Accelerated Proficiency for Accelerated Times E-Book

Dr Raman K Attri

• Herausgeber: Speed To Proficiency Research: S2Pro©
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 331

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

Time is money and a reduction in time should be the first goal of any training program or any employee development initiative. The skills and knowledge acquired today become irrelevant or obsolete quickly. In that kind of dynamics, the organizations have shifted focus on how to shorten time to proficiency of employees and bring them up to speed to the required performance in a shorter time. This book intends to establish scholarly know-how on this construct of Accelerated Proficiency and provide practitioners and researchers with a condensed and coherent knowledge-base on this burning business concept. The book explores concepts, themes, nature, and challenges associated with the process of accelerating proficiency. This book discusses the business metrics of time to proficiency and speed to proficiency. This book is organized around reviews of studies on performance and proficiency from several different disciplines spanning over five decades. In particular, this book will enable you with the answers to some crucial questions - What is the nature of the proficiency in the organization? What is the meaning and goal of accelerating proficiency? Whether or not proficiency and performance of employees can be accelerated? What kind of methods has been researched and proven to accelerate proficiency?

Leseprobe

ACCELERATED PROFICIENCY FOR

ACCELERATED TIMES

ACCELERATED PROFICIENCY FOR

ACCELERATED TIMES

A REVIEW OF KEY CONCEPTS AND METHODS TO SPEED UP PERFORMANCE

Dr. Raman K. Attri

Copyrights © 2018 Speed To Proficiency Research: S2Pro©

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.

ISBN:978-981-14-6276-4 (e-book)

ISBN: 978-981-14-6275-7 (paperback)

ISBN: 978-981-14-6274-0 (hardcover)

Published at Singapore

Printed in the United States of America

https://www.speedtoproficiency.com

[email protected]

National Library Board, Singapore Cataloguing in Publication Data

Names: Attri, Raman K., 1973-

Title: Accelerated proficiency for accelerated times : a review of key concepts and methods to speed up performance / Dr. Raman K. Attri.

Description: Singapore : Speed To Proficiency Research, [2020] | Includes bibliographic references and index.

Identifiers: OCN 1154810008 | ISBN 978-981-146275-7 (paperback) | 978-981-14-6274-0 (hardcover) | 978-981-14-6276-4

Subjects: LCSH: Core competencies. | Executive ability. | Employees--Training of.

Classification: DDC 658.3124--dc23

To a great friend, Pal,

for being there for me,

despite the speed of life

“When you shorten the time it takes for workers to become proficient, the capital and resources required to introduce a new product, maintain operations and infrastructure, and perform a service are also proportionally reduced. I call this speed to proficiency.”

Charles Fred (2002, p. 16)

