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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
The bestselling workbook and grammar guide, revised and updated! Hailed as one of the best books around for teaching grammar, The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation includes easy-to-understand rules, abundant examples, dozens of reproducible quizzes, and pre- and post-tests to help teach grammar to middle and high schoolers, college students, ESL students, homeschoolers, and more. This concise, entertaining workbook makes learning English grammar and usage simple and fun. This updated 12th edition reflects the latest updates to English usage and grammar, and includes answers to all reproducible quizzes to facilitate self-assessment and learning. * Clear and concise, with easy-to-follow explanations, offering "just the facts" on English grammar, punctuation, and usage * Fully updated to reflect the latest rules, along with even more quizzes and pre- and post-tests to help teach grammar * Ideal for students from seventh grade through adulthood in the US and abroad For anyone who wants to understand the major rules and subtle guidelines of English grammar and usage, The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation offers comprehensive, straightforward instruction.
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Table of Contents
COVER
TITLE PAGE
COPYRIGHT
DEDICATION
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: GRAMMAR
FINDING NOUNS, VERBS, AND SUBJECTS
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
IRREGULAR VERBS
CLAUSES AND PHRASES
PRONOUNS
WHO VS. WHOM
WHOEVER VS. WHOMEVER
WHO, THAT, WHICH
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
PREPOSITIONS
EFFECTIVE WRITING
CHAPTER 2: PUNCTUATION
SPACING WITH PUNCTUATION
PERIODS
COMMAS
SEMICOLONS
COLONS
QUOTATION MARKS
QUESTION MARKS
PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
APOSTROPHES
HYPHENS
DASHES
ELLIPSES
EXCLAMATION POINTS
SLASHES
CHAPTER 3: CAPITALIZATION
CHAPTER 4: WRITING NUMBERS
CHAPTER 5: CONFUSING WORDS AND HOMONYMS
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q-R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
CHAPTER 6: QUIZZES
GRAMMAR
PRETEST
FINDING NOUNS, VERBS, AND SUBJECTS
QUIZ 1
FINDING NOUNS, VERBS, AND SUBJECTS
QUIZ 2
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
QUIZ 1
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
QUIZ 2
IRREGULAR VERBS
QUIZ 1
IRREGULAR VERBS
QUIZ 2
PRONOUNS
QUIZ 1
PRONOUNS
QUIZ 2
WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER
QUIZ 1
WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER
QUIZ 2
WHO, WHOM, THAT, WHICH
QUIZ 1
WHO, WHOM, THAT, WHICH
QUIZ 2
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
QUIZ 1
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
QUIZ 2
PREPOSITIONS
QUIZ 1
PREPOSITIONS
QUIZ 2
AFFECT VS. EFFECT
QUIZ 1
AFFECT VS. EFFECT
QUIZ 2
LAY VS. LIE
QUIZ 1
LAY VS. LIE
QUIZ 2
ADVICE VS. ADVISE
QUIZ 1
ADVICE VS. ADVISE
QUIZ 2
THEIR VS. THERE VS. THEY’RE
QUIZ 1
THEIR VS. THERE VS. THEY’RE
QUIZ 2
MORE CONFUSING WORDS AND HOMONYMS
QUIZ 1
MORE CONFUSING WORDS AND HOMONYMS
QUIZ 2
EFFECTIVE WRITING
QUIZ 1
EFFECTIVE WRITING
QUIZ 2
GRAMMAR
MASTERY TEST
PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZATION, AND WRITING NUMBERS
PRETEST
COMMAS AND PERIODS
QUIZ 1
COMMAS AND PERIODS
QUIZ 2
SEMICOLONS AND COLONS
QUIZ 1
SEMICOLONS AND COLONS
QUIZ 2
QUESTION MARKS AND QUOTATION MARKS
QUIZ 1
QUESTION MARKS AND QUOTATION MARKS
QUIZ 2
PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
QUIZ 1
PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
QUIZ 2
APOSTROPHES
QUIZ 1
APOSTROPHES
QUIZ 2
HYPHENS BETWEEN WORDS
QUIZ 1
HYPHENS BETWEEN WORDS
QUIZ 2
HYPHENS WITH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
QUIZ 1
HYPHENS WITH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
QUIZ 2
CAPITALIZATION
QUIZ 1
CAPITALIZATION
QUIZ 2
WRITING NUMBERS
QUIZ 1
WRITING NUMBERS
QUIZ 2
PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZATION, AND WRITING NUMBERS
MASTERY TEST
CHAPTER 7: ANSWERS TO QUIZZES
GRAMMAR
PRETEST ANSWERS
FINDING NOUNS, VERBS, AND SUBJECTS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
FINDING NOUNS, VERBS, AND SUBJECTS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
IRREGULAR VERBS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
IRREGULAR VERBS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
PRONOUNS QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
PRONOUNS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
WHO, WHOM, THAT, WHICH
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
WHO, WHOM, THAT, WHICH
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
