-An).
Preface
Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits (RFICs) implemented using silicon-based technologies such as complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) and bipolar and complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (BiCMOS) offer competitive performance with much lower cost and better integration capability than their non-silicon based counterparts. RFIC has become one of the most exciting areas in the radio frequency (RF) domain with contributions and impacts far reaching into the millimeter-wave range and advancing into the sub-millimeter-wave regime. Studies and research for RFIC, particularly those extending into the millimeter-wave region and beyond, across the World have exploded in the past decade and are indeed increasing rapidly.
Several years ago, when my research interests shifted from the then more well-known microwave-integrated circuits and systems to RFICs, I was looking for possible books that address RFIC design, especially from the microwave design point of view, which I consider as absolutely essential for RF operation. As a result, the long journal for this book began and its birth, long overdue, is just now matured.
As RF is moving into very high frequencies now, reaching THz, RF (as it is practiced now) is not different from microwave. RF at present implies frequencies from a few KHz up to hundreds of GHz (not a few GHz as considered before). Therefore, knowledge in electromagnetics (EM) and microwave engineering, together with passive and active RFICs, RFIC analysis and design techniques, and RF systems, is vital for RFIC engineers. Without EM and microwave engineering foundation, RFIC engineers would lack the essential background needed for designing RFICs at high frequencies. The primary objective of the book is to present the theory, analysis, and design of passive and active RFICs, including those at high frequencies beyond those in the traditional RF spectrum, aiming toward providing essential knowledge in RFIC design to graduate students and engineers. The materials in this book are self-contained and presented in such details that allow readers with only undergraduate electrical engineering knowledge in EM, RF and circuits to understand and design RFICs. The book includes problems at the end of each chapter, allowing readers to reinforce their knowledge and practice their understanding. Some of these problems are relatively long and difficult, and may thus be more suitable for class projects. The book can serve not only as a textbook for graduate students and senior undergraduate students (to some extent), but also as a reference book for practicing RFIC and microwave engineers. It is written based partly on the materials of some graduate courses on active RFICs and microwave circuits offered at the Texas A&M University and partly on the RFIC research conducted at the University. The majority of the book can be covered in two graduate semester courses (or two undergraduate courses with reduced load): one for passive RFICs and another for active RFICs.
I sincerely appreciate some of my former students (Drs. M. Miao, Y. Jin, X. Guan, M. Chirala, R. Xu, and S. Lee) for their enthusiasm in venturing into the RFIC area with me and for their contributions, and my current Ph.D. students (C. Huynh, J. Lee, D. Lee, K. Kim, S. Jang, Y. Luo, Y. Um, J. Bae, and C. Geha) for continuing carrying out our passion in RFICs and for their help in preparing the book. Without them, our venture into RFICs would not have succeeded and this book would hence never been completed. Finally, I wish to express my deepest appreciation to the person I forever owe my indebtedness to: my wife, Ngoc-Diep Tran, for her support during the writing of this book.
CAM NGUYEN
College Station, TX, USA
Newport Beach, CA, USA
Chapter 1Introduction
Wireless systems, including communication, networking, and sensing systems, play a critical role in our information-age society in many areas, from public service and safety, consumer, industry, sports, gaming, and entertainment, asset and inventory management, medicine, banking to government and military operations. The key to enabling effective wireless communications, sensing and networking is radio-frequency (RF) integrated circuits (ICs).
Radio-frequency integrated circuits (RFICs) typically refer to RF monolithic ICs fabricated on silicon (Si) substrates using complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) or BiCMOS technology. From a general perspective, however, RFICs are not and should not be limited to only Si-based CMOS and BiCMOS circuits; others like microwave monolithic integrated circuits (MMICs) using III–V semiconductors such as GaAs MMICs can also be classified as RFICs. Nevertheless, in this book, to emphasize the main objective of the book and to distinguish Si-based RFICs from other non-Si based RFICs, we will use the term RFIC to indicate Si-based CMOS/BiCMOS RFIC. The readers should, however, keep in mind that the presented materials are not limited to Si-based RFICs; they are also applicable to non-Si based RFICs such as GaAs MMICs.
