2.5D Printing E-Book

Carinna Parraman

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley-IS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 595

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

A guide that examines the history and current state of 2.5D printing and explores the relationship between two and three dimensions

2.5D Printing: Bridging the Gap Between 2D and 3D Applications examines the relationship between two- and three-dimensional printing and explores the current ideas, methods, and applications. It provides insights about the diversity of our material culture and heritage and how this knowledge can be used to design and develop new methods for texture printing. The authors review the evolving research and interest in working towards developing methods to: capture, measure and model the surface qualities of 3D and 2D objects, represent the appearance of surface, material and textural qualities, and print or reproduce the material and textural qualities.

The text reflects information on the topic from a broad range of fields including science, technology, art, design, conservation, perception, and computer modelling. 2.5D Printing: Bridging the Gap Between 2D and 3D Applications provides a survey of traditional methods of capturing 2.5D through painting and sculpture, and how the human perception is able to judge and compare differences. This important text:

• Bridges the gap between the technical and perceptual domains of 2D and 3D printing
• Discusses perceptual texture, color, illusion, and visual impact to offer a unique perspective
• Explores how to print a convincing rendering of texture that integrates the synthesis of texture in fine art paintings, with digital deposition printing
• Describes contemporary methods for capturing surface qualities and methods for modelling and measuring, and ways that it is currently being used
• Considers the impact of 2.5D for future technologies

2.5D Printing is a hands-on guide that provides visual inspiration, comparisons between traditional and digital technologies, case studies, and a wealth of references to the world of texture printing.

Please visit the companion website at: www.wiley.com/go/bridging2d3d

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Dedication

About the Authors

Series Editor's Preface

Preface

Acknowledgements

About the Companion website

Introduction

Chapter 1: Defining the Field of 2.5D Printing

1.1 What is Texture?

1.2 Measuring Texture and Colour

1.3 Images, Pictures and Reproductions

1.4 The Authenticity of the Image and Object and Perception of Things

1.5 Current Industrial and Mechanical Methods to Reproduce the Appearance of Texture

1.6 Conclusion

References

Bibliography and Further Reading

Chapter 2: The Past

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Artists' Observations on the Appearance of Illumination

2.3 Artists' Conversion of Images into Relief

2.4 Artists' Exploration of Different Sculptural Relief

2.5 Coloration of Relief Surfaces

2.6 Examples of Artists' Approaches to Representation and Reproduction of Texture

References

Bibliography and Further Reading

Chapter 3: The Present: Materials, Making, Capturing and Measuring

3.1 Introduction: Universal Knowledge

3.2 The Relationship of Digital Technologies, Knowledge of Materials and Skills

3.3 Methods to Capture and Measure Texture

3.4 Methods to Represent the Appearance of Texture

3.5 Physical Material Libraries

3.6 Methods for 2.5D Printing

References

Bibliography and Further Reading

Chapter 4: The Future

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Circular Economy and Sustainable Manufacturing

4.3 Worldwide Print Connectivity

4.4 Mass Printing for One

4.5 Security Printing

4.6 Conclusion

References

Bibliography and Further Reading

Chapter 5: Case Studies

Case Study 1: Nature Printing in the Nineteenth Century

Case Study 2: Wallpaper Design

Case Study 3: 2.5D Printed Tactile Books and Artworks

Case Study 4: Coins and Medals

Case Study 5: Capturing Texture of Paintings for Museum and Heritage

Case Study 6: Textiles

Case Study 7:

Trompe l’Oeil

Case Study 8: Marble

Case Study 9: Gold

Case Study 10: Exterior Decoration Tiles and Ceramics

Case Study 11: Microstructural Texture

Case Study 12: Painting Machines

Case Study 13: Analogue Printing Methods

Case Study 14: Relief Woodblock Printing

References

Bibliography and Further Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Texture is useful for recognising the difference between something fresh and rotten (courtesy: Grace Parraman).

Figure 1.2 Giovanni Strazza (1818–1875)

The Veiled Virgin

, Presentation Convent, Cathedral Square, St John's, Newfoundland, a sculpture carved from a single block of marble (courtesy: Philip Chircop).

Figure 1.3 Cicadas in Japan blending with the textures and colours of their habitat.

Figure 1.4 Left: sample image of a

Letratone

dry‐transfer pattern of a wall traditionally used in graphic rendering. Right: an irregular pattern of a dry stone wall. Below a windbreak using a dry stone wall repeat pattern; note how the pattern is repeated for each panel.

Figure 1.5 Illustrating the appearance of the same colour under different illumination. Simultaneous Color Viewer (SCV) produced by GTI Graphic Technology Inc.

Figure 1.6 Dulux advertising campaign 2008 (courtesy: AkzoNobel) (http://www.mischiefpr.com).

Figure 1.7 Human perception is able to discriminate an overall colour and discount texture (left). Measurement of the surface could lead to an unwanted reproduction of colour (right).

Figure 1.8 A screen‐grab of a page of thumbnail images from an image search of Johannes Vermeer's

Woman in Blue Reading

(1664).

Figure 1.9 Darker brush strokes over lighter coloured uniform brush strokes, a water‐loaded brush with less pigment, brush overloaded with paint, halftone at 40× magnification.

Figure 1.10 A copy of a painting of

Portrait of Sir Thomas Gresham

in Ashton Court Mansion House, Bristol. The original is in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Figure 1.11 Textured reproduction of Van Gogh's

Flowers in a Blue Vase

(1887). The high‐resolution 3D prints were made by the Océ Canon Group (courtesy: Tim Zaman).

Figure 1.12 (Left) Dress from

Voltage Haute Couture

(2013), Iris van Herpen in collaboration with Philip Beesley made from polyester microfibre and polyester foam. (Iris van Herpen is one of the leading fashion designers using 3D printing to create flexible 3D printed dresses. Her collaborations include material collaboration with Philip Beesley, Neri Oxman of the MIT Media Lab, as well as Keren Oxman and Professor Craig Carter of MIT with Stratasys, and architect Julia Koerner with Materialise.) (Middle) Gut Parka (circa 1980) waterproof coats made from the intestines of sea mammals. They were originally associated with feasts and rituals and considered as garments that possessed the power to protect the wearer from misfortune and protect them from bad weather, Alaska. (Right) Cloak of feathers from Kiwi birds (circa 1914), New Zealand.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Claude Lorrain,

Harbour at Sunrise

(c. 1637–1638), oil on canvas (74 cm × 98.3 cm) (courtesy: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Figure 2.2 Charles Bell,

Paragon

(1988) oil on canvas (127 cm × 244 cm), Louis K. Meisel Gallery, USA (courtesy: Louis K. Meisel Gallery).

Figure 2.3 Example of simulated different rendering effects of Bell's pinball.

Figure 2.4 Richard Estes,

Times Square

(2004), oil on canvas (94 cm × 163 cm), private collection (reproduced with permission of Marlborough Gallery, New York).

Figure 2.5 Palace of King Tiglath Pileser III (728 BC) Neo‐Assyrian gypsum wall panel relief (142 cm × 96 cm), British Museum, London (reproduced with permission: British Museum, London).

