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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
Sociology For Dummies helps you understand the complex field of sociology, serving as the ideal study guide both when you're deciding to take a class as well as when you are already participating in a course. Avoiding jargon, Sociology For Dummies will get you up to speed on this widely studied topic in no time.
Sociology For Dummies, UK Edition:
- Provides a general overview of what sociology is as well as an in-depth look at some of the major concepts and theories.
- Offers examples of how sociology can be applied and its importance to everyday life
- Features an in-depth look at social movements and political sociology
- Helps you discover how to conduct sociological research
- Offers advice and tips for thinking about the world in an objective way
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Seitenzahl: 682
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
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Sociology For Dummies®
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Table of Contents
Sociology For Dummies®
by Nasar Meer, PhD, and Jay Gabler, PhD
Sociology For Dummies®
Published byJohn Wiley & Sons, LtdThe AtriumSouthern GateChichesterWest SussexPO19 8SQEngland
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About the Authors
Dr Nasar Meer is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of Northumbria. He has previously studied at the Universities of Essex, Edinburgh and Bristol, and during his doctoral studies held a visiting fellowship with the W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Studies, Harvard University, and presently holds a visiting fellowship with the University of Aarhus. Nasar was previously a Lecturer at the University of Southampton, and has undertaken research at the Centre for the Study of Ethnicity and Citizenship (CSEC), Bristol Institute for Public Affairs (BIPA).
Nasar’s research explores the relationships between minority identities and citizenship programmes. He is particularly interested in arenas of education, anti-discrimination, political participation, and public and media representation. Other interests include a European reading of the African-American ‘founding figure’ of Sociology, W. E. B. Du Bois, as well as a focus upon the role of journalists as ‘public intellectuals’. He is also researching the sociology and politics of conceptualising racism, anti-Semitism and Islamophobia, alongside an emerging interest in Scottish nationhood.
He is the author of Citizenship, Identity and the Politics of Multiculturalism (2010) (Palgrave), and he is presently editing a special issue of Ethnic & Racial Studies comparing anti-Semitism and anti-Muslim sentiment, and co-editing (with A. Triandafyllidou and T. Modood) European Multiculturalism(s) – Ethnic, Cultural & Religious Challenges (Edinburgh University Press), and (with W. Martineau and S. Thompson) a special issue of Ethnicities on ‘Misrecognition’. He is also co-editor (with V. Uberoi and T. Modood) of a new Palgrave book series on Citizenship and the Politics of Identity. His book Race & Ethnicity is forthcoming with Sage.
When not working at the University of Northumbria Nasar lives with his partner in Edinburgh.
Jay Gabler is a writer, editor and college teacher living in Minneapolis. He holds a bachelor’s degree from Boston University and graduate degrees, including a PhD in sociology, from Harvard University. With colleagues, he has published multiple sociological research studies including the book Reconstructing the University (with David John Frank, Stanford University Press, 2006). He currently teaches sociology, psychology and education at Rasmussen College. He is also associate editor of the Twin Cities Daily Planet, where he writes regularly on the arts, and author of the most recent edition of the Insiders’ Guide to the Twin Cities (Globe Pequot Press, 2010).
Dedication
From Nasar: The UK edition of Sociology For Dummies is dedicated to Rafi Rehan, Moin Khizer and Sophia Lulu.
From Jay: To David John Frank and Jason Kaufman, my mentors in sociology.
Publisher’s Acknowledgements
We’re proud of this book; please send us your comments through our Dummies online registration form located at www.dummies.com/register/.
Some of the people who helped bring this book to market include the following:
Commissioning, Editorial, and Media Development
Project Editor: Simon Bell (Previous Edition: Susan Hobbs)
Commissioning Editor: Mike Baker (Previous Edition: Stacey Kennedy)
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Publisher: David Palmer
Production Manager: Daniel Mersey
Cover Photos: © Hiroshi Suga/Corbis
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Introduction
Welcome to sociology! We’ve written this book to introduce you to one of the biggest and most fascinating disciplines in all of science. Yes, you read that right: Sociology is a science. Sociologists don’t use beakers and test tubes, but like natural scientists, they do seek to learn about the world by creating theories and testing them with systematic observations.