The frequencies used to indicate the RF range, in general, and for RFICs, in particular, are not strictly defined in practice. To some extent, particularly in the past, the frequencies in the RF range are known as a few kilohertz to a few gigahertz and, hence, RF is clearly distinct from microwave. Since the frequencies for radio waves are normally known as between 3 KHz and 300 GHz, to a broader extent, the frequencies in the RF range can be considered from 3 KHz to 300 GHz. As the name RF implies, however, these frequencies should not be limited to below 300 GHz. In this book, we will consider all the RFs in the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum up to terahertz (THz) as RF—in other words, we view the RF range as including all frequencies from 3 KHz to microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave frequencies. Therefore, RF, as it is practiced or should be practiced now, is not different from microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave frequencies. The boundary between RF and microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave indeed no longer exists or should not exist. As the technologies for RFICs advance toward the terahertz region of the RF spectrum, it is expected that RFICs will find many useful applications in both the commercial and the defense sectors at terahertz—for instance, medical imaging or personal-health monitoring in the medical field and extremely wide bandwidth and ultrahigh data-rate for wireless communications.
Over the past several decades, RF components and systems in the microwave, millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave ranges have been dominated with circuits employing III–V compound semiconductor devices, such as GaAs metal semiconductor field effect transistor (MESFET), high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), InP HEMT, GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT), and InP HBT, etc. due to their superior performance as compared to Si-based technologies. RFICs based on III–V semiconductors, however, are expensive and have limited integration capability for single-ship systems. Exploding demand for low cost, low power, compactness, and high integration ability, far exceeding those provided by the III–V semiconductor technologies, has led the wireless industry to focus on better Si-based technologies capable of operating in the RF range. Si-based RF technologies have advanced significantly during the past few decades and are increasingly important for wireless communications, sensing, and networking due to their low cost, low power, and excellent integration ability, notably CMOS, that facilitates various applications requiring miniature, low cost, low power systems with high volume throughput. Presently, Si-based technologies can offer good performance up to the millimeter-wave regime with much lower cost and better integration capability than their non-silicon based counterparts, hence opening up many opportunities in wireless communications, sensing and networking.
Various RFICs, including single components and single-chip subsystems and systems, have been successfully developed with good performance up to millimeter-wave frequencies, demonstrating the potential capability of RFICs and their possible applications in the higher end of the RF spectrum. As an example, Figure 1.1 shows the schematic and microphotograph of a single-chip millimeter-wave RFIC transmitter operating concurrently in two frequency bands at 24.5 ± 0.5 GHz and 35 ± 0.5 GHz using a 0.18-µm SiGe BiCMOS process, showing the integration of several RF components. RFICs have played a significant role in advancing the state of the art of RF circuits and systems for various applications from sensing and imaging to communications across a few hundred MHz to millimeter-wave frequencies, and potentially beyond. It is foreseen that RFICs and systems with 3D (vertical and horizontal) integrations can perform at very high frequencies in the RF range in the future. RFIC is now inevitable in RF systems, and it is expected that it will dominate the RF territory, particularly for commercial applications, just like III–V semiconductors based MMICs have done, but with much lower costs and better abilities for direct integration with digital ICs. Although the performance of many Si-based RFICs still presently does not match that of RFICs implemented using III–V compound semiconductor devices, particularly in the higher frequency end of the RF spectrum such as millimeter-wave frequencies, due to lower and , higher substrate loss, more noise, and so on of current CMOS/BiCMOS devices, they have lower cost and better abilities for direct integration with digital ICs (and hence better potential for complete system-on-chip). RFICs are also small and low power, making them suitable for battery-operated wireless communication, sensing and networking devices and systems. RFICs are thus attractive for systems and, in fact, the principal choice for commercial wireless markets.
Figure 1.1 Schematic (a) and microphotograph (b) of a single-chip 0.18-µm SiGe BiCMOS millimeter-wave transmitter operating concurrently at two bands around 24.5 and 35 GHz. IRF: image-reject filter; BPF: band-pass filter; PA: power amplifier; TX: transmitter; RX: receiver; PRF: pulse repetition frequency; Clk: clock.