Figure 2.6 Moving from in the round (left) to varying degrees of projection to achieve a combination of high relief, low relief and sunken relief.

Figure 2.7 Images captured of the same panel of the

King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba

at different times of the day. From

The Gates of Paradise

(1452) by Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455).

Figure 2.8 Fedor Ivanovich Kalmyck (1763–1832), after Lorenzo Ghiberti,

The Queen of Sheba before King Solomon

, c.1798, drawing, British Museum, London (reproduced with permission: British Museum, London).

Figure 2.9 Wedgewood Jasparware trinket box. The cameo relief is photographed under raking light from different angles.

Figure 2.10 Illustration from David Brewster's

On the Optical Illusion of the Conversion of Cameos into Intaglios, and of Intaglios into Cameos

(1824) and detail of a concave and convex hemisphere (right) (http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/24899400

).

Figure 2.11 The hollow face illusion showing concave and convex masks that are continually rotating (courtesy: www.echalk.co.uk) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKa0eaKsdA0; see also http://www.echalk.co.uk/amusements/OpticalIllusions/hollowMask/hollowface.html).

Figure 2.12 John Collier,

Our Lady of the Bluebonnet

(60 cm × 70 cm) bas‐relief. In Collier's vision of this Madonna and Child they are in a stable with Texas Longhorns and has included Bluebonnets, which is the state flower (courtesy: John Collier, www.hillstream.com).

Figure 2.13

The Battle of Cape St Vincent

by Musgrave Watson and William F. Woodington. Bronze relief on the west face of the plinth of Nelson's Column Trafalgar Square, London (courtesy: Wikimedia/Creative Commons Credit: Eluveitie) (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ANelson's_column_Battle_of_Cape_St_Vincent_relief_(Musgrave_Watson).jpg).

Figure 2.14 Paul Day (b.1967),

Mechanics and Armourers

(2002–2005), bronze and resin (courtesy: Paul Day, www.pauldaysculpture.com).

Figure 2.15 Paul Day,

Scramble

(2002‐2005), bronze and resin (courtesy: Paul Day, www.pauldaysculpture.com).

Figure 2.16 Anamorphic distortion by Jim Sharp,

Illusions Parade

, Liverpool (2015) (courtesy: Jim Sharpe).

Figure 2.17 Jim Sharpe,

Anamorphic Distortion

(2016) (courtesy: Jim Sharpe).

Figure 2.18 The

Gypsy Girl

mosaic, Gaziantep Museum of Archaeology (courtesy: WikiCommons/Creative Commons 3. Credit: Nevit Dilmen) (by Antep_1250575_cr.jpg: Nevit Dilmen (talk) derivative work: Durova (Antep_1250575_cr.jpg) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons).

Figure 2.19 Detail of mosaic of the

Immaculate Conception

, St Peters Basilica, Vatican State, Rome, Italy (courtesy: WikiCommons/Creative Commons 3. Credit: Adrian Pingstone/Arpingstone) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessera#/media/File:St.peters.basilica.tesserae.closeup.arp.jpg).

Figure 2.20 Details of carving from a twelve folding lacquer screen Coromandel Screen, China (1600–1700), which is decorated with flowers, landscape, trees, and animals. Lacquer on wood (reproduced with permission: Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford) (http://jameelcentre.ashmolean.org/collection/8/per_page/25/offset/0/sort_by/date/object/17562).

Figure 2.21 Dagfin Werenskiold (1892–1977),

Tor is Driven by His Goats

, polychromic woodcarving relief.

Figure 2.22 Coloured pigment is still discernable on head of the statue, Herculaneum (Ercolano), Italy (courtesy: Richard and Phyl King).

Figure 2.23 The

Pompeiian Red

walls and pillars at the Herculaneum (Ercolano), Italy (courtesy: Richard and Phyl King).

Figure 2.24 Adela Breton (1849–1923),

Acancéh Frieze

, Panels 17–21, watercolour on paper (2130 mm × 1100 mm) (courtesy: Bristol Culture/Bristol Museums, Galleries & Archives/Photographer Dan Brown).

Figure 2.25 Photograph of the

Acancéh Frieze

(left) and a hand‐tinted photograph (right) by Adela Breton (courtesy: Bristol Culture/Bristol Museums, Galleries & Archives Photographer Dan Brown).

Figure 2.26 Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/8–1543),

The Ambassadors

(1533), oil on oak panel (207 cm × 209.5 cm), National Gallery, London (reproduced with permission: National Gallery, London).

Figure 2.27 Details showing the relationship of fur and silk, by Hans Holbein the Younger,

The Ambassadors

.

Figure 2.28 Details showing the knotted carpet, by Hans Holbein the Younger,

The Ambassadors

.

Figure 2.29 Jan van Eyck (c.1390–1441),

The Annunciation

(1434/36), oil on canvas transferred from panel painted surface (90.2 cm × 34.1 cm), Andrew W. Mellon Collection (courtesy: The National Gallery of Art, Washington).

Figure 2.30 Anthonis Mor (1517–1576),

Portrait of Sir Thomas Gresham

(c.1560–1565), oil on panel (90 cm × 75.5cm) (courtesy: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Figure 2.31 Hendrick Goltzius (1558–1617),

Officers in Peascod Doublets

(1587), engraving (28.7 cm × 19.3 cm) and (right) detail (courtesy: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Figure 2.32 Juan van der Hamen y León (1596–1631),

Still Life with Sweets and Pottery

(1627), oil on canvas (84.5 cm × 112.7 cm), Samuel H. Kress Collection (courtesy: National Gallery of Art, Washington).

Figure 2.33 Diego Velázquez (1599–1660),

Old Woman Cooking Eggs

(1618), oil on canvas (100.5 cm × 119.5 cm) (reproduced with permission: National Gallery of Scotland).

Figure 2.34 Robin Eley (b.1978),

Immaculate

(2012), oil on Belgian linen (51 cm × 40 cm) (courtesy: Robin Eley; www.robineley.com).

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Examples of an intricately carved wood panel in Hangzhou, China.

Figure 3.2 Carved by Robert H. Games, the Kew Mural incorporates different woods from Kew Botanical Gardens, London.

Figure 3.3

Herringbones

, by Yael Mer and Shay Alkalay, Raw Edges, as shown at the Salone del Mobile, Milan, 2016 (courtesy: Raw Edges) (http://www.raw‐edges.com/#/herringbones‐1).

Figure 3.4 Different materials used to create colourful panels (courtesy: Smile Plastics).

Figure 3.5 Cast iron bench with fern motif along the back arms and legs, Berrington Hall, Herefordshire.

Figure 3.6 Matthias Wisniewski,

Deco Chair

, carbon fibre and epoxy resin (courtesy: Matthias Wisniewski) (http://mateodesign.jimdo.com/art‐design).

Figure 3.7 Marcel Wanders,

Crochet Table

(2001), cotton, epoxy (30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm). Produced and distributed by Moooi (courtesy: Marcel Wanders) (https://www.marcelwanders.com).

Figure 3.8 CultLab3D setup. A 3D scanning workflow for cultural heritage digitalization in the Fraunhofer Institute.