What makes sociology both so interesting and so challenging is its subject: the social world. Society is huge, and hugely complex: there are answers to sociological questions, but there usually aren’t any easy answers. In addition to the challenge of answering sociological questions, there’s the challenge of asking them – that is, of thinking about society as a subject of objective, scientific study. Your grandparents and your doctor and the person who works at your local coffee shop probably don’t have any opinions about how atoms should and shouldn’t bond with one another, but they certainly all have opinions about how society should be organised. Studying society scientifically means setting aside – temporarily – your thoughts about how society should work.
After you do that, though, you can learn some amazing things about the world. What sociologists see when they look at society isn’t always pretty, but that fact makes sociology all the more important: Just like you need to know how a car works before you can fix it, you need to understand how society works before you can change it.
About This Book
We’ve written this book to introduce you to sociology as a body of knowledge about society, but much more importantly to introduce you to sociology as a way of thinking about the world to develop a sociological imagination.
With a subject as vast and as frequently-changing as human society, it would be foolish to try to write a ‘user’s manual’ – it would be outdated before the ink was dry. If this book makes you curious about a specific aspect of society – say, the job market or the changing class system – that’s great. Your local library and the Internet are full of specific studies on these subjects, written by sociologists and other scholars, and we hope this book makes that information more accessible to you.
What we aim to do in this book is to introduce you to sociology as a discipline so you have the tools and understanding you need to succeed in a sociology class or to apply sociological concepts in your professional or personal life. The book is organised to take you from general questions (what is sociology? where did it come from? who does it, and how?) to more specific topics (how do sociologists study culture and socialisation? how do sociologists define ‘class’ and ‘race’?) to applications of those ideas (how can you use sociology in your everyday life?).
Sociologists study a lot of things – in fact, they study just about everything that has anything to do with people interacting – which means that most things studied by sociologists are also studied by people who don’t consider themselves sociologists. What is special about sociology is precisely the fact that it involves the study of all those things together, not just some of them in isolation. The fact that sociologists consider all aspects of the social world together means that they are able to see connections that people who study only part of the social world cannot. Throughout this book, we emphasise what is unique about the sociological view of the world.
Conventions Used in This Book
Obviously, we can’t possibly know each and every person who reads this book, but we can reasonably guess that you’re living in the early 21st century, that you have some reason for being curious about sociology, and that you’re probably – but not necessarily – living in an English-speaking country. We have not written this book under any further assumptions about who you might be or why you might be reading it.
We’ve drawn examples and illustrations from a wide array of social situations, but you may notice that there are especially frequent examples from the UK and US. In part that’s because that’s where we live, so that’s what we know best. We often refer to our own lives and personal histories. Sociology is an objective science, but any given sociologist is a particular person with a unique set of interests and experiences; We hope that as you read this book and see how sociological concepts relate to our lives, you’ll think about how they relate to your life, too.
We explain terms as we go, so we let you plunge right in without taking too much space going into specifics here in the introduction, but there are a couple of distinctions it may be helpful to mention right here at the outset.
For one, there’s the distinction between society and sociology. They’re not the same thing. Society is what sociologists study; sociology is the study of society. The term ‘social’ refers to society, people interacting in groups; the term ‘sociological’ refers to sociology, the study of people interacting in groups. If this seems confusing to you, you’re not alone: professional writers often make the mistake of using the term ‘sociological’ when they ought to use the term ‘social.’ If there is increasing crime in your community, that is a social problem, not a ‘sociological’ problem. If you’re trying to study that crime rises but are having a problem with missing data, then you have a genuinely sociological problem.
Also – to get a little ahead of ourselves and preview something we explain more in Chapter 2 – you should know that sociology is not just something that happens in colleges and universities. Sociology is a way of looking at the social world and a tool to use in understanding society; but it’s also an academic discipline, and most people who actually call themselves ‘sociologists’ work at colleges, universities and research institutes. Chances are good that you’re reading this book because you’re taking – or are thinking about taking – a sociology class in high school or college; but if you’re not, don’t stop reading! This book is for you, too. You’ll find all kinds of information that may help you understand your place of business, your neighbourhood, your city and even some of your family members!
Sociology Is Controversial: Brace Yourself!
As we mention earlier, sociology is the study of the entire social world. That means that among the subjects studied by sociologists are some very controversial ones. If sociologists avoided controversial subjects, that would defeat the whole point of the discipline; and the same goes for this book.
It’s part of a sociologist’s job to deal with hot topics, and some sociologists have made highly controversial arguments. In delving into sociology, you need to be prepared to encounter some ideas that you may disagree – may very strongly disagree – with. Among the ideas you’ll meet in this book are:
Religion is a way of getting people to give you money, and serves no other constructive purpose.