Breakaway 

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

PREFACE

1 INTRODUCTION

2 JOB PERFORMANCE: ASPECTS AND DIMENSIONS

2.1 Performance Improvement

2.1.1 Human resource development

2.1.2 Learning paradigm of HRD

2.1.3 Performance paradigm of HRD

2.2 Dimensions of Job Performance

2.2.1 Value of individual performance

2.2.2 Job performance

2.2.3 Dimensions of job performance

2.2.4 Complex nature of job performance

2.3 Perspectives on job performance

2.3.1 Behavioral vs outcome performance

2.3.2 Task vs contextual performance

2.3.3 Individual vs team performance

2.3.4 Multidimensionality of job performance

2.4 Learning and Performance

2.4.1 Abilities, knowledge and skills

2.4.2 Central role of learning

2.5 Acquiring Skilled Job Performance

2.5.1 Fitts and Posner’s three-stage skill acquisition

2.5.2 Anderson’s three-stage learning model

2.5.3 Ackerman’s three-stage model

2.5.4 Langan-Fox’s skill acquisition model

2.6 Summary

3 PROFICIENT PERFORMANCE: JOURNEY AND TRANSITION

3.1 Novice-to-Expert Progression

3.1.1 Novice to expert progression as stages

3.1.2 Problem-solving approaches as an indicator of stages

3.1.3 Tasks performance as an indicator of stages

3.1.4 Measurable attributes as an indicator of stages

3.1.5 Novice to expert transition as a process

3.1.6 Implications

3.2 Stages of Proficiency Acquisition

3.3 Proficiency Scaling

3.3.1 Hoffman’s proficiency scaling

3.3.2 Jacobs’ taxonomy of human competence

3.3.3 Implications of proficiency scaling

3.4 Proficient Performance

3.4.1 Role of proficiency in performance

3.4.2 Development of proficient performers

3.4.3 Characteristics of proficient performers

3.4.4 Measuring proficient performance

3.4.5 Importance of proficient performance

3.5 Expert Performance

3.5.1 Attributes of expertise

3.5.2 A holistic view of expertise

3.5.3 Construct of expert performance

3.5.4 Deliberate practice mechanism

3.5.5 Time to expertise

3.5.6 Relevance of expert performance

3.6 Expert vs Proficient

3.7 Summary

4 ACCELERATED PROFICIENCY: MEANING AND DRIVERS

4.1 Accelerating Proficiency

4.1.1 Time to Proficiency Metrics

4.1.2 Studies on time to proficiency

4.1.3 How long is time to proficiency

4.2 Accelerating Learning vs Proficiency

4.3 Business Drivers for Speed

4.4 Theory of Accelerated Proficiency

4.4.1 Theoretical aspects

4.4.2 CTT as Basis of Accelerated Proficiency

4.4.3 CFT as Basis of Accelerated Proficiency

4.4.4 Unified Theory to Explain Accelerated Proficiency

4.5 Summary

5 METHODS TO ACCELERATE PROFICIENCY

5.1 Thematic Categories of Methods

5.2 Cognitive task analysis (CTA) methods

5.2.1 Using CTA to design training

5.2.2 Complimenting CTA with other methods

5.2.3 Challenges and benefits

5.2.4 Cogntive work analysis

5.3 Simulations-based Training methods

5.3.1 Time compression

5.3.2 Expert-based simulation

5.3.3 Above Real-time Training

5.3.4 Gamification

5.3.5 Virtual or synthetic environments

5.3.6 Immersive strategies

5.3.7 Operational simulation

5.3.8 Benefits

5.4 Scenario-based Training methods

5.4.1 Scenario-based training

5.4.2 Desirable difficulties

5.4.3 Tough case time compression

5.4.4 Conceptual skills

5.5 Part-task Based Methods

5.6 Workplace Activities-based Methods

5.6.1 Informal and social learning

5.6.2 Experiential and action learning

5.6.3 Structured workplace activities

5.6.4 Cognitive apprenticeship

5.6.5 Structured on-the-job training

5.6.6 Deliberate practice at work

5.6.7 Deliberate performance through action learning

5.6.8 Learning organizations

5.7 Technology-based methods

5.7.1 Expert-based systems

5.7.2 Tutoring systems

5.7.3 Performance support systems

5.7.4 Knowledge capture systems

5.7.5 Personalised learning systems

5.8 Summary

6 CHALLENGE TO ACCELERATE PROFICIENCY

6.1 Challenges to Accelerate Proficiency

6.2 Issues with Training Methods

6.3 Issues with Workplace Methods

6.4 Applying Lessons from this book

6.5 Final Words

RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS

REFERENCES

INDEX

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE

I wrote this book to pioneer a growing area of research on Accelerated Proficiency in organizational and business literature. The business world is not only changing at a high pace, but it is also becoming overly complex. The skills and knowledge acquired today become irrelevant or obsolete quickly. There are instances when merely one day of delay in launching a product could cost a company millions of dollars. This business reality of cut-throat competition between global organizations is everlasting. In that kind of dynamics, it is indeed not viable for businesses to wait for their employees to become proficient in the critical skills required to support the business, customers, and to address the competition.

That’s where the concepts of accelerated proficiency, time to proficiency, and speed to proficiency are making rounds in business conversations and literature. The organizations are now shifting their focus on how they can shorten time to proficiency of employees and bring them up to speed to the required performance.

However, it is easier said than done. Most organizations have been struggling to bring their employees up to speed on job-related skills. They have to wait sometimes for months or years for their employees to come up to the desired level of performance. The last five decades’ research on performance and allied areas has revealed some processes, methodologies, and methods to effectively reduce the time it takes for an employee to deliver consistent performance. The reality is that even today, despite the extensive research, there is a lack of proven knowledge-base in the training industry as a whole. The key gap is the lack of effective or result-giving mechanisms to accelerate the proficiency of employees.

Time is money and a reduction in time should be the first goal of any training program or any other employee development initiative. That is the pretext this book. This book is developed out of extensive literature review I conducted during my doctorate research at Southern Cross University.