Typical RFIC design based on traditional analog design approach is not very suitable at high frequencies of the RF range that is currently practiced. As the RF spectrum moves toward the multi-GHz realm, the need of incorporating microwave design techniques into analog circuits and systems becomes increasingly important and is, in fact, inevitable. Consequently, the knowledge of EM and microwave engineering becomes vital for RFIC engineers in order to understand and design RFICs properly. This is a fact that is recognized by RF researchers and engineers in both academia and industry. High frequencies in the RF range, especially those approaching the frequency limits of CMOS/BiCMOS technology, make RFIC design challenging. The design of RFICs at high frequencies poses further challenging as circuits and devices become extremely small and the interactions between elements within a circuit or between circuits in an integrated system become so immense. Typical RFICs, especially those at low frequencies, use exclusively lumped elements. While lumped elements are useful for RF circuitry and, in some cases, mandatory (e.g., resistive terminations, bias bypass capacitors), it is difficult to realize a truly lumped element in lossy silicon substrates at high frequencies because of significant parasitics to ground associated with Si substrates and high frequency EM effects. At these frequencies, the need of incorporating transmission lines, distributed elements (e.g., transmission-line components) and microwave design techniques, besides lumped elements and (low frequency) analog design techniques, into RFICs becomes essential. Furthermore, besides circuit simulation, EM simulation needs to be effectively utilized to accurately model all effects occurring at these high frequencies. In view of these, it is crucial that the design of RFIC needs to be approached from the microwave design point of view. The design of Si-based RFICs is in general similar to the design of GaAs MMICs; the main difference is the use of Si instead of GaAs as the processing means. In other words, the design of RFICs is essentially executed using the microwave design principles in Si-based “analog” environment.
This book revolves around the philosophy that RFIC engineers need knowledge in EM and microwave engineering, passive RFICs, active RFICs, RFIC analysis and design techniques, and RF systems. To that end, the book is aimed to address the theory, analysis, and design of passive and active RFICs using Si-based CMOS and BiCMOS technologies, in particular, and other non-silicon based technologies, in general, at high frequencies beyond those in the traditionally considered RF range. It intends to provide a comprehensive coverage for RFICs from passive to active circuits with particular emphasis on using microwave analysis and design techniques, which distinguishes itself from other RFIC books. It attempts to present the materials in details with a self-contained concept to allow graduate students and engineers with basic knowledge in RF and circuits to understand RFICs and their design. The book also includes problems for each chapter so readers can reinforce and practice their knowledge. Some of the problems are rather difficult and time-consuming and they can also be used as class projects for students. An important remark, yet may be redundant to RF engineers, is that many RF applications and systems are generally based on the same fundamentals and similar RF components. Knowledge of an RF system (e.g., pulsed system) and its RF components (e.g., mixer) for one application (e.g., sensing) can be used for the design of other systems (e.g., frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) system) and for other applications (e.g., wireless communications.)
The book is organized into 16 chapters blending analog and microwave engineering with particular emphasis on the microwave engineering approach for RFICs, which is essential but not implemented in typical RFIC books. Chapter 2 provides the fundamentals of EM theory needed for RF engineers to understand basic yet relevant EM principles and effects on RFICs. Chapter 3 covers the design and analysis of on-chip lumped elements typically used in RFICs, including inductors, capacitors and resistors. Chapter 4 discusses the fundamentals of transmission lines for both single and multiconductor transmission lines including transmission-line equations and important transmission-line parameters, as well as synthetic transmission lines and commonly used printed-circuit transmission lines. Chapter 5 covers the analysis and design of both lumped-element and distributed resonators. Chapter 6 presents some fundamental design techniques for impedance-matching networks. Chapter 7 presents the formulation and characteristics of the scattering parameters as well as important parameters related to them. Chapter 8 presents the analysis and design of various basic RF passive components including directional couplers, hybrids, power dividers, and filters. Chapter 9 provides the fundamentals of CMOS transistors that are useful for the design of CMOS RFICs. Chapter 10 presents an analysis of stability for RFICs employing transistors. Chapter 11 covers the fundamentals and design of RF amplifiers, low noise amplifiers, power amplifiers (PAs), balanced amplifiers, and broad-band amplifiers. Chapter 12 discusses the fundamentals of oscillators, the theory of phase noise, and the design of both single-ended and balanced oscillators for RFICs. Chapter 13 presents the fundamentals of mixers, their topologies, analysis, and design for RFICs. Chapter 14 discusses the fundamentals and analyses of switches, and the design of SPST (single pole single throw) and T/R switches for RFICs. It also addresses ultra-wideband distributed switches, ultrahigh isolation switches, and switches implementing filtering functions. Chapter 15 presents the simulation, layout, and measurement for RFICs, as well as the calibration and de-embedding for on-wafer measurement. Chapter 16 addresses the commonly used pulsed and FMCW systems along with the widely used receiver architectures of homodyne and super-heterodyne as a way to introduce RF systems. Finally, the Appendix presents the design of an RFIC double-balanced mixer based on the Gilbert cell as an example to illustrate the design process of RFICs.