The most effective kind of government is a dictatorship where the smartest person rules.
Society works best when women stay home to cook and clean while men go out and earn money.
You don’t need to agree with all of these arguments – we certainly don’t – to study sociology, but you do need to be willing to consider arguments that you don’t agree with. If you don’t agree with one or more of those statements, why don’t you? Each of the statements above makes an empirical argument. That means that those statements can be tested with objective facts. How could you test them? What data would you gather? How would you analyse those data? If you think the truth is not reflected in those statements, how can you prove it? That willingness to think about the social world as a scientist – that is, objectively – is the very foundation of sociology.
We are 100 per cent certain that in this book, you will encounter ideas and arguments you don’t agree with. So when you come across something you don’t agree with, think about why you don’t agree with it and what you would say in a debate with the people who advanced that idea. That’s how to think like a sociologist.
How This Book Is Organised
This book is divided into six parts. In this section, we explain what content you’ll find in each part.
Part I: The Basic Basics
This part gives you the what/who/how: what sociology is (the scientific study of society), where it came from (the tumultuous 19th century), who does it (sociologists in academia as well as people outside academia who can benefit from its tools and insights), and how it’s done (with a range of complementary methods, none of which are perfect but all of which have value). Reading this part will help you get to grips with this thing called ‘sociology’ really is.
Part II: Seeing Society Like a Sociologist
No matter what aspect of social life you’re interested in, there are some key sociological insights that will help you on your way. In this part, we explain how sociologists understand culture (what it is, and what it’s not), the micro-macro link (what does ‘society’ have to do with individual people interacting face to face), and the importance of social networks (what’s the difference between your ‘society’ and the people you actually know and interact with?). These fundamental insights are of value across all of sociology and form a core part of a sociological imagination.
Part III: Equality and Inequality in Our Diverse World
Just about everyone who studies society is in some way or another concerned about social inequality. Inequality doesn’t have to mean stratification – that is, just because two people are different doesn’t mean one is in a better or more powerful position than the other – but very often, it does. So there’s a difference between equal treatment – where we take are treated according to uniform criteria – and treating people equally – where we recognise that different people need different levels of support. This part is devoted to that subject in all its various forms. We begin by explaining the general idea of social stratification (who’s up, who’s down?), then we go into some of the specific lines that divide social groups: race, ethnicity, sex, gender, religion and the law (in the sense of being on ‘the wrong side’ or ‘the right side’ of the law).
Part IV: All Together Now: The Ins and Outs of Social Organisation
People are always interacting, all the time – but as any parent of young children knows, ‘interacting’ is not necessarily the same thing as ‘being productive.’ Corporations, charities, governments, social movements and other social organisations represent people’s deliberate attempts to come together to accomplish tasks, and in this part we explain what sociologists know about when those attempts work and when they don’t. Cities are a slightly different form of social organisation, but people who live together in a city are together in a social organisation whether they like it or not; at the conclusion of this part, we look at urban (as well as suburban and exurban) life.
Part V: Sociology and Your Life
Your life is inextricably tied to your society – the life you’ve lived, the life you’re living and the life you will live. Understanding society can help you understand your own life. In this part, we first explain how sociologists think about individuals’ life courses (including childhood, old age, health and family life) and then look at what sociology can tell us about life in the future.
Part VI: The Part of Tens
This final part contains three chapters that get very specific: What interesting and readable sociology books are out there besides this one? How can you use sociology in your everyday life? The book concludes with the chapter that was our favourite to write: ‘Ten Myths About Society Busted By Sociology.’ Flip to that chapter to see how sociological insight will change the way you think about the social world around you.
Icons Used In This Book
As you read, you’ll notice a few symbols popping up in the margin. They give you hints about how to understand what you’re reading.
This icon highlights information that you should especially pay attention to. Make a point of remembering the information in paragraphs highlighted by this icon.
This icon signals that the information near it is of interest to the curious, and delves a little deeper into the specific topic that’s being discussed.
When you see this lit fuse, you’ll see information about a trap to avoid – a risk of being misled or confused.
When you see this icon, you can be sure that you’re getting a significant piece of information that may come in handy in class or in your everyday life.
