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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive guide to using the Social Change Model in all types of curricular and co-curricular settings This book is designed to provide leadership educators with a wealth of classroom and workshop activities, discussion and reflection questions, assignment suggestions, and additional resources such as video clips and supplementary readings. It also includes several case studies for students to consider the implications of applying all eight elements of the Social Change Model in a variety of contexts. The Social Change Model of Leadership Development--upon which the book is based--was designed by well-known leadership educators and received wide acclaim and use. The validity of this model has been established through a number of research studies including the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership. * Written by leading experts and developers of the Social Change Model who often present and consult on the topic * Helps curricular and co-curricular leadership educators teach the Social Change Model through individual and group activities, reflection questions, and discussion questions. * Walks course or workshop facilitators through the entire process of teaching the content and facilitating and debriefing activities If you're a leadership educator of high school, undergraduate, or graduate school students, The Social Change Model: Facilitating Leadership Development is indispensable reading. Please note that The Social Change Model: Facilitating Leadership Development is intended to be used as a Facilitator's Guide to Leadership for a Better World, 2nd Edition (978-1-119-20759-7) in seminars, workshops, and college classrooms. You'll find that, while each book can be used on its own, the content in both is also designed for use together. A link to the home page of Leadership for a Better World can be found below under Related Titles.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Introduction
This Book
References
Chapter 1: The Social Change Model of Leadership Development for Leadership Educators
Brief History of Leadership
The Social Change Model of Leadership Development
Limitations and Benefits of the SCM
References
Notes
Chapter 2: Teaching Leadership
Setting the Context
Exploring Participants' Understanding of Leadership
Knowing, Being, Doing
Shaping the Learning Environment
Learning Partnerships Model
Strategies for Teaching Socially Responsible Leadership
Active Learning and Leadership Self‐Efficacy
Navigating Resistance
So How Am I Doing?
Parting Advice
Supplemental Readings
References
Notes
Chapter 3: Applying the Social Change Model of Leadership Development through the Use of Case Studies
Overview
Case Study Overview
Using a Case Study
Applying the Social Change Model within the Context of a Case Study
Introduction to Case Studies
Case Study One: Who Knew Service Had Challenges?
Case Study Two: The Intern's Perspective
Case Study Three: Now What?
Supplemental Readings
Media
References
Notes
Chapter 4: Overview of the Social Change Model of Leadership Development
Summary of the Key Concepts
Supportive Research Findings
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Professional Organizations
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 5: Consciousness of Self
Summary of the Key Concepts
Supportive Research Findings
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Professional Organizations
Other Resources
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 6: Congruence
Summary of the Key Concepts
Supportive Research Findings
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Other Resources
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
Reference
Notes
Chapter 7: Commitment
Summary of the Key Concepts
Supportive Research Findings
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 8: Collaboration
Summary of Key Concepts
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
Reference
Notes
Chapter 9: Common Purpose
Summary of the Key Concepts
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 10: Controversy with Civility
Summary of Key Concepts
Supportive Research Findings
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Professional Organizations
Other Resources
Suggested Questions for Discussion or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 11: Citizenship
Summary of Key Concepts
Supportive Research Findings
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Professional Organizations
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 12: Change
Summary of the Key Concepts
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 13: Social Change
Summary of Key Concepts
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
Chapter 14: Applying the Model
Summary of the Key Concepts
Activities Overview
Learning Activities
Supplemental Readings
Media
Suggested Questions for Discussions or Assignments
References
Notes
About the Editors
End User License Agreement
List of Figures
Chapter 1: The Social Change Model of Leadership Development for Leadership Educators
Figure 1.1: The Social Change Model of Leadership Development
Chapter 4: Overview of the Social Change Model of Leadership Development
Figure 4.1: The Social Change Model of Leadership Development
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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The Social Change Model
Facilitating Leadership Development
Kristan Cilente SkendallDaniel T. OstickSusan R. KomivesWendy Wagnerand Associates
Copyright © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by Jossey-Bass
A Wiley Brand
One Montgomery Street, Suite 1000, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594—www.josseybass.com
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the Web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Permission is given for individual classroom teachers to reproduce the pages and illustrations for classroom use. Reproduction of these materials for an entire school system is strictly forbidden.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Readers should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Skendall, Kristan C., editor. | Ostick, Daniel T., editor. | Komives, Susan R., editor. | Wagner, Wendy, editor.