It is particularly noted that, in this book, for the sake of simplicity, we will use the term CMOS RFIC often but this, by no means, implies that the book only addresses CMOS RFICs. The design of other Si-based RFICs such as BiCMOS RFICs (and in fact the design of other non-silicon RFICs like GaAs MMICs as stated earlier) is equally applicable.
Problems
The objective of these problems is to familiarize readers with some of the current and potential applications/systems of RFICs and systems.
1.1
Search the 802.11b wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) applications. Describe the IEEE 802.11b standards, some systems currently employed and components used in these systems, their applications, performance, operating frequencies, and CMOS/BiCMOS technologies used, etc.
1.2
Repeat Problem 1.1 for un-licensed ultra-wideband (UWB) applications from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz.
1.3
Repeat Problem 1.1 for Bluetooth.
1.4
Repeat Problem 1.1 for millimeter-wave (MMW) radio applications including 60 GHz and E-band (71–76 GHz and 81–86 GHz bands).
1.5
Search for current Si-based CMOS and BiCMOS processes and compile on a table the following: (i) device technology (i.e., 30, 45, 90, 130, 180, and 250 nm), (ii)
(the cut-off frequency or the frequency of unity gain), (iii)
(the maximum frequency of oscillation or the frequency at which the maximum available gain is 0 dB), (iv) foundry, and (v) other pertinent information.
1.6
Describe current and potential applications of Si-based RFICs and systems (from microwave to millimeter wave frequencies). What do you think are the future trends and applications and at what frequencies?
Chapter 2Fundamentals of Electromagnetics
Radio-frequency integrated circuits (RFICs) involve high frequencies that cause electromagnetic (EM) or high frequency effects to circuit performance which, if not properly accounted for, can disrupt or even ruin the performance, particularly at frequencies in the high end of the radio-frequency (RF) spectrum. EM therefore plays a crucial role in the RFIC design. It influences not only the circuit analysis and simulation, but also the selection or derivation of circuit topologies and schematics as well as the circuit layout. Knowledge of EM and what EM can do to improve or inadvertently degrade the performance of RFIC is thus absolutely essential for RF engineers. This implies that well-rounded RF engineers should acquire sufficient education in basic and advanced EM. In this chapter, we will present the fundamentals of EM which, although are relatively basic, would help RF engineers to understand some of the EM effects on RFIC, if properly interpreted, and/or to acquire further EM information that is relevant for RFIC.
2.1 EM Field Parameters
The EM fields are separated into three cases: time-varying case for fields changing in any time fashion or, loosely speaking, fields in the time domain; sinusoidal time-varying case for fields varying sinusoidally, loosely defined as fields in the frequency domain; and static or DC case for fields independent of time or frequency. The following field parameters and notations1 will be used in this chapter:
Time Varying
Sinusoidal Time Varying (Phasor)
Static
Electric field intensity, V/m
Magnetic field intensity, A/m
Electric flux density, C/m
2
Magnetic flux density, Tesla (T)
Current density, A/m
2
Volume charge density, C/m
3
The charge and current (, , ) density are for free charges and free currents, respectively.
In the above notations, in the rectangular coordinate system is assumed for all the parameters. It is noted that any electrical parameters including the above field parameters are also a function of frequency; however, since time and frequency are related, frequency is not included in the independent parameters for simplification. The electric flux density is also known as the displacement field vector, and the current and charge density are the electric density. We also recognize that signals or waves and parameters associated with them such as power, electric field, and magnetic field all have magnitude and direction, and hence they are described as vectors, enabling us to know their strength and direction. For instance, power, as we know, is given by which shows precisely the magnitude and direction of a signal traveling in a medium such as air or propagating in an electrical circuit such as RFIC. This equation describes exactly the nature of the propagation of signals and is much more powerful than the conventional power equation from the circuit theory, where and are voltage and current, respectively, which does not show the propagation of signals.
2.2 Maxwell's Equations
Maxwell's equations form the foundation for EM in particular and electrical engineering in general and are given in the following differential and integral forms:
Differential (or Point) Form
Integral Form
Gauss's law
(
2.1a
)
(2.2a)
(
2.1b
)
(2.2b)
Faraday's law
(
2.1c
)
(2.2c)
Ampere's law
(
2.1d
)
(2.2d)
where is volume enclosed by surface , is differential surface vector with being a unit vector perpendicular to surface and pointing away from the surface, is differential length vector with being a unit vector along , and represents the displacement current density (A/m2).