Where To Go From Here
Like all Dummies books, this book is written to be modular – meaning that each part can stand alone. So if you look through the table of contents and see something you’re particularly curious about, feel free to head straight to that section. That said, we’ve organised the book to lead you through sociology from beginning concepts to specific topics, so if you’re pretty sure you’ll be looking at the whole book, your best bet is to start at the beginning and read your way through.
We’d also recommend flipping through and glancing at some of the text boxes. They provide concrete examples of the material discussed in the main body of the text, so if you feel like things are getting too theoretical or abstract, look to the text boxes for down-to-earth illustrations of what’s being discussed. Have fun!
Part I
The Basic Basics
Chapter 1
Sociology: Getting Your Head around It
In This Chapter
Understanding sociology
Seeing the world as a sociologist
Understanding differences among people and groups
Looking at social organisation
Appreciating your own sociological insights
You may be holding this book because you’re enrolled on a sociology course for your A-Levels or at university, or are thinking about studying sociology. You may be wondering if sociology can help you in your job; you may just be curious about different ways of looking at society; or you may be wondering about sociology for a different reason. Whatever the reason, you’re reading this book because you want to know more about this thing called ‘sociology.’
In this book, we explain the basics of sociology: what it is, how it’s done, and what it’s good for. Along the way, we do mention a lot of specific findings that sociologists have made, but our main goal is to tell you about sociology, not about society. After you understand the basics of sociology, you can roll up your sleeves and get online or into the library to see what sociologists have learned about any given place or time.
This chapter provides a road map to the rest of the book. In this chapter, we summarise the book and explain the basic ideas that this book will cover. We’ve organised the book to proceed from basic concepts to more specific topics, but the chapters are designed to stand alone, so you may not want to start right at the beginning.
Whatever path you take through this book – and through sociology generally – we hope you’ll enjoy it and find the topic of sociology as fascinating as we do.
Understanding Sociology
In Part I of Sociology for Dummies, we explain the fundamentals of sociology: what it is, how it came to be, and how it’s done.
Defining sociology
In a nutshell, sociology is the scientific study of society. Sociologists use the tools and methods of science to understand how and why humans behave the way they do when they interact together in groups. Though social groups – or societies – are made up of individual people, sociology is the study of the group rather than of the individual. When it comes to understanding how the individual human mind works, sociologists largely leave that up to psychologists.
Most people who call themselves ‘sociologists’ work in universities and colleges, where they teach sociology and conduct sociological research. They ask a variety of questions about society, sometimes wanting answers just for the sake of curiosity; however, many times their findings are used to inform decisions by policymakers, executives, and other individuals. Many people who study sociology go on to conduct sociological research outside of academia, working for government agencies, think tanks, or private bodies. Accurate, systematic study of society is in one way or another useful to just about everyone.
Studying sociology, whether or not you call yourself a ‘sociologist,’ means taking a particular view of the world: a view that sociologist C. Wright Mills called ‘the sociological imagination.’ You have to be willing to set aside your ideas about how the social world should work so that you can see how it actually works. That doesn’t mean that sociologists don’t have personal values and opinions about the social world; they believe that to change the world, you first need to understand it.
The history of sociology
Sociology is considered one of the social sciences – along with economics, psychology, anthropology, geography, and political science (among others). The social sciences were born in the 18th and 19th centuries, as people began applying the scientific method to human life and behaviour. The world was changing dramatically and quickly as industrial production replaced agriculture, as democratic republics replaced monarchies, and as city life replaced country life. Realising how many great insights science had lent regarding the natural world, people decided to try to use the same method to understand the social world.
Among the social sciences, sociology has always been unique in its ambition to understand the entire social world – considering all its aspects in combination rather than in isolation. It’s a daunting task, and one that sociologists are still struggling with today.
The most important early sociologists had clear ideas about how to study and understand society; these ideas still form the basis for much sociological investigation and discussion today. Karl Marx emphasised the importance of physical resources and the material world; he believed that conflict over resources is at the heart of social life. Emile Durkheim emphasised cooperation rather than conflict: He was interested in the shared norms and values that make cooperative social life possible. Max Weber took ideas from both Marx and Durkheim and argued that both conflict and cooperation, both material resources and cultural values are essential to social life. (See Chapter 3 for more on Marx, Durkheim, and Weber.)