Title: The social change model : facilitating leadership development / [edited by] Kristan C. Skendall, Daniel T. Ostick, Susan R. Komives, Wendy Wagner.
Description: San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016044789 (print) | LCCN 2016054908 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119242437 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781119242710 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119242703 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Educational leadership—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC LB2806 .S594 2017 (print) | LCC LB2806 (ebook) | DDC 371.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016044789
Cover image: Wiley
Cover design: © mythja /Getty Images, Inc.
FIRST EDITION
To the entire Ensemble who envisioned leadership to make a better world and to all leadership educators who advance that vision through their leadership training, education, development, scholarship, and research!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The development of this facilitation guide was a true work of collaboration. Many individuals offered advice, support, input, and content to help craft all of the materials and activities contained in this book.
Kristan and Daniel are grateful to Susan and Wendy for their work as editors of Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition), which built the framework upon which this book is based. Their leadership expertise and commitment to social change resulted in a powerful product for leadership educators, one which we are all proud to build upon. The individual authors in Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition) also provided the raw materials to guide the development of each activity within this guide. Special thanks also goes out to the original members of the Ensemble, without whom the Social Change Model would not exist.
Additional thanks goes out to the authors of each of the chapters within this book as well. These leadership educators and scholars from across the United States have contributed their best activities, their best thinking, and years of leadership experience.
Matt Cooney
Ben Correia‐Harker
Matt Creasy
Sherry Early
Chris Esparza
Matt Johnson
Mika Karikari
Danielle Kleist
Steve Mencarini
Suresh Mudragada
Darren Pierre
José Riera
Melissa Rocco
Kristen Rupert
Rian Satterwhite
Jordyn Wright
We are particularly thankful to our stellar editor Alison Knowles and the entire team at Jossey‐Bass. Their guidance and careful review gave us both the direction and support needed to tackle challenges head‐on. Alison's support of leadership education to advance the field is greatly appreciated. We are also thankful to Craig Slack at the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (NCLP) for his assistance with permissions for the guide and constant support of our work. We are grateful to Natasha Chapman, Krystal Clark, Matt Johnson, Ramsey Jabaji, Julie Owen, and Tom Segar for their review of this book, especially the activities in each chapter. Their helpful feedback enhanced this volume tremendously.
Our thanks also go to our families and friends who offered continual encouragement, and to our university departments and supervisors for all of their support.
INTRODUCTION
Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition) describes and explores the Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development as a purposeful, collaborative, values‐based process that results in positive social change (Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2017). The SCM was created specifically for college students who seek to lead in a more socially responsible way and who want to learn to work effectively with others to create social change over their lifetimes (Higher Education Research Institute, HERI, 1996). The creators of the SCM were interested in developing a process of leadership that begins with a personal commitment and self‐understanding that is transformed through working collaboratively with others, and meant to serve a larger, societal need or purpose.
The chapters in Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition) have been intentionally sequenced into sections, to build upon recent research related to the developmental sequencing of the SCM (Dugan et al., 2014). These sections move from individual values to group values to societal values, and conclude with an examination of how these values work together to accomplish change.
Understanding the Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development
This section describes the Social Change Model (SCM), introduces the concept of change and socially responsible leadership, and sets the context for this approach to collaborative, values‐based leadership.
Individual Values
The second section examines leadership development from the individual perspective or level, and what personal qualities should be fostered. The three values explored are
Consciousness of Self
,
Congruence
, and
Commitment
.
Group Values
The third section examines leadership development as a relational process, and how individuals work together toward change. The three values explored are
Collaboration
,
Common Purpose
, and
Controversy with Civility
.
Societal and Community Values
The fourth section examines leadership development in relation to the rights of membership and the responsibilities individuals and groups have to serve others and address shared needs and problems. The value explored is
Citizenship
.
On Change
The last section examines how all of the values work together to accomplish change, including how change occurs, how people engage with change, and how individuals and groups can implement the Social Change Model in their own leadership.