PREPOSITIONS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
PREPOSITIONS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
AFFECT VS. EFFECT
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
AFFECT VS. EFFECT
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
LAY VS. LIE
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
LAY VS. LIE
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
ADVICE VS. ADVISE
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
ADVICE VS. ADVISE
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
THEIR VS. THERE VS. THEY’RE
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
THEIR VS. THERE VS. THEY’RE
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
MORE CONFUSING WORDS AND HOMONYMS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
MORE CONFUSING WORDS AND HOMONYMS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
EFFECTIVE WRITING
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
EFFECTIVE WRITING
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
GRAMMAR
MASTERY TEST ANSWERS
PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZATION, AND WRITING NUMBERS
PRETEST ANSWERS
COMMAS AND PERIODS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
COMMAS AND PERIODS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
SEMICOLONS AND COLONS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
SEMICOLONS AND COLONS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
QUESTION MARKS AND QUOTATION MARKS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
QUESTION MARKS AND QUOTATION MARKS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
APOSTROPHES
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
APOSTROPHES
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
HYPHENS BETWEEN WORDS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
HYPHENS BETWEEN WORDS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
HYPHENS WITH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
HYPHENS WITH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
CAPITALIZATION
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
CAPITALIZATION
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
WRITING NUMBERS
QUIZ 1 ANSWERS
WRITING NUMBERS
QUIZ 2 ANSWERS
PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZATION, AND WRITING NUMBERS
MASTERY TEST ANSWERS
INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Twelfth Edition
THE BLUE BOOK OF GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION
An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes
Lester Kaufman
Jane Straus
Copyright ©2021 by Lester Kaufman. All rights reserved.
Jossey-BassA Wiley Imprint111 River St, Hoboken, NJ 07030www.josseybass.com
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, phone +1 978 750 8400, fax +1 978 750 4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, phone + 1 201 748 6011, fax +1 201 748 6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: Although the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Jossey-Bass books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact Jossey-Bass directly, call our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 800–956–7739, outside the U.S. at +1 317 572 3986, or fax +1 317 572 4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is Available:
ISBN 9781119653028 (paperback)ISBN 9781119653035 (epdf)ISBN 9781119652847 (ebook)
Cover design: Wiley
TWELFTH EDITION
This book is dedicated to my late wife, Jane Straus. She was a brilliant, multitalented woman with boundless energy and a natural gift for clarifying all matters complex. She put her heart and soul into everything she undertook. She was taken from us far too soon.
I am deeply grateful for the love and support of my wife, Ellen Kahn, and my daughter, Zoe, for putting up with the seemingly endless hours in my office improving and refining this new edition.
—LESTER KAUFMAN
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Jane Straus created her English language instructional materials because she “found no books that conveyed the rules of English in—well—plain English.” Over the years of teaching basic English language skills to state and federal government employees as well as to individuals in the private sector and in nonprofit organizations, she refined her materials, eventually creating The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation and its related website, GrammarBook.com.
In the introduction to the tenth edition, the author spoke of her 2003 brain tumor diagnosis, how it led to her next bold steps in life, and her successful surgery to remove the tumor. Unfortunately, in 2009, she learned she had a new, unrelated brain tumor—this time malignant. Jane Ruth Straus passed away on February 25, 2011.