Figure 3.9 Getty Research Institute scanner (courtesy: The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore).

Figure 3.10

Lucida

3D Scanner, designed by the artist Manuel Franquelo and built by Factum Arte, has been specifically to record the surface of paintings and low relief objects (courtesy: Alicia Guirao).

Figure 3.11 Greyscale RTI generated from a number of shaded renders lit from different directions (left). Colour RTI generated after registration and substitution of the colour channels from the shaded renders with the colour image of the painting (right).

Figure 3.12 Showing the render of the 3D model of the painting and (right) detail of the 3D model of the painting.

Figure 3.13 CUReT database sample. There are 61 materials that we commonly see in our environment; each has been imaged under 205 different viewing geometries and illumination conditions. Its limitations include the lack of scale change and limited in‐plane rotation during capturing and the inconsistent intraclass variation in the selection (Computer Vision Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, Columbia University).

Figure 3.14 MERL‐BRDF database samples. It contains material reflectance properties of 100 materials. Each reflectance function is stored as a densely measured Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF). Only isotropic materials were considered (courtesy: Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories, Inc.).

Figure 3.15 TSV‐BRDF database sample. The database is composed of time‐varying takes of different materials, both natural and man‐made.

Figure 3.16 OpenSurfaces database sample. Database composed of textures segmented from real images and annotated with several surface properties (material, texture and contextual information). The database is limited to consumer products surfaces (such as furniture and clothes); thus, no natural scenes are part of it.

Figure 3.17 Material Lab Studio, London (courtesy: Tim Ainsworth).

Figure 3.18 A library of samples arranged according to colour at the Material Lab, London.

Figure 3.19 Texture reinterpretation for tactile experiences using the Didú technique as developed by Estudios Durero (Courtesy: Estudios Durero).

Figure 3.20 Examples of different inks for a range of products as demonstrated by Marabu inks at DRUPA (http://www.marabu‐inks.co.uk/products/product‐overview/pad‐printing‐inks.html).

Figure 3.21 An example of the library of textures that can be printed using the Mimaki UJF printer (courtesy: Mimaki).

Figure 3.22 As seen at DRUPA 2016, showing different examples of clear ink: transparent colour screen (Fujifilm), printing on to foil (Mimaki) and lenticular printing on to acrylic (SwissQPrint).

Figure 3.23 LDP wood effect textured prints (courtesy: LDP) (https://www.lintor.com).

Figure 3.24 Examples of direct to small object printing using the Mimaki UJF printer (courtesy: Mimaki).

Figure 3.25 Example of specialist direct to object printing using a Kebab module on the Mimaki UJF printer (courtesy: Mimaki).

Figure 3.26 Silver Ink co‐printing on to thermoplastic substrate (courtesy: Voxel8 Inc.) (https://www.voxel8.com

).

Figure 3.27 Organovo's bioprinter Novagen (courtesy: Organovo) (http://organovo.com/science‐technology/bioprinted‐human‐tissue).

Figure 3.28 Ceramic piece made by Lithoz (courtesy: Lithoz) (http://www.lithoz.com/en),

Figure 3.29 David Huson and Peter Walters, 3D printed ceramic tableware, Centre for Fine Print Research, University of the West of England, Bristol (courtesy: David Huson).

Figures 3.30 David Huson, Kate Nash, Peter Walters and Stephen Hoskins, 3D printed Egyptian faience, Centre for Fine Print Research, University of the West of England, Bristol (courtesy: David Huson).

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Fern fossil (

Pecopteris miltoni

) from the Carboniferous period 359–299 million years ago. The specimen was found in Bath and NE Somerset.

Figure 5.2 The Common Polypody in the book

The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland

, Thomas Moore, printed and published by Bradbury & Evans of London in 1856 (courtesy: The Peter H. Raven Library, Missouri Botanical Garden).

Figure 5.3 The Northern Holly Fern in the book

The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland

, Thomas Moore, printed and published by Bradbury & Evans of London in 1856 (courtesy: The Peter H. Raven Library, Missouri Botanical Garden).

Figure 5.4 Illustration of how light is reflected, transmitted and absorbed in different proportions.

Figure 5.5 Comparison between a two‐flux model and a four‐flux model.

Figure 5.6 William Morris (1834–1896),

Acanthus

(1875). Wallpaper block‐printed in distemper colours. Given to the V&A by Morris & Co. (reproduced with permission: Victoria and Albert Museum) (http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/w/william‐morris).

Figure 5.7 Examples of traditional blocks and block printing from the Anstey Wallpaper Company (courtesy: Anstey Wallpaper Company).

Figure 5.8 Red and gold woven damask fabric that is applied to the wall (left). Gold flock wallpaper in the hall (right). Tyntesfield House, Bristol, National Trust.

Figure 5.9 Spanish leather wallcovering, Dyrham Park, Bath, National Trust.

Figure 5.10 Example of embossed wood grain effect from mid‐twentieth century.

Figure 5.11 Contemporary Lincrusta wallcovering (2016). Pigments and glazes are hand applied to Lincrusta wallcoverings to create a dramatic effect (courtesy: Lincrusta).

Figure 5.12 Traditional Anaglypta hollow relief papers that resemble a classic late nineteenth century tiled wall (left) or a brush stroke pattern of the mid twentieth century (right).

Figure 5.13 Peacock pattern with beads (W6541‐01), designed by Matthew Williamson (courtesy: Osborne & Little) (www.osborneandlittle.com).

Figure 5.14 Under magnification, different sized glass microbeads are attached to sections of wallpaper to create special effects.

Figure 5.15 Digitally printed wall murals using textures, as exampled here using a weathered wood image (Courtesy: Ohpopsi).

Figure 5.16 Dimensor textured wallpaper by Dimense on show at DRUPA 2016 (courtesy: Dimense) (www.dimense.com).

Figure 5.17 Downloadable tactile objects for 3D printing as demonstrated on the Shapeways website (courtesy: Willamette Valley Shapeways) (https://www.shapeways.com/shops/willamettevalley).

Figure 5.18 A typical Braille calendar, showing raised braille dots alongside large font numbers and text.

Figure 5.19 Clothes tags, with raised dots for identifying and coordinating the coloured garments (courtesy: Okudera

et al.

).

Figure 5.20 UV curing printing technologies are expanding the opportunities for raised signage (courtesy: Mimaki).

Figure 5.21 (top) A thermoplastic vacuumed formed caterpillar shows how the caterpillar has increased in size from the Touch to See picture book

The Very Hungry Caterpillar

by Eric Carle published by Living Paintings (www.livingpaintings.org

)

(copyright Living Paintings), (below) compared to a soft velvet caterpillar and machine embroidered motifs of fruit.

Figure 5.22 Examples of different patterns that are printed and translated as tactile images (courtesy: Japan Braille Library).

Figure 5.23 Tactile Picture Books’ project by Tom Yeh of University of Colorado Boulder (courtesy: Tom Yeh).

Figure 5.24 An example of a braille page and illustrated page, overlayed with tactile images of works of art by Claude Monet. From the Touch to See book,

The Magical Garden of Claude Monet

by Laurence Anholt, published by Living Paintings (www.livingpaintings.org

)

(copyright Living Paintings).