This Book
The purpose of The Social Change Model: Facilitating Leadership Development is to provide active learning strategies for organizing a workshop, activity, or academic course around Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition) and the Social Change Model in general. Learning activities in this guide will support curricular and co‐curricular applications of the Social Change Model. Each chapter in Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition) is addressed here through activities to help participants understand, appreciate, and apply the values of the Social Change Model. The rubrics included in Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition) serve as excellent resources for facilitator and participant use.
Introductory chapters introduce the Social Change Model (Chapter One), provide insight into teaching leadership (Chapter Two), and introduce case studies as a pedagogy for exploring the model more deeply (Chapter Three). Subsequent chapters contain summaries of key concepts from the corresponding chapter from Leadership for a Better World (2nd edition) and activities, as well as additional readings, resources, and discussion questions. Depending on space constraints, time limitations, and group size, each activity may be modified to accommodate the group and purpose of the activity. These activities can be presented at a basic level or deconstructed for additional complexity, and can also be adjusted for the developmental readiness of the participants. This book provides many resources for facilitators and educators, though many more exist in print and online. It is imperative that leadership educators remain thoughtful consumers of information as access to resources continually expands.
The materials contained in The Social Change Model: Facilitating Leadership Development have been designed by some of the best leadership educators in the field of higher education who were chosen based on their content knowledge and pedagogical strengths. We think you will enjoy learning from them.
We know you will discover interesting and useful activities throughout this guide to help you engage with students about socially responsible leadership and social change.
Kristan Cilente Skendall
Daniel T. Ostick
Susan R. Komives
Wendy Wagner
References
Dugan, J.P., Bohle, C.W., Woelker, L.R., & Cooney, M.A. (2014). The role of social perspective‐taking in developing students' leadership capacities.
Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice
, 51, 1–15. doi:10.1515/jsarp-2014-0001
Higher Education Research Institute (HERI). (1996). A social change model of leadership development (Version III). Los Angeles, CA: University of California Los Angeles, Higher Education Research Institute. Retrieved from
www.heri.ucla.edu/PDFs/pubs/ASocialChangeModelofLeadershipDevelopment.pdf
Komives, S.R., Wagner, W., & Associates. (2017).
Leadership for a better world: Understanding the social change model of leadership development
(2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.
Chapter 1The Social Change Model of Leadership Development for Leadership Educators
Kristan Cilente Skendall & Daniel T. Ostick
“Leadership is the way we invade our future.”
Susan Komives
Leadership educators shape the future through their work. The Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development is a tool to help in that process. Designed as a complement to Leadership for a Better World (2nd Edition) and for use in applications of the SCM in retreats and workshops, this book, The Social Change Model: Facilitating Leadership Development, provides resources for leadership educators to teach the SCM via interactive, scaffolded learning exercises. The activities and resources provided are designed to work in curricular and co‐curricular settings, and are appropriate for those new to the SCM and those with a more advanced understanding of leadership studies.
Brief History of Leadership
The concept of leadership has evolved a lot over the past 2,000 years. There are hundreds of definitions of leadership (Rost, 1991) and new approaches emerge regularly. Early approaches to leadership were leader‐centric and focused on an individual's traits (Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991). The Great Man Theory approached leadership as a genetic quality, passed down over generations. The early 1900s brought a new approach to leadership, one focused on inherent traits, rather than bloodlines. While trait theory is still present, our understanding of leadership has expanded exponentially over the past 100 years. Mid‐twentieth century scholars researched behavioral approaches to leadership giving way to situational and contingency theories of leadership (Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991).
Although trait theory, situational leadership, and behavioral approaches to leadership are still in use today, a more relational, post‐industrial approach to leadership emerged at the end of the twentieth century. Leadership, a pivotal book by J. M. Burns (1978), signaled a shift from a leader‐centric view of leadership to a process‐oriented approach to leadership. Burns highlighted the importance of ethics and the relationship between people in leadership positions, with transactional leadership being a quid pro quo model more akin to management, and transforming leadership the foundation for leadership that is most used today.