Due to the outpouring of appreciation for her work, her husband, Lester Kaufman, continued to oversee the GrammarBook.com website so that anyone around the world could still benefit from her life's work. He also collected ideas and suggestions for changes, new material, and improvements to The Blue Book. After making the acquaintance of Tom Stern, a Marin County, California, writer and editor, Kaufman recognized that Stern possessed the knowledge, skills, experience, and passion needed to thoroughly re-examine The Blue Book and revise it to make it a first-rate grammar resource for everyone.
First and foremost, thanks must go to the late Jane Straus for her vision and persistence in creating a reference guide and workbook that is popular and easy to understand.
We deeply appreciate the late writer and editor Tom Stern for his keen insights and creative additions to both the eleventh and twelfth editions. We also thank talented writer Jonathan Davis and retired English teacher Patti Clements for their invaluable contributions to this edition's rules and guidance as well as their conscientious work on the quizzes.
We could not have succeeded in updating this book without the assistance of the staff and editors at Jossey-Bass and literary agent Cathy Fowler, who steadfastly believed in the book's value. We also thank the thousands of loyal readers of the GrammarBook.com website who, by offering valuable input daily, have helped shape the rules, examples, and quizzes.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lester Kaufman is the publisher of GrammarBook.com. A lifelong public servant, he first served as a teacher in the Peace Corps, and eventually he completed the final years of his federal career with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. He married Jane Straus in 1987.
After his retirement from the Environmental Protection Agency, Kaufman began assisting with the operation of Straus's fledgling website and helped edit previous editions of The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation.
Following Jane Straus's untimely passing in February 2011, Kaufman assumed management of GrammarBook.com, which features an informative and entertaining weekly newsletter that encourages readers to ask grammar questions and offer their views on the state of twenty-first-century English.
Jane Straus (1954–2011) was an educator, life coach, and best-selling author. To prepare for a job teaching English to employees of the state of California in 1975, Straus scoured the library for materials that conveyed the rules of grammar and punctuation in plain English. Finding no such resources, she wrote the rules her own way, made up exercises, ran off some copies, and hoped for the best.
The class was a hit. More and more state employees demanded that they get an equal opportunity to benefit from Straus's no-nonsense instruction in English grammar and usage. She continued to refine her materials, eventually turning them into The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation.
When the Internet was born, she launched a website, GrammarBook.com, which has helped millions of people all over the world improve their English grammar. Straus became a sought-after speaker in the fields of grammar, public speaking, and life coaching. Her other book is Enough Is Enough! Stop Enduring and Start Living Your Extraordinary Life (Jossey-Bass, 2005).
INTRODUCTION
Now in its twelfth edition, The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation will help you write and speak with confidence. You don't have to be an English major to understand grammar and punctuation. You just need rules and guidelines that are easy to understand, with real-world examples.
Whether you are an instructor who is teaching students the rules of English, or a student, executive, professional writer, or avid blogger honing your grammar and punctuation skills, this book will help you zip through tests (including the SAT), reports, essays, letters, e-mails, and résumés. It will help you (and your writing) impress your teachers, your bosses, your clients, and other readers.
Every generation of English scholars despairs because the language always seems to be at a crisis point. But it is undeniable that everywhere one looks nowadays, the principles in this book are casually and cavalierly violated.
The Blue Book will prove to be a valuable tool for teachers and students in achieving the goals of the Common Core State Standards Initiative. Studying the chapters and working through the quizzes will provide students of all ages with the skills and knowledge they need to succeed beyond high school—in college and in the workplace. Students will learn how to use formal English in their writing and speaking and how to better express themselves through language. We also recommend reading the works of great writers to experience firsthand the art and beauty of effective communication.
This book is logical, self-paced, and fun to use, with scores of interesting and challenging quizzes that you may photocopy to your heart's content. Best of all, you can look forward to instant gratification, because the answers to the quizzes are included.
Throughout the text, certain terms have been set in boldface type (for instance, at the beginning of Chapter One, noun, common nouns, proper nouns). Due to space and other considerations, we could not always explore these linguistic terms as thoroughly as we might have wished. Readers are strongly urged to look further into these terms on their own. We also recommend that those who are serious about improving their English grammar always keep a dictionary close by and use it assiduously.