Figure 5.25 Exploring a printed panel, Tooteko Talking Tactile project (courtesy: Tooteko srls).

Figure 5.26 Images are relative to the same case study

The Healing of the Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha

, Three‐dimensional bas‐relief model (meshed surface) obtained by a Delaunay triangulation. The final rapid prototyped model (UV cured resin) was obtained with PolyJet technology (size 240 mm × 460 mm) (Furferi

et al.

, 2014b) (courtesy: Rocco Furferi

et al.

).

Figure 5.27 Estudios Durero, example of the

Didú

relief painting technique that adds volume and texture to allow the blind visitor to create a mental image of a painting by feeling it (courtesy: Estudios Durero).

Figure 5.28 One penny plaster carving on the left and version engraved into metal on the right, compared to the actual size of the die below (courtesy: The Royal Mint Experience) (http://www.royalmint.com/en/the‐royal‐mint‐experience).

Figure 5.29 Royal Mint’s reducing machines (http://www.royalmintmuseum.org.uk/collection/collection‐highlights/minting‐equipment/reducing‐machine/index.html) (courtesy: Royal Mint Museum).

Figure 5.30 Matt Dent, New Reverses (2005–2008) and Charles Dickens £2 (2010–2012) (courtesy: Crown Copyright and Matt Dent).

Figure 5.31 Edwina Ellis,

Mind the Gap

, 2013 (courtesy: Crown Copyright and Edwina Ellis).

Figure 5.32 Richard Hamilton’s Hutton Award (2008), CNC milled development model in polyurethane resin board, 72 mm diameter.

Medals of Dishonour

, the British Museum, 25 June–27 September 2009 (courtesy: CFPR, UWE, Bristol).

Figure 5.33 Workflow of the scanning methods to generate a normal map and 3D model (courtesy: Xavier Aure, CFPR).

Figure 5.34 Showing a complete render of the 3D model of the painting (top left). A detail of the painting showing a greyscale render of the 3D model with the normal map (top right), a render of the 3D model without the normal map but with the colour image (bottom left) and a render of the 3D model with the normal map and the colour image (bottom right) (courtesy: Xavier Aure, CFPR).

Figure 5.35 Printed dress, designed by Danit Peleg, printed on Witbox 2 using using Accumark and Blender (2015) (courtesy: Danit Peleg; photos: Daria Ratiner (left and middle), Nina Ribas (right)).

Figure 5.36 Open Knit (courtesy: Open Knit) (www.openknit.org).

Figure 5.37 Knitic knitting machine (courtesy: Knitic) (http://blogs.elpais.com/arte‐en‐la‐edad‐silicio/2013/04/trabajos‐de‐punto‐y‐pixel.html https://www.varvarag.info/circular‐knitic/).

Figure 5.38 Disney 3D printer for teddy bears (courtesy: Disney Research) (https://www.disneyresearch.com/publication/printing‐teddy‐bears‐a‐technique‐for‐3d‐printing‐of‐soft‐interactive‐objects/).

Figure 5.39 Jacquard loom, showing punched hole cards, National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh (via: WikiCommons/Creative Commons 3; credit: Ad Meskens) (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NMS_Jacquard_loom_2.JPG).

Figure 5.40 Samples produced on a Jacquard machine at La Fonderie, Brussels Museum of Industry and Labour.

Figure 5.41 (left) 17 000 warp threads and lifters (right) testing different greyscales of a woven portrait of Chuck Close at the mill in Belgium (courtesy: Magnolia Editions, Oakland, CA).

Figure 5.42 Paul O’Dowd, 3D printed lace using a Rostock 3 axis extruder (2016), Centre for Fine Print Research, University of the West of England, Bristol (courtesy: Paul O’Dowd).

Figure 5.43 Paul O’Dowd, detail of 3D printed lace and leaf Centre for Fine Print Research, University of the West of England, Bristol (courtesy: Paul O’Dowd).

Figure 5.44 Church of St Anastasia, Verona. The artist has combined sculptural relief and

trompe l’oeil

grissaille paintings.

Figure 5.45 Inside the

Teatro Olimpico

, Vicenza, Italy.

Figure 5.46 Fresco with

trompe l’œil

dome painted on low vaulting, Jesuit Church, Vienna, Austria.

Figure 5.47 Samuel van Hoogstraten (1627–1678),

A View Through a House

(1662), oil on canvas, 2642 mm × 1365 mm (reproduced with permission: National Trust Images); (right) photograph taken during a visit to the house during its restoration.

Figure 5.48 Kurt Wenner, Eurostar Publicity Event in Brussels, Belgium (2007) chalk on pavement (courtesy: Kurt Wenner) (http://kurtwenner.com).

Figure 5.49 145, Rue La Fayette and 29, Rue Quincampoix each conceal ventilation shafts, WikiCommons/Creative Commons 3: (left) credit: Geralix (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/145,_rue_La_Fayette#/media/File:Immeuble_145,_rue_La_Fayette‐Paris.jpg), (right) credit: Tangopaso (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rue_Quincampoix,_29.jpg).

Figure 5.50 Example of different marbles, Palazzo Nuovo, Musei Capitolini, Rome.

Figure 5.51

The Tolley Marbles

, The Kings Gallery, British Museum in London.

Figure 5.52 Contemporary coloured hardwearing resin‐based samples that can be machined to exact specification for worktops and sink‐tops in kitchens and bathrooms.

Figure 5.53 These columns are around the first floor staircase in Berrington Hall, Herefordshire. The plaster colour was mixed to resemble marble from Sienna. (Detail) flat panel of

Scagliola

showing the small marble chips and the base colour.

Figure 5.54 An example of a composite industrial marble.

Figure 5.55 A painted column in Dyrham Park, Bath (left), and painted paneling in Avebury Manor, Wiltshire (right). National Trust.

Figure 5.56 A combination of original delft blue tiles and marble columns with painted sections to recreate a fireplace. The pediment and the flattened column against the wall have been painted to look like the marble column. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Figure 5.57 Gerard de Lairesse (1641–1711),

The Allegory of the Sciences

(c. 1675–1683), oil on canvas, 289 cm × 161 cm (courtesy: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) (https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK‐A‐4177); (right) detail.

Figure 5.58 Eyemat covering a mosaic floor at Tyntesfield Church. The actual mosaic floor can be seen in the top right‐hand corner.

Figure 5.59 Karamon (Chinese style gate) (1651) Toshogu Shrine Tokyo, Japan (top‐left), Toshogu Shrine in Nikko (top‐centre and bottom‐centre, bottom‐left), and Nijō Castle, Japan (right: top and bottom).

Figure 5.60 (left) Carlo Crivelli (1435‐1495),

Triptych of the Virgin and Child with Saints Peter and Paul

(1482) (courtesy: Pinacoteca di Brera). (right) The surface relief is captured at an angle, showing the detailed pastiglia elements of Saint Peter.