Over the past century, sociologists have continued to debate the early sociologists’ ideas and have applied them to specific societies all over the world. Thanks in large part to the influence of ‘the Chicago School’ of sociologists in the early 20th century (see Chapter 3 for more on them), sociologists today pay close attention to small groups and person-to-person interaction as well as to the grand sweep of social history. Today, sociologists appreciate that the big questions and the little questions regarding society are interlinked, and that you can’t understand the macro (the big) without also understanding the micro (the little).
Doing sociology
From a scientific perspective, society is a very difficult subject to study: It’s huge, complex, and always changing. A perennial challenge for sociologists is to develop ways to accurately observe society, and to test hypotheses about the way it works.
Fundamentally, sociological research proceeds along the same lines as scientific research in any discipline: You decide what you’re interested in, see what other researchers have learned about that subject, ask a specific question, and find data to answer it; then you analyse those data and interpret your results. The next researcher to be curious about the topic takes your results into consideration when they conduct their own study.
Sociologists use both quantitative and qualitative research methods. (See Chapter 4 for more on these methods.) Quantitative research involves questions that are asked and answered in terms of numbers; qualitative research involves close observation and detailed descriptions, usually written. Quantitative studies usually make use of statistical methods – sometimes very sophisticated statistical methods– for determining whether or not a trend observed in a set of data is likely representative of a general population. In using statistics or any other research tool, sociologists must take great care to avoid any of several potential pitfalls that can lead to inaccurate or misleading interpretations of the data they observe.
Seeing the World as a Sociologist
To help make sense of the very complicated social world, sociologists have developed some useful perspectives – ways of thinking about the social world that both help them to understand that world and to ask interesting questions about it. Unless you understand these perspectives, sociology can be quite confusing. In Part II of this book, we explain a few of the most important sociological perspectives.
Understanding culture
Sociologists differentiate between culture (that is, ideas and values) and structure (that is, the basic organisation of society). Some sociologists tend to focus on culture, whereas others focus on structure; what’s safe to say is that both culture and structure can play important roles in shaping the social world. (See Chapter 5 for more on culture and structure.)
Understanding culture means understanding that ideas and values – including those represented in art and in the media – don’t always perfectly reflect the way people behave. Sociologists of culture study the production of culture (how culture comes about) and the reception of culture (the effect of culture on people’s actions and beliefs) separately. (See Chapter 5 for more.) They also study different types and levels of culture, from mainstream culture (culture that is widely shared) to subcultures (cultures that exist in opposition to mainstream culture) to microcultures (cultures that are self-contained within a broader set of cultures).
Culture can influence how people think about themselves as well as how they think about other people: It can unite as well as divide.
Microsociology
Understanding how society works at the micro level – that is, at the one-on-one, person-to-person level – is especially tricky because it involves understanding how social norms and influences play out in each person’s head.
Sociologists, economists, and other social scientists are all tremendously concerned with understanding how people make decisions about their lives. Sometimes those choices make perfect sense (taking a job because you need the money to buy food to live), and sometimes they seem to make no sense at all (betting that money on a casino game you’re almost guaranteed to lose, or donating it to someone living on the other side of the world).
A perennial hot topic in microsociology is understanding how and why people make decisions from moment to moment, taking into account both their individual needs and their social circumstances.
Sociologists also study how people use social roles and rules to interact with other people. Sociologist Erving Goffman pointed out that every person is in a way like an actor on a stage: Your social identity is the role you play, and the setting in which you’re interacting with others is like the stage you’re performing upon. Everyone understands this to some extent, and they sometimes take advantage of the fact to get the things they want in life. (See Chapter 6 for more on microsociology.)
Network sociology
It’s not just your career advisor who’s talking about the importance of personal networks: In recent decades, sociologists have increasingly come to appreciate the fact that who you know (and how you know them) is of fundamental importance in determining everything from your values to your economic and political power. A society isn’t just one big cloud of people who all breathe the same air, it’s a highly complex network in which each person is tied to other people by relationships that vary in nature and intensity. (More on network sociology in Chapter 7.)
You’re connected – either directly or through friends of friends of friends – to just about everyone in your society, but your ties to some people are much tighter than your ties to others. The people closest to you are sources of great support, but the people to whom you’re only distantly connected can be even more valuable when it comes to gaining information that your friends or coworkers can’t (or won’t) tell you. Your position in the social network determines what options you have when finding a job, making friends, or spreading your influence.
Some sociologists devote themselves specifically to network sociology, but just about every sociologist today uses the insights and methods of network analysis to some extent. In Chapter 7, we mention some of the specific social insights that have come from network analysis.