If you don't have time to research several leading reference books to figure out where the next comma should go or whether to write who or whom, you will find The Blue Book to be a pleasure to use. Dedicated to eliminating unnecessary jargon, it highlights the most important grammar, punctuation, and capitalization rules and guidelines and clarifies some of the language's most confusing and confounding words.
Throughout the book, we use the word rule in a liberal sense. The boundary between rule and guideline can be blurry. The rule stated by one writing style guide may differ from the rule in another. In many of these cases, we will state the predominant or sensible practice but then illustrate other acceptable methods. The most important guideline in such cases is simply to be consistent in your own writing.
In Chapter One, “Grammar,” you will learn how to find nouns, verbs, and subjects and make sure they agree with one another. We will talk about the unpredictable behavior of irregular verbs. Next, you will learn about clauses and phrases, the keys to understanding sentence structure. Then, on to pronoun usage, so that you will know whether to write I or me, he or him, who or whom, etc. In this twelfth edition, we include pronoun guidance recognizing the value of gender-neutral language, which aims to treat people equally and is inclusive of people whose gender identity is not strictly male or female.
From there, in the “Adjectives and Adverbs” section, you will discover why some words have -ly added to them, and why you must say, “I did well on the test,” rather than “I did good on the test.” After that, you will breeze through prepositions, learning some surprising rules, and we will debunk at least one myth. (Hint: Is it safe to ask, “What are you talking about?” or must we ask, “About what are you talking?”)
The “Effective Writing” section of Chapter One will give you helpful tips for constructing sentences and paragraphs that flow gracefully, making it easier to write quickly and well.
Chapter Two, “Punctuation,” takes on all the usual suspects: proper spacing with punctuation and the proper use of periods, commas, semicolons, colons, quotation marks, question marks, parentheses and brackets, apostrophes, hyphens, dashes, ellipses, exclamation points, and slashes. The best part about this and other chapters is that you will find an abundance of examples that you run across every day.
Then comes Chapter Three, “Capitalization,” in which you will get your most vexing questions answered, learning which words to capitalize in a title and when to capitalize job titles, such as president or director.
In Chapter Four, “Writing Numbers,” you will learn the importance of consistency when using numerals or writing out numbers. You will also learn how to write fractions and large numbers.
After that, you will enjoy spending time reading all about affect vs. effect, lay vs. lie, their vs. there vs. they're, and its vs. it's in Chapter Five, “Confusing Words and Homonyms.” We have provided hundreds of words and phrases for you in this chapter, so you will never again have to be confused by the differences between farther and further, continual and continuous, flaunt and flout, tortuous and torturous, and all the rest of the trickiest and most commonly misused words and phrases in the English language.
Promise not to skip the quizzes, pretests, or mastery tests in Chapter Six, “Quizzes.” The more you practice, the more confident you will become. Once you get over any fears about test taking, we think you will find the quizzes both enjoyable and challenging. You will find the answers in Chapter Seven, “Answers to Quizzes.”
Please visit www.GrammarBook.com, where you will find the quizzes in the book in a multiple-choice, interactive format. If you are a teacher or are really jazzed about improving your English skills, on the website you will also find
Hundreds of additional downloadable, interactive quizzes in the “Subscription” area
All the rules and examples you see in the book
A sign-up box on the home page for our free, weekly e-newsletter with tips and articles
Our blog containing over 500 articles, including reader questions and our responses, extensively exploring English grammar and punctuation more broadly than possible in the book.
Dozens of free one-minute videos by Jane Straus on English language usage
Recommendations for further reading and study
The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation and the website represent American English rules and guidelines. Explore the Grammar Blog tab on the website, which includes some exploration of the differences between US and UK English.
The point of grammar proficiency is to be clear and direct and to avoid misunderstanding. We hope you will come away from this book with this mantra: “Think before you write.” Be sure every sentence conveys what you mean, with no possibility of ambiguity or inadvertent meaninglessness.
That being said, as George Orwell wrote in 1946, “Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous.”
We hope you find The Blue Book to be both enjoyable and invaluable.