Figure 5.61 Bernardino Fungai (1460–1516),

The Virgin and Child with Cherubim

(circa 1495–1510), Tempera and oil on wood (https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/bernardino‐fungai‐the‐virgin‐and‐child‐with‐cherubim) (reproduced with permission: National Gallery, London).

Figure 5.62 Willem Claeszoon Heda (1594–1680),

Still Life with a Gilt Cup

(1635), oil on panel (88 cm × 113 cm) (courtesy: Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).

Figure 5.63 Different gold effects using blocking, hot and cold foils and lamination (courtesy: Kurz).

Figure 5.64 (left) Mihrab, in the Mezquita‐Catedral, the Great Mosque of Cordoba. (right) Moorish architecture in the Alhambra (Granada).

Figure 5.65 (left) The stunning gold ceiling of Alcazar in Seville. (right) Dome of Mezquita‐Catedral, the Great Mosque of Cordoba (gold ceiling of Alcazar) (credit: James Gordon (CC BY 2.0; http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), via Wikimedia Common).

Figure 5.66 Casa dos Bicos (House of Spikes), Jose Saramago Foundation Lisbon. Built in the early sixteenth century with a Renaissance and Manueline (Portuguese late Gothic) influence.

Figure 5.67 Arista tiles (pre‐moulded tiles, made by pressing clay against carved wooden moulds) in the Alcazar in Seville, sixteenth century, influenced by Islamic art and the Renaissance period.

Figure 5.68 Modern Azulejos in relief from the last decades of the nineteenth century (Manufactura de Massarelos, Porto) (licence: Adobe ST © Karol Kozłowski).

Figure 5.69 Secession Building, Secessionsgebaude (1897), Vienna, Austria. Specifically ‘secession style’, a branch of Art Nouveau. (right, licence: Adobe ST ©dbrnjhrj).

Figure 5.70 Majolikahaus, one of the finest examples of Art Nouveau in Vienna, designed by Otto Wagner in 1898. The facade of the house is created with colourful ceramic tiles decorated in floral motifs. (WikiCommons/Creative Commons 3; photo credit: by Thomas Ledl) (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Majolikahaus_Detail_2.jpg).

Figure 5.71 Examples of exterior wallpaper in Segovia.

Figure 5.72 Examples of exterior wallpaper in Barcelona. Casa Amatller (left) and Casa Battló of Gaudí (middle) on the Passeig de Gràcia, and Plaça De Les Olles (right).

Figure 5.73 Painted ceramic tiles in Madrid, showing a combination of lettering, relief and advertising.

Figure 5.74 Hydraulic tiles or encaustic cement tiles (courtesy: Entic Designs).

Figure 5.75 Examples of contemporary encaustic tiles, designed by Patricia Urquiola, inkjet printed on to porcelain stoneware.

Figure 5.76 Stephen Hoskins, glaze relief image tile kite design (2004) glazed ceramic (244 mm × 19.8 mm) (courtesy: Stephen Hoskins, CFPR).

Figure 5.77 Peter McCallion’s silicone printing plates in preparation for wet‐on‐wet gelatine three‐colour printing. Left to right: cyan, magenta, yellow (2016) (courtesy: Peter McCallion, CFPR).

Figure 5.78 Detail (left) of a wet‐on‐dry layer print showing the last layer in relief and, once dry, the final image (right) (courtesy: Peter McCallion, CFPR).

Figure 5.79 Solid installation (EPFL). Reflections of Marie Curie and Alan Turing can be seen on the underside of the roof of the building. Science shapes light to create a work of art, Sandy Evangelista (http://m.epfl.ch/news/25838/).

Figure 5.80 Makkyo or Magic Mirror, Tokyo National Museum, Japan. A bright light is shone on to the smooth side of the disk, but the image that appears on the facing wall is of the Japanese characters that are etched into the reverse.

Figure 5.81 Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926) Stained glass in The Sagrada Família, Barcelona.

Figure 5.82 Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926) Glass window at Park Güell, Barcelona.

Figure 5.83 3D printed functional and decorative optical plastics (courtesy: Luximprint) (www.luximprint.com).

Figure 5.84 The sample is made from particles with an average diameter of 700 nm. On the right, the average particle size was 50 µm (Klein

et al.

, 2012) (courtesy: Susanne Klein).

Figure 5.85 Relationship between ink coverage and measured gloss of a standard print mode, together with two print strategies obtaining either a full gloss or full matte appearance of the printout, independent of the local ink coverage. Gloss variation through multilayer printing.

Figure 5.86 Schematic representation of multilayer strategies, where a desired coverage of ink is either printed in (a) one pass or on top of (b) one or (c) more layers of white ink to isolate the ink from the substrate and create a flatter and glossier appearance. A matte appearance can be obtained by creating a rougher surface either by printing (d) ink droplets on neighbouring locations in different passes or by printing the final image on top of small structures or pre‐textured media.

Figure 5.87 Measured gloss level as a function of the time delay between two under layers of white ink.

Figure 5.88 Gloss management workflow to obtain a print with local gloss variations. The input contains local colour and gloss information. The content of each intended gloss level is printed with a corresponding print mode determined by the gloss management workflow. The outcome is a print that presents different levels of gloss.

Figure 5.89 Sylvia’s WaterColorBot and detail of the brush holder at http://www.evilmadscientist.com (courtesy: Windell H. Oskay).

Figure 5.90 Deluxe EggBot, drawings on eggs and baubles at http://www.evilmadscientist.com (courtesy: Windell H. Oskay).

Figure 5.91 From left to right: (1) source image is used (JPEG, PNG) as a colour reference and pixel position; (2) texture directionality creates a vector field to guide brushstrokes in 2D and an edge strength map creates a priority of brush strokes in time; (3) segmentation map creates colour channels; or layers; (4) steps 2 and 3 are combined to generate brush strokes per layer and are then sent to the machine (courtesy: Paul O’Dowd, CFPR).

Figure 5.92 The interface enables the user to modify a picture that has either been captured as a photograph or generated by hand on a drawing tablet or screen and manually adjust many different settings to achieve the desired printed output (courtesy: Paul O’Dowd, CFPR).

Figure 5.93 (left) Segmentation of the digital image, (right) showing 25 layers and colour swatches (courtesy: Paul O’Dowd, CFPR).

Figure 5.94 Demonstrating the machine and path parameters and the

Z

height of the brush (courtesy: Paul O’Dowd, CFPR).

Figure 5.95 Watercolour and acrylic paintings made by Paul O’Dowd at the Centre for Fine Print Research, Bristol (courtesy: Paul O’Dowd, CFPR).

Figure 5.96 Louise King,

Owains Raven

(2005), etching (courtesy: Louise King).

Figure 5.97 Roxanne Goffin,

In My Head

(2015), etching and aquatint (courtesy: Roxanne Goffin).

Figure 5.98 Akiko Takizawa,

Fresh Noodles

(1998), photo etching (CFPR Editions).

Figure 5.99 David Sully,

At Dyrham Park

(1999), photogravure on copper (courtesy: David Sully).

Figure 5.100 John Brennan,

Lear

(2001), intaglio flexograph (courtesy: John Brennan).

Figure 5.101 Ben Goodman (2015), wood engraving (courtesy: Ben Goodman).