To develop a condensed and coherent knowledge-base on Accelerated Proficiency, this bookis organized around reviews of studies on performance and proficiency from several different disciplines spanning over five decades. The book explores concepts, themes, nature, and challenges associated with the process of accelerating proficiency.

In particular, this book is designed to explore some questions - What is the nature of the proficiency in the organization? What is the meaning and goal of accelerating proficiency? Whether or not proficiency and performance of employees can be accelerated? What kind of methods has been researched and proven to accelerate proficiency?

It is imperative to clarify that the intent of this book is not to develop or converge to any framework on accelerated proficiency. The discussion in this book is limited to literature review while the findings, models, and framework that came out of my doctorate research are covered elsewhere. Readers are encouraged to read my other books to read about proposed models or frameworks: Modelling accelerated proficiency in organisations: practices and strategies to shorten time-to-proficiency of the workforce– Doctorate thesis (2018). Designing Training to Shorten Time To Proficiency: Online, Classroom and On-the-job Learning Strategies from Research (2019), Speed to Proficiency in Organizations: A Research Report on Model, Practices and Strategies to Shorten Time to Proficiency (2019), Models of Skill Acquisition and Expertise Development: A Quick Reference of Summaries (2019) and Accelerate Time to Proficiency: Model, Process and Strategies (forthcoming).

I encourage new and seasoned researchers to join hands to develop and extend this budding research area. Contact me for any joint research work.

Dr Raman K Attri

May 2020

1

INTRODUCTION

During the last half a century, researchers and scholars have tried to unlock the mysteries of human learning, identify the process of developing people to the higher level of competence and improving overall performance at work and in other areas. ‘Proficiency is critical to performance in complex work contexts’ (Hoffman, Feltovich, et al. 2010, p. 250). In a work context, proficiency has been defined as a level where a practitioner is able to perform reliably and consistently (Kuchenbrod 2016). It is crucial for the sustainable existence of any company to develop their employees’ knowledge, skills, and performance to the desired level of proficiency (Bruck 2015).

This book addresses a critical challenge in modern organizations: the workforce generally takes a significant amount of time to reach full proficiency in several job roles, which in turn puts market and financial pressures on organizations. The literature review presented in this book aims to explore this relatively new research topic. Specifically, the focus of the review is on how organizations view the concept and process of accelerating proficiency, and the methods/approaches organizations have used successfully to decrease the time to proficiency of the workforce.

The literature review is based on the general premise that knowledge and skills play vital parts in delivering desired performance at the job. As people gain more proficiency and expertise in the job, their performance level increases. Accelerating the pace with which people acquire proficiency thus sits at intersections of job performance, skill acquisition, and proficiency development. The literature review approaches the topics of performance, knowledge and skill acquisition, expertise, and proficiency from a historical perspective first before reviewing the emergence of the concept of accelerated proficiency and methods to accelerate proficiency.

The general theories underlying the concept of proficiency (and thus that of accelerated proficiency) are grounded in seminal and classic works conducted during fiver decades between the 1960s and 2010s by leading theorists such as Murphy (1989), Campbell (Campbell 1990; Campbell, McHenry & Wise 1990; Campbell et al. 1993), Borman and Motowidlo (Borman & Motowidlo 1993; Motowidlo, Borman & Schmit 1997; Motowidlo & Van Scotter 1994), Dreyfus and Dreyfus (Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986, 2004, 2005), Fitt (Fitt 1964; Fitt & Posner 1967), Anderson (1981, 1982, 2000), Ackerman (1988, 1992), Chi (Chi 1982; Chi 2006; Chi, Glaser & Rees 1982; Chi, Glaser & Farr 1988; Chi, Glaser & Rees 1981; Glaser & Chi 1988), Ericsson (Ericsson 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006a, 2007, 2008, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c; Ericsson et al. 1993; Ericsson & Charness 1994; Ericsson, Prietula & Cokely 2007; Ericsson & Towne 2010; Ericsson & Ward 2007), Spiro (Spiro & Jehng 1990; Spiro et al. 1987; Spiro et al. 1990; Spiro et al. 2003) and Klein (Klein 1993, 1997, 1998, 2003; Klein & Baxter 2009; Klien & Borders 2016; Klien, Hintze & Saab 2013; Klein et al. 1997), among others. The work of these theorists is thoroughly reviewed, alongside recent developments in the literature.