NOTE
The authors researched the leading reference books on American English grammar and punctuation, including The Chicago Manual of Style, The Associated Press Stylebook, Fowler's Modern English Usage, Bernstein's The Careful Writer, and many others. The authors provide rules, guidance, and examples based on areas of general agreement among the authorities. Where the authorities differ, this book provides options to follow based on the reader's purpose in writing, with this general advice: be consistent.
CHAPTER 1GRAMMAR
FINDING NOUNS, VERBS, AND SUBJECTS
Definitions
A
noun
is a word or set of words for a person, place, thing, or idea. A noun of more than one word (
tennis court, gas station
) is called a
compound noun
.
There are common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are words for a general class of people, places, things, and ideas (man, city, award, honesty). They are not capitalized. Proper nouns are always capitalized. They name specific people, places, and things (Joe, Chicago, Academy Award).
A
verb
is a word or set of words that shows action (
runs
,
is going
,
has been painting
); feeling (
loves, envies
); or state of being (
am
,
are
,
is
,
have been
,
was
,
seem
).
NOTE
We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.
Examples
:
He
ran
around the block
.
I
like
my friend
.
They
seem
friendly
.
State-of-being verbs are called linking verbs. They include all forms of the verb to be (be, being, been, am, is, are, was, were), plus such words as look, feel, appear, act, go, followed by an adjective. (See the “Adjectives and Adverbs” section later in this chapter.)
Examples
:
You
look
happy
.
We
feel
fine
.
He
went
ballistic
.
Verbs often consist of more than one word. For instance, had been breaking down is a four-word verb. It has a two-word main verb, breaking down (also called a phrasal verb), and two helping verbs (had and been). Helping verbs are so named because they help clarify the intended meaning.
Many verbs can function as helping verbs, including is, shall, must, do, has, can, keep, get, start, help, etc.
You will sometimes hear the word participle, which is the form of a verb used with helping verbs to make verb tenses or is used to form adjectives. For instance, breaking and broken are the present and past participles, respectively, of the verb break. A broken dish is an example of a phrase containing a participle as an adjective (see the “Adjectives and Adverbs” section later in this chapter).
Verbs often take direct objects, which receive the action of the verb carried out by the subject.
Examples
:
I
like
cake
. (
cake
receives the action,
like
, done by the subject,
I
)
She
lifts
weights
. (
weights
receives the action,
lifts
, done by the subject,
She
)
Verbs may also take indirect objects, which receive the direct object. You can spot an indirect object if it makes sense to place to or from in front of it.
Examples
:
I
gave
Joe the cake
. (The indirect object,
Joe
, receives the direct object,
cake
, given by the subject,
I
. Note that you could also say
I gave the cake
to
Joe.
)
She
did
me a favor
. (The indirect object,
me
, is affected by the direct object,
favor
, done by the subject,
She
. Note that you could also say
She did a favor
for
me
.)
Sometimes verbs require prepositions to complete a sentence. (See the “Prepositions” section later in this chapter.) A noun affected by a preposition is called simply the object of a preposition.
Examples
:
Stop talking about them
. (The object of the preposition
about
is
them
.)
I saw someone inside the house
. (The object of the preposition
inside
is
the house
.)
Gerund is another verb-related term we'll mention only briefly. Gerunds are also called verbal nouns, because they are formed when verbs have -ing added to them and are used as nouns.
Example:Walking is great exercise. (The –ing word, the gerund, is the subject of the sentence.)
A
subject
is the noun, pronoun (see the “Pronouns” section later in this chapter), or set of words that performs the verb.
Examples
:
The woman hurried
.
Woman
is the subject.
She was late
.
She
is the subject.
The Shape of Water
won an Academy Award
.
The Shape of Water
is the subject.
Rule 1. To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the verb.
Examples
:
The jet engine
passed
inspection.
Passed
is the verb. Who or what passed? The engine, so
engine
is the subject. (If you included the word
jet
as the subject, lightning will not strike you. But technically,
jet
is an adjective here and is part of what is known as the complete subject.)
From the ceiling
hung
the chandelier.
The verb is
hung
. Now, if you think
ceiling
is the subject, slow down. Ask
who
or
what
hung. The answer is the chandelier, not the ceiling. Therefore,
chandelier
is the subject.