Figure 5.102 Lucy Guenot,

Mini Print

(2014), letterpress.

Figure 5.103 Cath Ingram,

Full Stop

(2014), blind emboss and relief print (courtesy: Cath Ingram).

Figure 5.104 Carinna Parraman,

Along the Lines

(2013), hand‐cut linocut.

Figure 5.105 Carinna Parraman,

Holiday Memories

(2001), flexograph relief.

Figure 5.106 Richard Anderton,

Eagle

(2003), helio relief (courtesy: Richard Anderton).

Figure 5.107 Phil Bowden,

Untitled

(1999), stone lithograph (courtesy: Phil Bowden).

Figure 5.108 Sarah Bodman and Tom Sowden,

Cape Cod

(2012), screenprint (courtesy: Sarah Bodman and Tom Sowden).

Figure 5.109 Katie Wallis,

Cell Block

(2012), screenprint with black flocking (courtesy: Katie Wallis) (https://katiewallisprint.com).

Figure 5.110 Stephen Hoskins,

Untitled

(1996), screenprint (courtesy: Stephen Hoskins).

Figure 5.111 A23D: a 3D‐printed letterpress font commissioned by Richard Ardagh of New North Press, designed by A2‐Type and fabricated by Chalk Studios.

Figure 5.112 Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553),

St Christopher

(1509), woodblock, Rosenwald Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, USA (courtesy: National Gallery of Art).

Figure 5.113 Frank Tinsley,

Dark Boat

, helio relief (1999) (courtesy: Frank Tinsley, CFPR print archive).

Figure 5.114 Test image, showing the two coloured layers as a complete image (artwork by Melissa Olen, CFPR).

Figure 5.115 Test image, showing the separate layers: (left) top layer and (right) bottom layer, along with numbered sections for comparison between prints (courtesy: Melissa Olen, CFPR).

Figure 5.116 Details of the fabricated printing blocks. The blocks are inked, which highlight the differences. Processes from left to right: laser cut, CNC milled, 2.5D print and hand‐cut lino. The halftone pattern in section 5 (top row) and the waves are located in section 2 (bottom row) (courtesy: Melissa Olen, CFPR)

Figure 5.117 Comparing the printed results and machining/fabricating processes (courtesy: Melissa Olen, CFPR).

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E1

Wiley-IS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology

Series Editorial Board:

Susan Farnand

Raja Bala

Gaurav Sharma

Steven J. Simske

Suzanne Grinnan

Reproduction of Colour (6th Edition)

R.W.G. Hunt

Colorimetry: Fundamentals and Applications

Noburu Ohta and Alan R. Robertson

Color Constancy

Marc Ebner

Color Gamut Mapping

Ján Morovi

Panoramic Imaging: Sensor-Line Cameras and Laser Range-Finders

Fay Huang, Reinhard Klette and Karsten Scheibe

Digital Color Management (2nd Edition)

Edward J. Giorgianni and Thomas E. Madden

The JPEG 2000 Suite

Peter Schelkens, Athanassios Skodras and Touradj Ebrahimi (Eds)

Color Management: Understanding and Using ICC Profiles

Phil Green (Ed.)

Fourier Methods in Imaging

Roger L. Easton, Jr

Measuring Colour (4th Edition)

R.W.G. Hunt and M.R. Pointer

The Art and Science of HDR Imaging

John McCann and Alessandro Rizzi

Computational Colour Science Using MATLAB (2nd Edition)

Stephen Westland, Caterina Ripamonti and Vien Cheung

Color in Computer Vision: Fundamentals and Applications

Theo Gevers, Arjan Gijsenij, Joost van de Weijer and Jan-Mark Geusebroek

Color Appearance Models (3rd Edition)

Mark D. Fairchild

2.5D Printing: Bridging the Gap between 2D and 3D Applications

Carinna Parraman and Maria V. Ortiz Segovia

Published in Association with the Society for Imaging Science and Technology

2.5D Printing

Bridging the Gap Between 2D and 3D Applications

Carinna Parraman

University of the West of England, UK

Maria V. Ortiz Segovia

Océ Print Logic Technologies SA, France

Copyright

This edition first published 2018

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Carinna Parraman and Maria V. Ortiz Segovia to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Parraman, Carinna, author. | Ortiz Segovia, Maria V., author.

Title: 2.5D printing : bridging the gap between 2D and 3D applications / by Carinna Parraman, Maria Ortiz Segovia.

Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2018006230 (print) | LCCN 2018012067 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118967331 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118967324 (epub) | ISBN 9781118967300 (cloth)

Subjects: LCSH: Three‐dimensional printing. | Texture (Art)

Classification: LCC TA1560 (ebook) | LCC TA1560 .P37 2018 (print) | DDC 621.9/88–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018006230

Cover design: Wiley

Cover image: © e‐anjei/iStockphoto printed as a Woodburytype by Peter McCallion

Dedication

For Grace

About the Authors

Carinna Parraman's understanding of 2.5D printing has evolved through her training in fine art printmaking. She is Professor of Design, Colour and Print and Director at the Centre for Fine Print Research, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK, and has an in‐depth knowledge of traditional colour mixing, colour printing and photo mechanical printing processes. She collaborates with many different sectors including industry, heritage and fine art print.

Maria V. Ortiz Segovia's understanding of printing has evolved through Electrical Engineering and Imaging science. She is the leading scientist of the colour and image processing activities of the Innovation Team at Océ Print Logic Technologies, France. She is in charge of conducting collaborations and partnerships between Océ and different universities, laboratories and research institutions worldwide.

If you are reading this book in paper format, please also be aware that the electronic copy will provide you with hyper links to a wide range of extra material.

Series Editor's Preface

2.5D, you ask? Why not 2D or 3D, or both? Well, there is nothing indecisive about picking 2.5 dimensions to choose as the focus of a book. In the rapidly changing world of additive manufacturing, custom manufacturing, and hybrid 2D and 3D printing, the concerns of 2.5D Printing – texture, relief, colour, reflectance, opacity, etc. – become paramount. In this book, part of the Wiley‐IS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology, Drs Carinna Parraman and Maria V. Ortiz Segovia address these subjects to facilitate the advancement of all dimensions of printing and additive manufacturing. While colour science in two dimensions (think photos and videos) is a relatively mature field, its extension to 3D is not clear and the pathway will not be simple. Here, 2.5D benchmarks and measurements for quality, consistency, texture and translucency, among other measures, will provide an intermediate step to the eventual benchmarks and measurements used on digitally manufactured 3D objects. In some ways, this is analogous to high school mathematics – we proceed from planar (2D) to surface (2.5D) to volumetric (3D) geometries and calculus. There's a reason so much time is spent on 2.5D, in mathematics and in printing. Don't skip this step!