The Social Change Model of Leadership Development
The postindustrial paradigm (Rost, 1991) that emerged in the 1980s influenced current approaches to leadership, particularly the Relational Leadership Model (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2013) and the Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development (Higher Education Research Institute [HERI], 1996). Astin and Leland's (1991) hallmark study of women involved in social change movements set the groundwork for the Social Change Model's creation. Shortly after Women of Influence, Women of Vision (Astin & Leland, 1991) was published, an Eisenhower grant was made available to college and university researchers interested in leadership development. Alexander and Helen Astin served as the co‐principal investigators for a grant to understand student leadership and social change. They brought together the top scholars on leadership with student affairs professionals engaged in student leadership work.
This research team called themselves “the Ensemble” and they adopted an approach to their work that would mirror the product they developed. This team was comprised of many musicians, which was an important influence on the development of the SCM as it informed how the group came together. Like a jazz ensemble, the SCM Ensemble team built off of the work of one another in an organic manner, and fostered innovation and creativity in the process of developing the SCM.
Once the Ensemble had a working approach to their new model, they hosted a summit to examine and tune the model with representatives from several professional organizations whose missions focused on leadership. In 1996, Helen Astin published a foundational article about the SCM in About Campus and the Social Change Model Guidebook (HERI, 1996) was released. Over the past 20 years, “the social change model of leadership development and the seven C's of social change have played a prominent role in shaping the curricula and formats of undergraduate leadership education initiatives in colleges and universities throughout the country” (Kezar, Carducci, & Contreras‐McGavin, 2006, p. 142).
Assumptions of the SCM
The Social Change Model is an approach to leadership that is both process‐oriented and outcome‐oriented, approaching “leadership as a purposeful, collaborative, values‐based process that results in positive social change” (Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2017, p. 19). Although social change is the ultimate goal of the SCM, the socially responsible process of leadership it outlines is equally as important. The underlying assumptions of the SCM are as follows:
Leadership is socially responsible; it impacts change on behalf of others.
Leadership is collaborative.
Leadership is a process, not a position.
Leadership is inclusive and accessible to all people.
Leadership is values‐based.
Community involvement/service is a powerful vehicle for leadership.
(Astin 1996; Bonous‐Hammarth, 2001; HERI, 1996; Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2016)
These assumptions are the foundation for the Social Change Model, which consists of three levels of development and eight core values. At the Individual level, the SCM values are Consciousness of Self, Congruence, and Commitment. Next, at the Group level, the SCM values include Common Purpose, Collaboration, and Controversy with Civility. The final level, Society/Community, consists of the value of Citizenship. The final value of the SCM is Change. Each of these C values is laid out in its own chapter in both Leadership for a Better World (Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2017) and in this volume. Change is split into two chapters, with an overview of Change processes as well as a chapter on Social Change. See Figure 1.1 for a visual representation of the SCM and Chapter Four for a greater overview of the SCM.
Figure 1.1: The Social Change Model of Leadership Development
Limitations and Benefits of the SCM
The Social Change Model has been used for twenty years on and off college campuses. While it is highly beneficial, it is not without critique. The Social Change Model was created and conceived as a tool for use in college student leadership contexts, so the initial concept of the SCM and its related research has focused primarily on undergraduate college students. It is also an aspirational model of leadership, one that sometimes exists in contrast to organizational realities. This disconnect does not invalidate the Social Change Model, but is important to acknowledge and understand as a leadership educator. Helping participants understand this disconnect and work toward an aspirational approach to leadership across sectors is an important learning objective of the Social Change Model.
Another noted critique of the Social Change Model is related to what can be perceived as missing C values, such as creativity, culture, curiosity, and caring. The Social Change Model is not a perfect approach to leadership, and as a values‐based, process‐oriented model, it cannot be all‐encompassing. Asking participants to consider other missing values is another tool for learning about the Social Change Model. Leadership educators may wish to consider other leadership models to flesh out important values that speak to their individual missions or institutional priorities. The original Ensemble encouraged educators to adapt the model for their context, and some campuses have emphasized additional values in the framework of the model.