Rule 2. Sentences can have more than one subject and more than one verb.
Examples
:
I
like
cake, and
he
likes
ice cream
. (Two subjects and two verbs)
He
and
I
like
cake
. (Two subjects and one verb)
She
lifts
weights and
jogs
daily
. (One subject and two verbs)
Rule 3. If a verb follows to, it is called an infinitive, and it is not the main verb. You will find the main verb either before or after the infinitive.
Examples
:
He is trying to leave
.
To leave
is an infinitive; the main verb is
trying
.
To leave was his wish
.
The main verb is
was
.
NOTE
One of the most stubborn superstitions in English is that it is wrong to insert a word between the to and the verb in an infinitive. This is called a split infinitive (to gladly pay, to not go). There is no English scholar alive who will say a split infinitive is technically wrong. However, split infinitives tend to be clumsy and unnecessary. Experienced writers do not use them without good reason.
Rule 4. Any request or command, such as Stop! or Walk quickly, has the understood subject you, because if we ask who is to stop or walk quickly, the answer must be “you.”
Example
:
(
You
)
Please
bring
me some coffee
.
Bring
is the verb. Who will do the bringing? The subject
you
is understood.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-verb agreement.
Basic rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.
Example
:
The
list
of items
is
/are on the desk
.
If you know that
list
is the subject, then you will choose
is
for the verb.
Exceptions to the Basic rule:
The first-person pronoun
I
takes a plural verb (
I go
,
I drive
).
The basic form of the verb is used after certain main verbs such as
watch
,
see
,
hear
,
feel
,
help
,
let
, and
make
(
He watched Ronaldo score the winning goal
.)
Rule 1. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the following sentence:
Incorrect
:
A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room
.
Correct
:
A
bouquet
of yellow roses
lends
… (
bouquet lends
, not
roses lend
)
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.
Examples
:
My
aunt
or my
uncle
is arriving
by train today
.
Neither
Juan
nor
Carmen
is
available
.
Either
Kiana
or
Casey
is helping
today with stage decorations
.
Rule 3. The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it.
Examples
:
Neither the
plates
nor the serving
bowl
goes
on that shelf
.
Neither the serving
bowl
nor the
plates
go
on that shelf
.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:
Awkward
:
Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival
.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better
:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival
.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival
. See the “Pronouns” section, Rules 11a and 11b for more discussion of subject-verb agreement with pronouns.
Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.
Example
:
A
car
and a
bike
are
my means of transportation
.
But note these exceptions:
Exceptions
:
Breaking and entering
is
against the law
.
The
bed and breakfast
was
charming
.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.
NOTE
Some think it is incorrect to place a personal pronoun first in a multi-subject sentence.
Examples
:
I, my dad, and my step-mom are going to the movies
.
She and Orville bought a dog
.
While not grammatically incorrect per se, it is a courtesy to place the pronoun last, except when awkward to do so as shown under Rule 3 above.
Rule 5a. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples
:
The
politician
, along with the newsmen,
is expected
shortly
.
Excitement
, as well as nervousness,
is
the cause of her shaking
.
Rule 5b. Parentheses are not part of the subject.
Examples
:
Joe
(and his trusty mutt)
was
always welcome
.
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.
Rule 6. In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples
:
There
are
four
hurdles
to jump
.
There
is
a high
hurdle
to jump
.
Here
are
the
keys
.
NOTE
The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say “there's” than “there are.” Take care never to use there's with a plural subject.
Rule 7. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit.
Examples
:
Three miles
is
too far to walk
.
Five years
is
the maximum sentence for that offense
.
Ten dollars
is
a high price to pay
.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills)
were
scattered on the floor
.
Rule 8a. With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, percent, some, all—Rule 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples
:
A lot
of the
pie
has disappeared
.
A lot
of the
pies
have disappeared
.
Fifty percent
of the
pie
has disappeared
.
Fifty percent
of the
pies
have disappeared
.
A
third
of the
city
is
unemployed
.
A
third
of the
people
are
unemployed
.
All
of the
pie
is
gone
.
All
of the
pies
are
gone
.
Some
of the
pie
is
missing
.
Some
of the
pies
are
missing
.