The review presented in this book takes forward the conceptualization of accelerated proficiency and accelerated expertise proposed in experimental research conducted by Hoffman (Hoffman et al. 2008, 2009, 2014; Hoffman, Andrews & Feltovich 2012; Hoffman & Andrews 2012; Hoffman, Andrews, et al. 2010; Hoffman, Feltovich, et al. 2010, 2010) and Fadde (Fadde & Klein 2010, 2012; Fadde 2007, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2012, 2013, 2016). Their work reflects recent advances on the topic of accelerating proficiency of people in training and work settings. In their studies, they have identified several theoretical issues and gaps. In particular, the gaps such as lack of good understanding of the concept, process, and methods of accelerated proficiency have served to conduct this literature review in the organizational and workplace context.

The chapters in this book dive into the literature review of various aspects and dimensions of the concept of accelerated proficiency and build a concise knowledge-base on the business challenge of shortening time to proficiency. This book is organized as follows:

Chapter 2 introduces major themes on performance from historical and classical studies as it leads to the concept of proficiency. The broader perspectives from studies and advances in human resource development (HRD) and performance improvement are reviewed. The chapter discusses the studies that characterized dimensions of job performance. The classic, seminal, and historical work of significance, such as theories of stages of skill acquisition are reviewed in this chapter.

Chapter 3 presents the definition and nature of proficiency. The literature on proficiency is reviewed as it relates to the topics of performance, knowledge/skill acquisition, and expertise acquisition. Key studies on novice-to-expert transition and the concept of proficiency scaling are reviewed.

Chapter 4 presents the imperatives in the literature that assert the need for accelerating proficiency. The historical and current work on accelerated proficiency is reviewed. Then the theoretical aspects of accelerating proficiency are explored.

Chapter 5 explores studies on various methods proposed by researchers for accelerating proficiency of people or personnel in various settings. The methods are reviewed for their implications and evidence towards the acceleration of proficiency.

Chapter 6 enumerates the gaps highlighted in previous chapters in regards to the nature and attainment of accelerated proficiency. The role and challenges of using training interventions to accelerate proficiency in organizations are also discussed. The chapter concludes the book by appealing for further research in broader methods to accelerate proficiency.

2

JOB PERFORMANCE:ASPECTS AND DIMENSIONS

This chapter presents a review of the broader topic of job performance. Most of the work on modeling of performance is grounded in seminal and classic studies, while modern researchers have extended those studies further. The major studies on job performance from historical and classic research are presented in this chapter. The chapter introduces the broader field of human resource development (HRD) as it relates to performance improvement at the workplace. The studies that characterized various dimensions of job performance are explored. A linkage is established between learning and performance before discussing major themes on the acquisition of skilled performance from the classic and seminal studies.

2.1 PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT

2.1.1Human resource development

Human resources make the heart of any organizations. The business success of an organization depends on the skills, capabilities, potential, and expertise of its people primarily among other resources (Jacobs 2003). The discipline of human resource development (HRD) has long been investigated for a range of issues related to human performance in organizational contexts. Most commonly, HRD is defined as ‘a process for developing and unleashing human expertise through organization development and personnel training and development for the purpose of improving performance’ (Swanson & Holton III 2001, p. 4).Traditionally, HRD has been associated with training and development (T&D) interventions. Training and development include workplace interventions to enhance the learning of the employees towards developing their capabilities and expertise. However, lately in the last two decades, researchers such as Swanson & Holton III (2001) proposed that HRD processes focus on organizational development (OD) as well as training and development (T&D). Organization development includes the processes to enhance the effectiveness of the organization as well as care for employees(Werner & DeSimone 2009). According to Swanson & Holton III (2001) the OD is ‘process of systematically unleashing human expertise to implement organizational change for the purpose of improving performance’. Thus, OD activities are central to any organizations towards preparing employees for changes and indeed requires or affected by HRD activities (Cummings & Worley 2001; Rothwell & Sullivan 2005). Nevertheless, the purpose of HRD processes and interventions is probably unquestionable towards improving performance and developing the expertise of employees and organizations as a whole: ‘HRD should exist for the purpose of improving performance; it must be performance focused, considering the relationship of HRD to the organizational system it serves’ (Swanson & Arnold 1996, p. 17).