Critiques of the Social Change Model are useful to leadership educators engaged in teaching and learning. Just as important to understanding the SCM are the benefits of the model. The SCM can be used for individuals at different levels of developmental readiness and is more complex than a surface examination may suggest. The Social Change Model is one of only a few approaches to leadership with both an assessment tool and research published in refereed journals. The Socially Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS) was developed by Tracy Tyree (1998) and has since been adapted to increase validity and reliability of the instrument (Appel‐Silbaugh, 2005; Dugan, Komives, & Associates, 2006). The SRLS is available through the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (www.nclp.umd.edu) and can be used by individuals or groups as an assessment tool for each of the C values (thestamp.umd.edu/srls).
The SCM also serves as the foundational theory undergirding the Multi‐Institutional Study of Leadership (MSL) and measured by the SRLS. The MSL is an international research study designed originally by John Dugan and Susan Komives in 2005 to measure the values of the SCM. The MSL has conducted six administrations of the instrument, in 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2015. Many refereed publications, reports, theses, and dissertations have studied the data from iterations of the study. More than 250 institutions and 300,000 students have participated in the MSL since its inception. Information related to research findings is included throughout this book and is available online at http://leadershipstudy.net. The Social Change Model is one approach to leadership, and this book provides educators with tools to facilitate learning in a variety of contexts.
References
Appel‐Silbaugh, C. (2005).
SRLS revised: The revision of SRLS
. College Park, MD: National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs.
Astin, H. S., & Leland, C. (1991).
Women of influence, women of vision: A cross‐generational study of leaders and social change
. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.
Astin, H. S. (1996). Leadership for social change.
About Campus
, 1(3), 4–10. doi: 10.1002/abc.6190010302
Bass, B. M. (1990).
Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: Theory, research, & management applications
(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.
Bonous‐Hammarth, M. (2001). Developing social change agents: Leadership development for the 1990s and beyond. In C. L. Outcault, S. K. Faris, & K. N. McMahon (Eds.),
Developing non‐hierarchical leadership on campus: Case studies and best practices in higher education
(pp. 34–39). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Burns, J. M. (1978).
Leadership
. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Dugan, J. P., Komives, S. R., & Associates. (2006).
Multi‐institutional study of leadership: A guidebook for participating campuses
. College Park, MD: National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs.
Higher Education Research Institute. (HERI) (1996).
A social change model of leadership development (Version III)
. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Los Angeles, Higher Education Research Institute.
Kezar, A. J., Carducci, R., & Contreras‐McGavin, M. (2006). Rethinking the “L” word in higher education: The revolution in research on leadership.
ASHE Higher Education Report
,
31
(6). San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.
Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (2013).
Exploring leadership: For college students who want to make a difference
(3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.
Komives, S. R., Wagner, W., & Associates. (2017).
Leadership for a better world
(2nd Ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.
Rost, J. C. (1991).
Leadership for the twenty‐first century
. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Tyree, T. M. (1998). Designing an instrument to measure the socially responsible leadership using the social change model of leadership development.
Dissertation Abstracts International
, 59(06), 1945. (AAT 9836493)
Notes
Kristan Cilente Skendall serves as the Associate Director of the Gemstone Honors Program in the Honors College at the University of Maryland, College Park, where she earned her doctorate in college student personnel. Previously, she worked at Georgetown University, the University of Arizona, and the U.S. Department of Education. Kristan has served as a co‐lead facilitator with the LeaderShape Institute, has taught numerous leadership courses, has presented at dozens of national and international conferences, was a member of the Multi‐Institutional Study of Leadership Research Team, and served as the coordinator for the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs.
Daniel T. Ostick serves as the Assistant Director for Student and Staff Development in the Department of Resident Life at the University of Maryland. where he earned his doctorate in college student personnel. Previously, he worked in Assessment and as the Coordinator for Leadership Curriculum Development and Academic Partnerships in the Adele H. Stamp Student Union‐Center for Campus Life at the University of Maryland. Daniel regularly teaches coursework on leadership theory and global leadership, and has published articles and chapters on the Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development, diversity and leadership, and LGBT issues and leadership.
Chapter 2Teaching Leadership
Matthew R. Johnson
Setting the Context
Teaching leadership, at first blush, seems relatively straightforward: Explore various leadership theories that have evolved over the last two centuries; create a learning environment that balances theoretical content and experiential learning; and push participants to articulate their leadership philosophy amidst the deluge of leadership models, theories, and characteristics. But, upon deeper reflection, this seemingly manageable task becomes intensely more complex.