This book demonstrates that 2.5D printing provides the relationship of materials, texture and surface. The extra half dimension places the reader halfway between visual and haptic sensing, asking her or him to distinguish amongst thousands of different materials, textures and colours. The book provides a means to define, measure and assess a ‘materiality of surface’, meaning a qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the aesthetic, informational and other qualities of a surface. Where does the rubber meet the road? Perhaps nowhere more so than in the description of texture. The authors see texture as ‘the microstructural details that can be perceptually distinguished from one surface property to another’, usually through sight or touch. We can tell a red ball from a blue ball readily with visual perception, but two blue balls with the same radius are usually distinguished by ‘interactive haptics’; for example, picking them up to note a difference in density or squeezing them to note a difference in elastic modulus.

The authors, like their subject matter, bridge the gaps between many fields of interest to the modern printer, maker and architect. Dr Parraman has deep colour expertise in screenprinting to digital wide format, which has resulted in her developing colour palettes for inkjet artists and ink multilayering. Her ability to describe and provide the means to deploy colour science bridges the worlds of art, science and industry. An innate multidisciplinarian, Dr Parraman considers colours through both space (multilayering, 2D and 2.5D) and time (colour fading and conservation, print history), and how these are tempered by the medium (paper and other surfaces) and the method (paint charts, colour circles and colour models). Parraman is currently Professor in Design, Colour and Print at the University of the West of England (UWE) in Bristol, and Director of the Centre for Fine Print Research. Among her many funded projects and awards, one that stands out in context is her development of a plethora of printed materials and surfaces that were developed as textiles or applied to walls – these materials adapted to changes in the environment, such as light, emotion and temperature (in collaboration with Roland DG, the project received a Roland Creatives award). Clearly, Dr Parraman is well‐versed with the ‘2.5D world’ – no wonder, then, a book on 2.5D Printing.

Dr Ortiz Segovia, meanwhile, appropriately complements Dr Parraman with her colour science research focusing on image processing, image quality and document management. She also has studied printing and sensor forensics, which are image processing‐driven technologies that can be ‘backed off’ to provide inspection, validation and measurement (e.g. of texture, material properties, colour, and reflectance). She is currently an Imaging Scientist in Research and Development at the Océ–Canon Group, and earned her PhD at Purdue University (Electrical Engineering) and her Bachelors from Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (Electronics Engineering). The two bring a powerful, broad repertoire of skills and experiences that (pardon the play on words) cover the gamut of 2.5D printing. That is, these two authors hybridize nicely on a subject that also hybridizes 2D and 3D printing. Enjoy the read!

Preface

The print industry in the twenty‐first century is a vital, economic and global contributor, adding value to a diversity of consumer products and services. Studies emphasise the importance of this sector of adopting a value added position by identifying and responding to the technological requirements of niche and large markets. These include artwork reproduction and applications in creative industries, 2.5 and 3D printing, tactile maps, security tagging, biomedical, textile, packaging, signage, and direct printing on complex curved objects.

What is the value of the print industry? In the way printing adds value, these figures are increasingly difficult to define, especially for niche or specialist sectors. Digital printing has evolved to become a catch‐all term that has moved so far from its traditional graphics and packaging background. As demonstrated in the medical sector, 3D digital printing is now being used to create training replicas for brain surgeons, bioprinting for tissue growth, and bespoke prosthetic design, which has enabled mobility for millions of people around the world.

It is certainly hard to apply an accurate value, and more than likely, these projected figures may well prove to be an underestimation as we move into the next decade. The growth of the functional and industrial print market revenues worldwide is estimated to have nearly doubled in value from $37.2 billion in 2012, to $76.9 billion in 2017, with a projected value of $114.8 billion in 2020 (https://www.statista.com). In 2015, the global 3D print market size was estimated to have been around $5 billion, and is set to increase to $26 billion by 2021 (http://www.wohlersassociates.com).

The current print industry demonstrates the buoyancy of the market, but there are also global uncertainties, threats and weaknesses. In order to maintain market share in an increasingly competitive marketplace, there is a shift in the way large companies are consolidating product portfolios. And in the context of the ongoing decline in the traditional printing sector, there is a greater strategic emphasis in a diversification of products and services alongside company mergers & acquisitions. As a barometer of change, and a need to gain a significant market share over the next few years, patent applications are on the increase from international corporations, indicating greater investment and research into additive printing and manufacturing.

According to a recent report by Smithers Pira (https://www.smitherspira.com) electrophotography is the major contributor to the digital market, however, inkjet printing is growing rapidly and, by 2019, is anticipated to overtake electrophotography. By 2024, inkjet printing technologies will account for 56% of the value and 53% of the digital print volume. Although figures have plateaued over the last few years, we have seen an impact on commercial print volume which, since 2010, has shown a decline. This has largely been due to ‘new media’ platforms–e‐books, online, electronic and social media, and search engines, which have steadily replaced traditional high volume printed products, such as catalogues and telephone directories.

According to the BPiF (https://www.britishprint.com), the gross value of printing adds relatively more value to all but one other sector, which is the manufacturing industry. For example, in the UK, with a turnover of £13.5 billion ($18 billion), the print sector has a gross value added of £6.1 billion ($8.1 billion), employing around 122,000 people in 8,600 companies, thus, making the UK printing sector an important economic contributor and employer in all UK regions.

As consumers we have an insatiable appetite for images and pictures, things and products. It is almost impossible to imagine a world without printing. The evolution of the printing press ‐ from Gutenberg's moveable type in the fifteenth century to the multi‐platform printing press of today ‐ has grown to become a highly effective method for mass communication. Since the industrial revolution, mechanisation and mass production have made a significant impact on the way products are made. A quick glance around our desk or room, and printing may well have played an important part in the manufacture workflow – even on a micro level such as a useby date, washing label, raised braille text, or a CE safetymark – playing a crucial role in the way we use, consume, and dispose.

Some sectors ‐ from engineering and health to the hobbyist and home user ‐ may be considered as niche and overlooked, and yet each contributes to the rich and varied landscape that we can describe as print. Compared to the fifteenth century, we as technologists, manufacturers, educators, makers and designers are shaping and contributing to a very different landscape today.

Acknowledgements

The preparation for this book has not been accomplished alone. We owe our debt of thanks to our partners, families, friends, colleagues and mentors. Our understandings on colour and print have certainly been informed and challenged by a highly knowledgeable group of scientists, technologists, artists, designers and practitioners. It has been shaped by discussion through European colour projects including CREATE and CP7.0 and conferences including IS&T, CGIV and AIC. We consider ourselves as observers and collectors, theorists and practitioners in this newly emerging technology. We will also draw from many different aspects of visual culture, heritage and traditional industries including crafts, design and applied arts, which has provided alternative insights for 2.5D printing applications.

This work is in collaboration with Xavier Aure, Teun Baar, Michaela Harding, Jesse Heckstall‐Smith, Stephen Hoskins, David Huson, Peter McCallion, Paul O'Dowd, Melissa Olen, Theo Phan‐Van‐Song and Peter Walters.

About the Companion website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/bridging2d3d

The website includes:

Video links

Scan this QR code to visit the companion website

Introduction

What is 2.5D printing? And what is the half‐a‐dimensional quality that we are attempting to describe? Does it address surface, relief, texture, material? Or about perception, appearance, illusion? Or terms‐of reference or taxonomy, or methods of capturing, measuring and modelling material appearance? Or is it about trends and new technologies? The simple answer is that it is all of the above and more. The primary objective of this book is to scope and identify the essential 2.5D qualities and benchmarks. The challenge is how to arrive at definitions and exemplars that – in this rapidly developing and changing technology – effectively reflects the current state of the art of 2.5D printing, and to provide insights into the future of printing and additive manufacturing.