Various studies attempted to explore different aspects of HRD, emphasizing the key goals of HRD such as training and development (McLagan 1989a, 1989b), facilitating organizational change through learning (Chalofsky & Lincoln 1983), increasing human potential (Nadler, Wiggs & Smith 1988), delivering organizational performance (Jacobs 1989), improving work-related learning capacity (Watkins 1989), performance improvement (Gilley, England & Wesley 1998), performance and productivity improvement (Smith 1990), and unleashing human expertise through organizational development (Swanson 1995). It is seen that HRD exhibits considerable overlaps in theory and practice with other domains such as career development, organizational and process effectiveness, performance improvement, strategic organizational planning, human resource management and human resources (Swanson & Holton III 2001, p. 12). Researchers most commonly divided studies on HRD into two separate paradigms: learning paradigm and performance paradigm (Swanson & Holton III 2001, p. 12).

2.1.2Learning paradigm of HRD

The learning paradigm of HRD is dominated by three perspectives on learning – 1) individual learning which considered individual’s learning as the outcome of various instructional and training interventions (Gagne & Briggs 1974); 2) performance-based learning that focused on individual performance resulting from learning (Holton, Bates & Ruona 2000); and 3) whole systems learning which encompassed enhancing team and organizational performance through learning in addition to individual performance (Watkins & Marsick 1993). According to this paradigm, developing expertise of employees resides at the heart of any HRD intervention. In an organizational context, ‘expertise almost always refers to the ability to use knowledge and skills to achieve outcomes that have value to someone else’ (Jacobs 2003, p. 5). Towards that, Jones (1981, p. 188) asserted HRD as a ‘systematic expansion of people’s work-related abilities’ (as cited in Swanson & Holton III 2001, p. 5).

Training and development have been considered as one critical part of the HRD processes in this paradigm. Classic research studies in HRD are almost all focused on training and development function from the angle of workplace learning and employee education. Swanson & Arnold (1996, p. 17) highlighted the intersection of HRD and adult education at the workplace: ‘First, the context is organizations. Second, the dependent variable, or desired outcome, is performance, which will directly affect the goals of the organizations. Third, the intersection includes education and training interventions’. Swanson (2007) proposed that employees need skills not only to maintain the system but also to change the system, later being significantly different from the former. Early studies on training and development focused on competence development of employees. Employee competence was defined as the use of a specific set of knowledge or skills (Jacobs 1997).

However, some early studies argued that competence or employee abilities have a direct relationship with performance (Morf 1986) which in turn can be measured at the organization, process or individual level (Swanson 1999). It has also been reconciled in some studies that ‘[t]he primary outcome of HRD is not just learning but also performance’ (Swanson & Holton III 2001, p. 139). This aspect is reviewed in the performance paradigm section.

2.1.3Performance paradigm of HRD

The second paradigm of HRD is the performance paradigm, which focused on enhancing total individual performance through nonlinear as well as learning interventions. In an organizational context, researchers have argued that competence is a limited construct (focusing on acquiring skills and knowledge only) which does not convey true goals of HRD interventions (Swanson & Holton III 2001). In a study conducted by Evers et al. (2011), they noted several organizational and tasks factors that influenced the professional development of teachers and in turn, the occupational expertise. While performance has been linked to the knowledge, skills, and abilities of an individual (Clark 2008), improving performance at the workplace requires focusing on more than just human competencies. This school of thought represented the second paradigm of HRD, performance paradigm, which is dominated by two perspectives on performance – 1) individual performance improvement focuses on individual level performance systems; and 2) whole systems performance improvement or just called performance improvement, is a broader focus on performance improvement at multiple levels. The former approaches include human performance technology (HPT) (Gilbert 1978; Stolovitch & Keeps 1992) while later approaches include performance improvement or performance consulting (Holton III 1999; Robinson & Robinson 1995; Rummler & Brache 1995)

A comprehensive literature review indicated that there are over 50 different performance improvement models falling under individual, organizational and societal categories (Gok & Law 2017; Schaffer 2000). The studies on performance improvement are based on the premise of improving performance with or without a human lens (Swanson 1999). Considering that performance of an individual in the organization is not a singular function, researchers suggested taking a system view to HRD that encompassed looking at different parts of the HRD as system elements which interact with each other through various processes (Jacobs 1989, 2014a; Swanson 2001; Yawson 2013). General system theory describes any performance improvement process that uses a simple thinking model of inputs, processes, outputs, and a feedback loop (Swanson 1999). System theory also emphasized improving performance based on measurements: ‘Performance improvement can only be manifest through outputs and change in outputs can only be assessed through some form of measurement’ (Swanson 1999, p. 7).