The differential and integral Maxwell's equations are related by the divergence theorem described by
where is an arbitrary field vector, and Stokes's theorem given by
Maxwell's equations can be simplified under special conditions as follows. Static fields (, ):
Steady-state sinusoidal time-varying fields:
Maxwell's equations along with the following auxiliary relations enable many equations to be derived, from which not only many electrical phenomena and problems from DC to high frequencies can be explained and solved, but also many applications can be evolved.
2.3 Auxiliary Relations
2.3.1 Constitutive Relations
The constitutive relations describe the properties of materials. The electric flux density and electric field intensity in a material are related by
where is the dielectric constant or permittivity of free space, is the electric polarization vector of the material assuming the material's electrical properties are linear and isotropic, and is the (dimensionless) electric susceptibility of the material. Equation (2.5) can rewritten as
where and are the relative dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) and dielectric constant (or permittivity) of material, respectively. is different for different materials and is normally considered the most important parameter characterizing (nonmagnetic) materials such as dielectric layers or substrates in RFIC. Note that air has and is therefore typically used in place of free space.
Similarly, the magnetic flux density and magnetic field intensity in material are related by
where is the permeability of free space, is the magnetic polarization vector of the material assuming the magnetic properties of the material are linear and isotropic, and is the (dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility of the material. Equation (2.7) can rewritten as
where and are the relative permittivity and permittivity of material, respectively. Most materials used for RFIC such as SiO2 or Si (and in fact materials used in most of electrical circuits) are nonmagnetic and so have close to 1.
In general and , and hence and , are function of location (in the material), frequency, and signal, and hence the electric and magnetic fields, applied to the material. If these parameters are not a function of location in a material, the material is called homogeneous. A linear material is characterized by and not dependent on the strength of the applied signals or electric and magnetic fields. A material is called isotropic if and are independent of the direction of the applied signals. A material that is linear, homogeneous and isotropic is called a simple material. A simple material has constant and . Most materials used for circuits such as dielectrics and substrates used in RFIC are simple materials.
2.3.2 Current Relations
The most widely known current is the conduction current given as
where is the conductivity of the material. The current obtained from (2.9) is basically the current described in Ohm's law. The other less well-known current is the convection current whose density is described as
where is the (volume) charge density (C/m3) in the material and is the velocity of the charge carrier. As expected, the current density in Maxwell's equations may consist of both conduction and convection currents. The convection current is typically neglected in most RF circuits. Another current is the displacement current density or (for sinusoidal time-varying steady state). This current is much smaller than the conduction current in good conductors even at RF and is usually neglected.
The conduction current and charge are related by the continuity or conservation-of-charge equation:
for general time-varying case, and
under the sinusoidal time-varying steady state.
2.4 Sinusoidal Time-Varying Steady State
Sinusoidal waveform is the most widely known and used signal type in electrical engineering. Various signal waveforms can be developed from sinusoidal waveforms. One of the most attractive features of sinusoidal waveforms with respect to analysis is their mathematical simplification resulting from the separation of the amplitude and phase of signals.
The electric field, or any field components, of a sinusoidal signal can be expressed as a sinusoidal expression (with reference to cosine):
where and represent the maximum amplitude and the phase of the electric field, respectively, and
is the phasor representation of the electric field intensity in the time domain. is called the electric field phasor, which is a vector independent of time, and represents the electric field in the frequency domain. Expanding (2.14) leads to the relationship between the components of the electric field in the time and frequency domains as
where is the phase of , respectively.
Taking the derivative of (2.13) or (2.15) with respect to time leads to the same electric field intensity with an additional term of , implying that (in the time domain) for sinusoidal signals is equivalent to (in the frequency domain). Maxwell's equations under general time variation (or the time domain) in (2.1c, d) can hence be transferred directly to the steady-state sinusoidal time variation (or the frequency domain) as described in (2.4) by replacing with . Similarly, the time-domain continuity equation (2.11) becomes (2.12) in the frequency domain. It is noted that the constitutive relations, described in (2.6) and (2.8), for general time variation also hold for sinusoidal time variation.
As can be seen, Maxwell's equations in the frequency domain are simpler than those in the time domain and hence are preferred when the signal is a sinusoidal signal. It is reminded that the fields obtained from the frequency-domain Maxwell's equations and auxiliary relations are phasors. As these fields are time-varying sinusoidal fields, the phasors need to be multiplied by