As the title of the book suggests, there are two primary aspects to this enquiry: the dimensional – the need to gain insights and understanding of a surface that is neither 2D nor 3D, but is somewhere in between, and yet can effectively describe the micro and macro textures; the print – how an object, a scene or an image can then be captured, measured, recorded and printed as a physical reproduction. Furthermore, there is also an extra element, which could be considered as the illusive ‘x’ or an extra half dimension that is much harder to describe. For the purposes of this enquiry, and because it is highly significant for us, it relates to, firstly, the printing processes, materials and colours to create a textured surface, and secondly, its appearance; our human, emotional and perceptual relationship with the printed image.

The Internet has provided access to unlimited images and things we may never have anticipated or known about. Digital technologies have irrevocably changed and challenged the way we look at, construct and print images and objects. We work digitally and incorporate numerous digitally aided technologies as a part of our daily workflow. As we move from real‐world texture to screen‐based or printed representations of texture, our understanding and engagement is mediated by the screen or printed matrix. Furthermore, colour‐printing technologies have evolved from coloured dots on paper to coloured dots on three‐dimensional objects. What has remained unchanged are the thin‐film CMYK process inks and colours by which images are printed. The next step in colour printing is a modification to the thickness of the film to create a new dimensionality or functionality.

We are also working on the idea that 2.5D printing demonstrates a materiality of surface, which could be described as the relationship of materials, texture and surface. The aim here is to explore ways in which an extra half‐dimension can incorporate an idea of otherness, a physical delight, or a visual engagement to imply a mixture of aura, illusion and paradox. We could begin by suggesting there is a halfway point between conscious and unconscious seeing: how do we observe, recall and differentiate thousands of different materials and textures, and, in particular, coloured materials and textures? This materiality of surface can also imply whether we are likely to find a surface or material convincing and whether we are unconsciously drawn to their tactile qualities, or are physically repelled by surfaces, materials and colours.

We are presented with thousands of different textures and materials every day and at a glance we are able to determine each of their material characteristics. Moreover, we are attracted to natural things, and the material qualities of these natural objects, who is not tempted during a walk along a beach to pick up sea‐smoothed pieces of glass, wet pebbles or shells? We still like to preserve the analogue – there is renewed interest in vinyl records, analogue film, black and white photography and the rustle of the pages of hardback books. More frequently, we do not have time to engage with everything we see, and therefore it seems that there is more effort to ask someone to stop and look. Walking through a gallery, looking through a picture book or a clever advertisement, how long do we look at an image? Seconds? The challenge therefore is to ensure that images have the potential to arrest the viewer and stop them in their tracks and maybe to take a second look.

As more stuff is created in our increasingly hectic world we need to ensure that the things we design and make are of benefit to our health and safety, as well as provide us with pleasure and comfort. We suggest it is increasingly important to gain an understanding of the entire design process: firstly, that a product is well designed and fabricated and, secondly, the design process does not finish at the manufacturing stage, but continues beyond its lifetime. For example, what happens to the artefact after it is made? Should the materials that we use have a sustained lifecycle and not simply be thrown away? Therefore, the second aspect of this search is to consider the materials that we use: can the printing materials be useful? Save lives? Be eaten? Can they be touched? Do they provide wellbeing, comfort or visual delight?

In preparation for printing we may also struggle to work with materials that are neither aesthetically pleasing nor pleasant to the touch or smell. These materials may have been developed based on the limitations and constraints of the hardware, for example: printers, plotters and cutting tools, and materials: paints and inks, nylons and polyesters. It is, therefore, of inestimable importance that the materials, the processes and tools we use today and in preparation for the future are: of high quality, are pleasing to the eye and the touch, offer new design solutions towards social impacts, provide comfort and wellbeing, for example, and, finally, can ensure a legacy for future generations.

The structure of this book is divided into five chapters. In Chapter 1, we investigate the relationship between material and texture and how each conveys a character or quality. We explore the physical, perceptual, linguistic, natural and artistic interpretations of these appearances. We also consider the relationship between images, pictures and printing, how appearances are reproduced, and the idea that as reproductions, a picture may convey some sort of embedded aura or emotion. In Chapter 2, we study the past: how artists have observed scenes and objects, and used different tools and materials to translate the appearance of textured objects into pictures, reliefs and artefacts. Chapter 3 considers the present, and the range of methods that are being used to capture different surface qualities, and how these are measured, categorised, reproduced and applied in the twenty‐first century. In Chapter 4, we suggest future trends and the implications for the print industry. The aim of Chapter 5 is to explore, through different case studies, concepts and ideas about material appearance and methods for reproduction. The case studies are chosen based on our experiences and interests. These include day‐to‐day objects, artefacts, materials and surfaces, many of which are taken for granted and overlooked, but that in reality represent the sum of efforts in many different creative and technological fields. The case studies may also reflect on a span of history‐ from ancient to contemporary production. Some case studies may be considered as niche or outdated, but the aim is to demonstrate the enormous variables, materials and crafts skills that could be used as benchmarks when considering the specifications of a design and production workflow. It may be obvious by now, but our examples are focused in aesthetic applications as they display the capabilities and the full potential of relief printing as a digital tool. We have used these case studies to explore and consider how manufacturers have adapted methods to incorporate new materials, technologies, and responded to emerging consumer trends.

Before we can embark on the ‘2.5D‐ness’ of a surface, we would firstly like to consider what does 2.5D really describe or imply? In essence, the question is what do we mean by 2.5D? What are the qualities that define it? One can start with a negative and suggest that it is not about printing objects (3D) or about printing images (2D), but something between the two – or more simply put: what is the relationship between the textural attributes of a material and the object? The important factors in gaining an understanding of 2.5D are:

To identify the key terms,

To address assumptions,

To establish the relationship between perceptual and physical (visual, tactile and physical),

To look back to existing historical benchmarks,

To survey contemporary making,

To identify current weaknesses and problems,

To demonstrate current emerging ideas that could lead to further exploitation,

To set out a series of benchmarks and objectives in need of addressing.

The underlying motivation is to ask ‘why, what and how?’ The rationale underpinning the book 2.5D Printing has evolved through personal interest and our research in working towards developing methods that: capture, measure and model the surface qualities of 3D and 2D objects, as well as those that represent and reproduce the appearance of surface, materials and textured qualities. Therefore, with cross‐disciplinary understanding and insights in arts and technologies, this book could be considered as a confluence of ideas, methods and applications that investigates the relationship between two and three dimensions. The subject crosses and overlaps a range of fields including science, technology, art, conservation, perception and computer modelling. It is an engagement and discourse on what the perceptual and objective differences are between two dimensions and three dimensions. Our interests and ideas may well differ to yours, nor do we provide definitive answers, but the aim here is to open the debate.

1Defining the Field of 2.5D Printing

1.1 What is Texture?