An important implication of this line of thought was to investigate the role and impact of organizational development on how human expertise was developed, and performance was improved in the workplace. In a direction-changing publication using a multidisciplinary approach based on their consulting engagements, Rummler & Brache (1995) proposed that there were three performance levels: organization performance being the first level, process performance as the second level and individual performance as the last level. Their model fundamentally changed the way performance improvement was viewed in organizations. Extending Rummler & Brache (1995) work further, Swanson (1994, 2007) proposed performance diagnosis matrix that included organization, process, an individual level performance which is impacted by performance variables such as mission/goal, system design, capacity, motivation, and expertise. Integrated taxonomy of performance domains proposed by Holton III (1999) suggested four domains of performance: mission, process, social sub-system and individual.

Behavior Engineering Model (BEM)

Among seminal studies that investigated the performance paradigm in HRD, Gilbert (1978) coined a term worthy performance to communicate the return on investment on performance. He proposed a behavior engineering model (BEM) which distinguished between a person’s behaviors and the environment support that encourages or impedes the performance. This model suggested that there was more than an individual’s capability to produce a worthy performance (Gilbert 1978). In his work, he indicated that two sets of factors that influenced performance: (1) environmental factors, which included information, resources and incentives; and (2) individual factors, which included knowledge, capacity, and motives. While the environmental factors support or impede performance, the individual factors contribute towards a performance at the individual level (Gilbert 2013). Extending that work, Chevalier (2003) elaborated that information element in BEM model was about the role and performance clarity, relevant and frequent feedback about performance, description of expectations of performance and clear guides for performance. Resources element included tools, material, processes, procedures, and overall physical and psychological work environment and work conditions required to perform the job. Incentives element included adequate financial and nonfinancial incentives given to performers, enriched job designs, and positive work environment allowing further career opportunities.

On the other hand, knowledge represented the skills, knowledge, behaviors, and experience to match the requirement of performance. Motives represented people’s motivations and desire to work. Lastly, capacity represented the adaptation, flexibility, capacity to learn, which is free from emotional limitation. Chevalier (2003) postulated that final performance depended on push-pull forces exerted by environmental factors and individual factors.

The major application of Gilbert’s model is seen in identifying the barriers to the expected performance (King Jr & Cennamo 2016). Some studies specifically used Gilbert’s BEM model to evaluate performance improvement (Wooderson, Cuskelly & Meyer 2017); design safety interventions to improve performance (Crossman, Crossman & Lovely 2009); and justify the investment in human performance interventions (Humphress & Berge 2006).

There have been several implications of the studies using Gilbert’s BEM model in HRD. One of them being that performance improvement requires several environment support systems in place, apart from skills, knowledge, and behaviors possessed by an individual (Chevalier 2003). The second implication being that performance can be improved with or without training, with the latter being more prevalent (Dean 2016). The third implication is that accomplishments and outcomes should be the way to measure performance instead of behaviors, as they are just the means to achieve accomplishments (Binder 2017).

Human Performance Technology (HPT)

While the influence of environment and organizational factors on performance cannot be denied, it was seen that organizations suffer more from performance issues related to organizational factors. For instance, in a meta-analysis of 327 performance improvement projects completed between 1986 and 2012, Hartt, Quiram & Marken (2016) noted that 65% to 74% performance issues targeted organizational or environmental factors, whereas 26% to 35% of the performance issues focused on individual performance factors only. This study indicated that causes related to an individual’s performance issues could be a small percentage of overall performance causes at the organizational level. Researchers contended that when there are performance issues, the diagnosis needs to be done at the organization, process, team, and individual level (Swanson 2007). Such a performance analysis of organizational and environmental factors is the foundation of human performance technology (HPT), a framework developed from BEM to address the performance problems in the organizations systematically (Pershing 2006; Van Tiem, Moseley & Dessinger 2004, 2012). HPT was defined as:

A systemic and systematic set of processes for assessing and analysing performance gaps and opportunities; planning improvements in performance; designing and developing efficient, effective, and ethically justifiable interventions to close performance gaps or capitalize on opportunities; implementing the interventions; and evaluating all levels of results. (Guerra-Lopez 2016, p. 3)