Understanding Differences Among People and Groups
An issue of paramount importance to sociologists is understanding differences and inequality among different social groups. In Part III of this book, we take a look at some of the principal lines that divide in society: among classes, among races, among religions, and between ‘deviant’ and ‘non-deviant’ people.
Social stratification
The word ‘stratification’ refers to different levels on top of each other, and it can be used for society as well as for rocks. Some people in any given society have more power and freedom than others – sociologists refer to these differences as differences of social class. There seems to be class inequality in every society, but it’s much greater in some than in others, and sociologists have always debated whether or not significant class inequality is necessary for a society to function. (See Chapter 8 for more on social stratification.)
When you hear that someone is of a ‘higher class’ than someone else, money is probably the first thing you think of, and indeed, money is certainly important. However, sociologists emphasise that there are many different means of social inequality: not just money, but occupation, ability, motivation, social connections, credentials, specialised knowledge, and discrimination by race, sex, caste, or age.
Class systems change over time, and people’s positions in those class systems change even more frequently. Social mobility is something sociologists study closely.
Race and sex
Sociologists distinguish between race (a label that others assign to you) and ethnicity (the cultural group heritage with which you identify). They also distinguish between sex (your biological status: male or female) and gender (the way you identify your own status). All of these are among the most important distinctions in any society. Race, ethnicity, sex, and gender often serve as justification for discrimination and stereotyping, but they can also serve as common ground for people to bond with one another. (See Chapter 9 for more on race and ethnicity.)
Questions of race and ethnicity are particularly important today, when immigration is common and societies are increasingly diverse; but there are different races and ethnicities in every society, so for better and for worse, issues regarding race and ethnicity are timeless.
Institutionalised (that is, official) discrimination against members of particular races or sexes has happily declined sharply in recent decades, but distinctions of race, ethnicity, sex, and gender remain profoundly important in shaping how people see themselves and how they are seen by others.
Community and belonging
One of the most powerful forces that a familiarity with sociology can provide you with is that of self inquiry. No where is this more obvious than in the questions – what ‘group’ do belong to and why? Over time different societies have placed different values upon being associated with one group over another, and the ‘imagination’ of identity remains an important feature in all societies.
Sociologists want to understand and explain where identities, like your national identity, come from, as well as how these identities can be the basis for either being included or excluded from democratic societies. In both theory and practice different ways of addressing these issues have emerged and still continue to be debated in the ways outlined in Chapter 10.
Religion
Religion may seem like an unusual subject to study scientifically – but sociologists aim to understand the entirety of the social world, and religious beliefs and institutions are at the very center of that world. It is not for sociologists to determine what lies beyond this world, but sociologists can and do observe how religion affects people’s lives in the here and now.
Sociologists study both religious values – what people believe about the spiritual world, specifically as it affects their actions in this world – and religious organisations. Like all social organisations, religious organisations have changed over time. What has remained the same is that for many people in all societies, religious groups are among the most important groups in their lives. (More on religion in Chapter 11.)
Crime and deviance
For sociologists, crime is one type of activity that falls under the general category of deviance. Deviance is defined as any kind of activity that varies from a social group’s norms; crime is deviance that is formally punished with sanctions ranging from small fines to death.
Why do people commit crimes? Sociologists have different theories about that, but Durkheim famously observed that some form of crime has been present in every society ever known – in that sense, crime may or may not be good but it does seem to be ‘normal.’ What counts as crime in any particular society is a matter of both that society’s specific laws and the social interactions surrounding the crime.
Can crime be stopped, or at least limited? Even if there is never a perfectly crime-free society, sociological research provides many clues as to how the worst crimes might be curtailed. In Chapter 12, we provide several examples.
Social Organisation
Sociologists are indeed curious about the lines that divide people in society, but they’re equally curious about how people manage to work together. In Part IV of this book, we look at three major types of social organisation that have been of great concern both to sociologists and to ordinary people who want to work and live together peacefully and productively.
Corporate culture
Whether you’re a high school student or a retired worker, you’ve had plenty of experience (maybe more than you’d like) with what sociologists call formal organisations: corporations, nonprofits, and other organisations of people working together to achieve some goal. Well, at least that’s what they say they’re doing.