Consider first that participants in your learning environment have been sold a script that leadership can be learned in a short period. They have been told that mastering leadership can be accomplished in six steps, by embracing nine essential characteristics, or that doing one specific thing will make them better at practicing leadership if they purchase this particular book, attend this unique seminar, or even click a link on a webpage. Educators might also realize that the kind of leadership they are teaching, like that contained in this text, is at odds with the leadership being played out in front of participants in their institutions, communities, states, or countries. Leadership educators are right to realize that to be effective, they must consider the contexts in which participants have formed their current understanding and values related to leadership. Participants are not empty vessels awaiting the fulfillment of knowledge. They have knowledge, and in the case of leadership, they have a lot of knowledge and perhaps even experience—even if it is simplistic, ill‐suited for their purposes, or inadequate to create a better world.
Exploring Participants' Understanding of Leadership
If participants are not blank slates when it comes to leadership, then it behooves educators to understand participants' current understanding of leadership at the beginning of a course or workshop. Asking participants to define leadership on a notecard, map leadership concepts on the board, tell their leadership story, draw their view of leadership, or respond to a series of statements about leadership are all examples of strategies to gauge participants' current understanding of leadership.
To begin to unpack their participants' socialization of leadership messages, facilitators could ask participants to keep a cultural audit of leadership messages they receive over a 24‐hour period. They could ask participants to note and describe both implicit and explicit messages they receive about leadership, and then share their observations with the group at the next meeting. These activities can elicit vital information to educators, which will allow them to meet participants where they currently are in their understanding. These glimpses provide an important starting point for thinking about leadership, while the overall learning objectives or outcomes serve as the hopeful endpoint. The following section, “Knowing, Being, Doing,” provides guidance on creating learning outcomes.
Knowing, Being, Doing
When crafting learning outcomes for a leadership course or workshop, educators should be attuned to the three dimensions of development, which include the cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal, commonly referred to as knowing, being, anddoing (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2013). Vella (2002) argues that for true learning to occur, shifts must happen in all three of these areas. Simply gaining knowledge, for instance, falls short of transformational learning.
Knowing
—what participants know, which includes theories, models, and research related to leadership as well as application of theories and models, particularly those associated with socially responsible leadership.
Being
—how participants are, which includes attitudes, dispositions, and values. Participants wrestle with how to engage in socially responsible leadership effectively.
Doing
—what participants do, which includes interpersonal skills and abilities related to leadership. Participants learn to act in ways that are congruent with socially responsible leadership.
These three dimensions are important to consider when crafting learning outcomes or simply determining what facilitators hope participants will gain as a result of the course or workshop. When teaching leadership, it is important to incorporate outcomes from all three dimensions.
Shaping the Learning Environment
Once learning outcomes are established, attention turns to how to create an environment where participants can achieve these learning outcomes. While many aspects can influence a learning environment, negotiating the culture with students and paying attention to the physical layout of the learning space can be essential for creating a positive learning environment.
Negotiating learning space culture
While educators are cautioned from creating community norms in their learning spaces because of the ways in which these norms can take on the persona of the dominant culture, it is still beneficial to ask participants how they want the learning environment to be. Questions such as the following are worth exploring, because they not only create a better learning environment, but also provide participants with a laboratory to practice leadership:
How will we hold each other accountable?
How will we ensure this is a safe space?
How can we make this space more inclusive?
How will we name and resolve practices in this learning environment that are incongruent with what we are learning?
Physical space
The physical environment in which participants learn send implicit messages about the nature of learning that will take place within the space. When desks and chairs are fixed and aligned toward the front of the room, the arrangement subtly suggests to participants that the facilitator is the only person to be learned from and that their peers are not there to benefit their learning. Learning space structures where desks are grouped in a circle or quad structure suggest that everyone learns from everyone else. The facilitator for the learning experience might periodically shift the “front” of the room to further reinforce this idea. Tables may also be arranged in small workgroups to signal the idea that leadership is active and collaborative.