NOTE
Some teachers, editors, and the SAT testing service, perhaps for convenience, have considered none to be strictly singular. However, authorities agree that none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. When none is clearly intended to mean “not one,” it is followed by a singular verb.
Rule 8b. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb might be either singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.
Examples
:
All
of my
family
has arrived
OR
have arrived
.
Most
of the
jury
is
here
OR
are
here
.
A
third
of the
population
was
not in favor
OR
were
not in favor of the bill
.
NOTE
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence one sees and hears a lot these days:
The staff is deciding how they want to vote
.
Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular
is
and the plural
they
to
staff
in the same sentence.
Consistent
:
The staff
are
deciding how
they
want to vote
.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.
Rule 9. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:
Example
:
If Joe
were
here, you'd be sorry
.
Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express a hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, compulsory, or factually contradictory thought. The subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Examples
:
I wish it
were
Friday
.
She requested that he
raise
his hand
.
The foreman demanded that Joe
wear
safety goggles
.
In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular subject it. (Technically, it is the singular subject of the object clause in the subjunctive mood: it were Friday.)
Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.
Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal speech and writing.
IRREGULAR VERBS
English verbs are either regular or irregular. We call a verb regular when we add ed (wanted, looked) or sometimes just d (created, loved) to form what are called the simple past tense and the past participle (see third and fourth paragraphs below). A regular verb's simple past tense and past participle are always identical.
Not so with irregular verbs. They form the simple past tense and the past participle in any number of unpredictable ways. Some irregular verbs, like let, shut, and spread, never change, whether present or past. Others, like feel and teach, become modified versions of themselves (felt, taught) to form both the past tense and the past participle. Still others, like break and sing, change to form the past tense (broke, sang) and change again to form the past participle (broken, sung). And then there are a few really weird ones, like go: its past participle (gone) is recognizable enough, but its simple past tense is a strange new word (went).
Let's get back to the irregular verb break. The simple past tense is broke, which we use in sentences like I broke your dish. We use the past participle, broken, to form compound verbs in sentences like I have broken your dish. The compound verb have broken is so called because we've added a helping verb (have) to the main verb's past participle (broken). Be careful never to add a helping verb to the simple past form of an irregular verb—I have broke your dish is an embarrassing confession in more ways than one.
The past participle of an irregular verb can also function as an adjective: a broken dish. But the simple past form, if it differs from the participle, cannot function as an adjective: a broke dish is substandard English.
There are far fewer irregular verbs than regular ones, but we use them all the time. “The ten commonest verbs in English (be, have, do, say, make, go, take, come, see, and get) are all irregular,” notes Steven Pinker, an American experimental psychologist and linguist, “and about 70% of the time we use a verb, it is an irregular verb.” Pinker acknowledges 180 irregular English verbs, but there is an online Extended Irregular Verb Dictionary which contains over 470 irregular verbs, including rare ones such as bestrew, enwind, and hagride.
Proper use of irregular verbs requires old-fashioned memorization—there are no secret formulas or shortcuts. This is why these words can create havoc for conscientious speakers of English.
CLAUSES AND PHRASES
Definitions
A
clause
is a group of words containing a subject and verb. An
independent clause
is a simple sentence. It can stand on its own.
Examples
:
She is hungry
.
I am feeling well today
.
A
dependent clause
cannot stand on its own. It needs an independent clause to complete a sentence. Dependent clauses often begin with such words as
although
,
since
,
if
,
when
, and
because
.
Examples
:
Although she is hungry
…
Whoever is hungry
…
Because I am feeling well
…
Dependent
Independent
Although she is hungry,
she will give him some of her food
.
Whatever they decide,
I will agree to
.
A
phrase
is a group of words without a subject-verb component, used as a single part of speech.
Examples
:
Best friend
(this phrase acts as a noun)
Needing help
(this phrase acts as an adjective; see the “Adjectives and Adverbs” section later in this chapter)
With the blue shirt
(this
prepositional phrase
acts as an adjective; see the “Prepositions” section later in this chapter)
For twenty days
(this prepositional phrase acts as an adverb)
PRONOUNS
Definition
A
pronoun
(
I
,
me
,
he
,
she
,
herself
,
you
,
it
,
that
,
they
,
each
,
few
,
many
,
who
,
whoever
,
whose
,
someone
,
everybody
, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the sentence
Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her,
the pronouns
he
and
her
take the place of
Joe
and
Jill
, respectively. There are three types of pronouns:
subject
(for example,
he
);
object
(
him
); or
possessive
(
his
).
Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.
Example
:
___
did the job
.
I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.
Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to be verbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.
Examples
:
It is he
.
This is she speaking
.
It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize
.
NOTE
In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English.
Example
:
It could have been them
.
Technically correct
:
It could have been
they
.
Example
:
It is just me at the door
.
Technically correct
:
It is just
I
at the door
.
Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.
Correct
:
It is I who
am
sorry
. (
I
am
)
Incorrect
:
It is I who is sorry
.
Correct
:
It is you who
are
mistaken
. (
you
are
)
Incorrect
:
It is you who's mistaken
.
Rule 4. In addition to subject pronouns, there are also object pronouns, known more specifically as direct object, indirect object, and object of a preposition (for more detail, see the definition of a verb in the Finding Nouns, Verbs, and Subjects section). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves.
Examples
:
Jean saw
him
.
Him
is the direct object of the verb
saw
.
Give
her
the book
.
The direct object of
give
is
book
, and
her
is the indirect object. Indirect objects always have an implied
to
or
for
in front of them:
Give
[
to
]
her
the book. Do
[
for
]
me
a favor
.
Are you talking to
me
?
Me
is the object of the preposition
to
.
Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Example
:
He is the only one of those men who is always on time
.
The word
who
refers to
one
. Therefore, use the singular verb
is
.
Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject:
Example
:
He is one of those men who
are
always on time
.
The word
who
refers to
men
. Therefore, use the plural verb
are
.
In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one.
Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, it, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Examples
:
Each
of the girls
sings
well
.
Either
of us
is
capable of doing the job
.
Neither
of them
is
available to speak right now
.
Exception 1: The singular pronouns I and you take plural verbs.
Examples
:
I
sing
well
.
You
sing
well
.
She
sings
well
.
Exception 2: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up:
Incorrect
:
The women each gave her approval
.
Correct
:
The women each gave their approval
.
Incorrect
:
The words
are
and
there
each ends with a silent vowel
.
Correct
:
The words
are
and
there
each end with a silent vowel
.
These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather an adjunct describing the true subject.
Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
Examples
:
Tranh is as smart as she/her
.
If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say
Tranh is as smart as she is
. Therefore,
she
is the correct answer.
Zoe is taller than I/me
.
Mentally completing the sentence, we have
Zoe is taller than I am
.
Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me
.
We can interpret this sentence in two ways:
Daniel would rather talk to her than to me
.
OR
Daniel would rather talk to her than I would
. A sentence's meaning can change considerably, depending on the pronoun you choose.
Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's.
Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe in oneself. Avoid “one's self,” a common error.
Examples
:
It's been a cold morning
.
The thermometer reached its highest reading
.
He's the one who's always on time
.
He's the one whose wife is always on time
.
Keeping oneself ready is important
.
Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.
Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing.
Example
:
Joe helped
himself
.
If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun:
Example
:
Joe bought it for himself
.
Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe.
Correct
:
I worked myself to the bone
.
The object
myself
is the same person as the subject
I
, performing the act of working.
Incorrect
:
My brother and myself did it
.
Correct
:
My brother and I did it
.
Don't use
myself
unless the pronoun
I
or
me
precedes it in the sentence.
Incorrect
:
Please give it to John or myself
.
Correct
:
Please give it to John or me
.
Correct
:
You saw me being myself
.
Myself
refers back to
me
in the act of being.
A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help yourself.
In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first.
Example
:
Doubting himself, the man proceeded cautiously
.
Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis.
Example
:
He himself finished the whole job
.
Rule 11a. The use of they and their with singular pronouns is frowned upon by many traditionalists. To be consistent, it is a good practice to try to avoid they and its variants (e.g., them, their, themselves) with previously singular nouns or pronouns.
Not consistent
:
Someone has to do it, and they have to do it well
.
The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to