Sociologist Richard Scott has pointed out that social organisations behave as rational, natural, and open systems. They are rational because they do typically work in a machine-like manner to achieve some goal, but they are also natural because humans are not machines and they bring their own foibles and idiosyncrasies into the workplace with them. Further, they are open insofar as their behaviour is influenced by the behaviour of other organisations around them. We explain this in more detail in Chapter 13.
Social movements and political sociology
What about organisations founded for a very clear purpose, such as to bring about social change? Do they ever work? Yes, but not always. Many sociologists have studied the circumstances under which social movements are successful: In general, it seems to be a matter of being in the right place, at the right time, with the necessary resources to make your voice heard.
Understanding how and why social movements work (and don’t work) is related to the general subject of political sociology: the study of government, or ‘the state’ in sociological parlance. Your government may seem to be big and invulnerable, but in the big picture, governments are quite fragile. (See Chapter 14 for more on the sociology of governments.)
Keeping a functioning government in business is a remarkable act of social cooperation, and when it doesn’t work, the resulting revolution can have disastrous consequences for millions.
Urban sociology
Sociology was born in cities; specifically, in the fast-growing cities of the Industrial Revolution. There, people from wildly different backgrounds were encountering one another in what sometimes seemed like a chaotic stew of humanity. There was violence, disease and poverty, and an electrifying mix of languages, values, and ideas.
And 200 years later, the world is more urban than ever. How, and why, do people keep living in cities? Inner-city life is still crowded and excitingly intense, but not all urban life is inner-city life. Over the past several decades, millions and millions of people around the world have moved into suburban communities. As those suburbs have aged, some residents have moved back into the inner cities whereas others have moved even further out, to newly built ‘exurbs.’ All along, sociologists have been there to study urban (and suburban, and exurban) change. You can read about it in Chapter 15.
Sociology and Your Life
Getting right to the heart of things, what relevance does sociology have for your life? In Part V, we explain how sociology can change the way you understand your past and your future.
The life course
Your life course, of course, is your own: You decide if and when you’ll go to school, marry, have children, and retire. Still, at every stage you’re affected by social institutions and social norms regarding the life course. What are you ‘supposed’ to do? What happens if you don’t? The timing and nature of life-course transitions varies greatly among societies, and sociologists have studied why.
As you live your life, you’ll be profoundly influenced by the families you’re a part of; sociologists and historians have shattered many myths about the family, and in Chapter 16 we explain how sociology can help you understand your own family. We also address the always-topical subject of health care, which influences not only how long you live but the quality of the life you have.
Social change
The one constant in social life is change: changing norms, changing classes, changing everything. Is there any way to make sense of all that change?
Sociologists believe there is, even if they sometimes disagree about exactly how. Marx believed that social change was driven by conflict over material resources. Durkheim thought that change was inevitable, with norms and values changing as societies became larger and more diverse. Weber thought that both material conflicts and changing norms influenced social change.
From the very beginning, sociologists have hoped to predict the future so as to be able to influence it. Sociology is, and will likely remain, a long way from being able to see the future any more clearly than meteorology can – but like weather forecasters, sociologists have a fair idea of when a storm front is brewing. What they may be most curious about is the future of sociology itself. Will sociology survive? What will society look like in the future? See Chapter 17 for our best guesses at the answers.
Sociology For Dummies, for Dummies
Still aren’t entirely sure about all this? Try flipping forward to Part VI, ‘the Part of Tens.’ In chapters 18 and 19, we mention ten ways to use sociological insight in everyday life; also, we provide a list of ten readable sociology books that you can pick up if this book piques your interest. In Chapter 20,we list ten myths about society busted by sociology – ten things you may have thought you knew about the social world around you.
In the end, that’s our best argument for why you should read this book: to learn more about the social world around you. Sure, you’ll learn something about sociology itself – about Talcott Parsons’s public spat with C. Wright Mills, about Arlie Hochschild’s conversations with frustrated working mothers, about the sociologists who went to Paducah, Kentucky to talk with families affected by a tragic school shooting. But more importantly, in learning about sociologists’ attempts to understand the ever-changing social world, you’ll learn about that world itself, the world that gives meaning to your life.
Sociology: What’s the point?
We hope you’re excited to begin reading this book, but we don’t flatter ourselves that it’s the most important thing in your life right now. What is the most important thing in your life right now? Are you just starting a romantic relationship – or just ending one? Is something important going on at work? Are you preoccupied with a tough situation involving a loved one, or are you excited about an upcoming vacation or graduation?