Learning Partnerships Model
Beyond shaping the culture and physical layout of a learning space, a pedagogical framework for teaching leadership can enhance student learning. Baxter Magolda's (2004) longitudinal study of young adults' development over their lifespan resulted in the creation of the Learning Partnerships Model (LPM), which provides a useful pedagogical framework for navigating varied developmental readiness for leadership educators. The LPM is guided by three assumptions (knowledge is complex and socially constructed; self is central to knowledge construction; and authority and expertise are shared in the mutual construction of knowledge) and three principles (validate participants as knowers; situate learning in participants' experiences; and mutually construct knowledge with participants) to promote participants' learning and development. These three assumptions challenge participants, while the three principles speak directly to the support that educators can provide. Table 1.1 contains some ways leadership educators can enact these principles in their learning spaces. Those who resonate with these suggestions would be well served to revisit Baxter Magolda's original work on the LPM and may find value in implementing these principles in their teaching and facilitating.
The Three Principles of the Learning Partnerships Model (LPM) for Leadership Educators
Principle 1: Validate participants as knowers
Ensure participants' voices are valued through statements in the syllabus, the learning environment structure, and norms for participation
Lessen the voice of facilitator as the sole authority by sharing expertise and experiences among learners
Encourage active sharing of diverse ideas and viewpoints among all participants
Help participants to view the facilitator as someone with experience, but still learning alongside participants
Principle 2: Situate learning in participants' experiences
Encourage participants to share experiences and stories; combine with course assignments
Implement the use of reflective journaling or online discourse via social media in curriculum design
Be inclusive—avoid gendered language, do not rely on similar examples with which some participants are unfamiliar, include diverse authors and guest speakers
Ask participants how well theories or models fit into their experiences
Help participants see the applicability of content to their lives
Principle 3: Mutually construct knowledge with participants
Position the facilitator as someone learning alongside participants
Provide an explicit teaching pedagogy for participants in print or online
Offer opportunities for participants to critique and refine existing theories or models
Strategies for Teaching Socially Responsible Leadership
While the LPM offers some useful context for promoting learning and development broadly, there are several empirical strategies for fostering growth in socially responsible leadership specifically. One of the biggest predictors of socially responsible leadership is the extent to which participants engage in socio‐cultural conversations, which are conversations about and across cultural differences (Dugan & Komives, 2011; Dugan, Kodama, Correia, & Associates 2013). Socio‐cultural conversations likely have such large effect because they force participants to clarify and explain their own perspectives, seek other perspectives, comprehend how their values fit into a larger societal and political context, and discern how to work with different communities to create social change (Dugan et al., 2013) These socio‐cultural conversations encourage social perspective‐taking, which can be thought of as the ability to accurately infer another's point of view and/or empathize with their viewpoint. When participants discuss their perspectives and listen to others' perspectives, they are more likely to incorporate them regularly when they engage in leadership. Leadership educators would be well served to incorporate rich discussions about and across differences into their pedagogy, which may take on several forms including story sharing, case studies, and guest speakers.
Story sharing
Perceptions of leadership begin early in life. Participants might remember the teacher choosing line leaders for recess in elementary school or prominent elected leaders making a famous speech on television. The ways in which participants experience and understand leadership throughout their lifetime serves as the foundation for their current conceptualizations of leadership. Educators could find ways to have participants share their early, foundational memories of leadership and process potential differences based on the diversity of their experiences. Story sharing could also be used to explore why students want to study leadership and what their purposes are in life.
Case studies
Case studies can be invaluable pedagogical tools to promote social perspective‐taking. With fictional or real‐life scenarios prepared by the facilitator ahead of time, participants can explore how they would act in different situations. Facilitators may choose to assign participants various roles within the case study or let them choose based on their interests.
Guest speakers
Guest speakers allow for the exchange of diverse ideas in the learning space. Rather than simply inviting guest speakers who have particular expertise on a topic, educators might explore guest speakers who offer differing or contrasting views. Technology also allows for diverse speakers to engage with participants even if limitations in physical proximity exist. Video conferencing tools make it easy to host guest speakers from around the world. Social media also allows for guest speakers to engage with participants before, during, and after a designated amount of time when the group meets physically. Speakers more proximal to the classes experience (for example, seniors talking to sophomores) often bring a more approachable message.