All of those things are very personal, but they’re also very social. You experience events like that individually, but your experience also involves the people around you – and the people around them, and the people around the people around them. As much as your life is your own, it is fundamentally, profoundly influenced – in some ways, defined – by the society in which you live.
If you’ve done any travelling, or read books or see movies about other cultures, you realise how much norms, values, and practices vary from one society to the next. The choices you make are your own, but the choices you’re given come from the society you’re in, as does a lot about the way you regard those choices. If you don’t understand how your society works and how it’s shaped your life, you’re in the dark about important parts of yourself. Only by understanding your society – which sociology can help you to do – can you truly understand yourself.
Chapter 2
What Is Sociology, and Why Should I Care?
In This Chapter
Defining sociology
Understanding where sociology is used
Identifying how sociology affects your life
Although you’ve heard the word sociology, you may not really know what it means. Maybe you think sociology is the same thing as social work, or you confuse it with psychology or anthropology. Perhaps you’ve noticed that sociologists tend to pop up in the news to discuss social problems like racism or violence. You might have an idea that sociologists study social problems, but you don’t really know how sociologists actually conduct their studies.
In this chapter, we explain in clear terms exactly what sociology is, what a sociological question is, and how, in a general sense, a sociologist would go about finding an answer to it. We list some of the most important settings in which sociology works – or where sociology is done, even by people who may not consider themselves sociologists! Finally, we explain how sociology affects your life today and how learning more about sociology will help you in the future.
By the end of this chapter, you’ll know enough to join the ‘experts’ you sometimes see on television, hear on the radio or read on-line.
Figuring Out What Sociology Is
In the 1980s television series Minder, two characters involved in low-level crime are discussing a mutual friend’s release from prison. One says to the other that their friend has improved himself by studying. ‘Yeah, he’s got an Open University degree now. In sociology’. His friend asks: ‘Has he given up the thieving then?’ and the first replies ‘Nah, but now he knows why he does it!’ What this suggests it that sociology is concerned with the social sources of individual action, but it’s not just concerned with that.
Defining sociology
The definition of sociology, after you’ve learned it, is easy to remember because the definition is right there in its name: soci for ‘society’ and ology for ‘the study of’. Sociology is the study of society.
Social sciences take a systematic approach to the analysis of human lives and interactions. And sociology, which is considered a social science, is generally grouped with the following areas of study:
Psychology
Anthropology
Economics
Political science
Area studies (for example, Middle Eastern studies or European studies)
Gender studies (for example, women’s studies)
Cultural studies
Sociology shares a general approach with all these fields, and sociologists often read work by or collaborate with experts in these disciplines. But sociologists insist on reserving the right to study any of those topics. Politics, economics, culture, race and ethnicity, gender . . . sociologists believe that these all interact with one another, so if you try to study just one of those areas in isolation, you risk missing important information about how a social group or situation works. This means that you can study just about anything having to do with humans’ social life and call it sociology – but only if you study it in a ‘scientific’, systematic way.
Studying society scientifically
If you think back to science lessons in school you’ll remember something of how a scientific method works. Normally, you:
1. Ask a question.
2. Set up an experiment or a study that can provide an answer to that question.
3. Make very careful observations.
4. Analyse your observations to see what answer they might provide.
Scientists believe the scientific method is the best way to study the natural world, and social scientists believe that’s the best way to study the social world, too. However, one of the hardest things to understand about sociology is also one of the most important: Sociologists have asked many important questions about society, but the most important contribution of sociology is not the answers to those questions. It’s the fact that they were asked at all.
What makes studying society in a scientific manner so difficult, but ultimately so rewarding, is that to do so you have to set aside your own biases and preconceptions about how society ‘should’ work. If you’re trying to study social norms objectively, you’re going to have to understand that your own norms and values aren’t the only ones that exist, and you’re going to have to put aside any question of whether your own norms and values are the ‘best.’
Emile Durkheim, one of the founders of sociology (more about him in Chapter 3) used what has been called an ‘organic metaphor’ for society. Not everyone agrees that his model is the right way to understand how society works, but it’s a good way to start understanding what society is.
Durkheim said society is like a human body – one big thing made up of many smaller parts. Your body is made of many different systems (nervous system, respiratory system, digestive system) that are themselves made up of organs (brain, lungs, stomach), and the organs are made of billions of cells of all different types. In this way, you are your cells because there’s nothing in your body that’s not made of cells; however, your cells aren’t you.