Pershing (2006, p. 6) defined HPT as ‘the study and ethical practice of improving productivity in organizations by designing and developing effective interventions that are results-oriented, comprehensive, and systemic’. Conceptually HPT is similar to organizational development because it is an applied behavioral science and is based on systems theory (Cho & Yoon 2010; Jacobs 1989; Pershing 2006). Both OD and HPT are concerned with improving organizational performance (Stolovitch 2007). The core of the HPT philosophy is a combination of three processes – performance analysis, cause analysis, and intervention selection (Van Tiem, Moseley & Dessinger 2012). HPT model emphasizes heavily on analysis of possible performance issues and causes across different levels surrounding the worker. This includes analysis of mission, vision, and goals of the organization (organizational analysis); analysis of the environment surrounding the job (environment analysis); analysis of difference between desired performance and actual performance (gap analysis); and analysis of causes of the gap between actual and desired performance (cause analysis) (Van Tiem, Moseley & Dessinger 2012, 2012). On similar lines, Rothwell et al. (2000) presented a human performance improvement (HPI) model developed for American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) based on key processes of performance analysis, cause analysis and intervention selection. This model was represented as a change management system in which performance is continuously measured and evaluated. In a study, Deterline & Rosenberg (1992) contended to perform the mission, strategy, and goal analysis, as well as analysis of work, organization and competitive environment, as part of the organizational analysis. They argued that one should assess several causes that may be leading to the performance gap. The cause analysis may include looking at consequences, incentives and rewards; data and information; resources, tools and environmental support; individual capacity; motives and expectations; and skills and knowledge.

Researchers have positioned the scholarly appeal and theory-driven practice value of HPT and attempted the development of theory from implications of HPT (Cho & Yoon 2010; Pershing, Abaci & Symonette 2016; Pershing, Lee & Cheng 2008). Implications of studies on HPI/HPT is in its particular focus on a holistic understanding of processes, procedures, and models used specifically towards improving workplace performance. A characteristics premise of HPI/HPT is that training is not the only solution to improve performance (Stolovitch & Keeps 1999). Consequently, performance interventions are not always entirely training related. Deterline & Rosenberg (1992) indicated that interventions may include but are not limited to coaching, compensation, cultural change, documentation, environmental engineering, health/wellness, job aids, job/work design, leadership/supervision, performance management, performance support, staffing, team building, and training/education.

In recent studies, it was found that HPT practices described performance improvement processes followed by the practitioners to a reasonable degree (Kang 2017; Pershing, Lee & Cheng 2008). Nevertheless, the studies of performance and performance improvement are now widespread into several sub-disciplines. Performance is an important concept in HRD which encompasses both learning and organizational performance: ‘HRD will only be perceived as having strategic value to the organization if it has the capability to connect the unique value of employee expertise with the strategic goals of the organization’ (Swanson & Holton III 2001, p. 147).

Performance of employees at the job that is job performance is an important aspect connected with developing employee skills, proficiency, and expertise. The studies revealing this relationship are reviewed in the next sections.

2.2 DIMENSIONS OF JOB PERFORMANCE

Effective performance from employees in any job is a key business expectation that fuels business operations, profit, and competitive advantage (Sonnentag & Frese 2002). The poor performance of an individual at the job may have far-reaching effects on the team performance, as well as an organization’s performance.

2.2.1Value of individual performance

In the literature, business performance of an organization is believed to be the result of collective forces of resources, strategies, technology, and people: ‘Organisations perform well and create value when they implement strategies that respond to market opportunities by exploiting their internal resources and capabilities’ (Afiouni 2007, pp. 127–128). Researchers recognized skilled people in an organization as one of the key contributors to business performance and organizational competitiveness (Afiouni 2007; Huselid & Becker 2011). The critical value of the individual performance of people in organizations was widely recognized: ‘Organisations need highly performing individuals in order to meet their goals, to deliver the products and services they specialised in, and finally to achieve competitive advantage’ (Sonnentag & Frese 2002, p. 4).

2.2.2Job performance

Despite its importance, the term performance does not seem to have one universal definition because there are several perspectives through which performance is viewed, defined, and measured. Though numerous studies have been conducted in the field of individual performance, various disciplines have focused on different aspects of performance. The Oxford English Dictionary defines performance as ‘the action or process of performing a task or a function’1. More generally, when an individual exhibits skill to desired standards to get the job done, this is what determines performance.

For a long period, task performance and job performance have been differentiated in the literature. While task performance indicates whether something was done to the desired specification or not, job performance indicates whether the job achieved the stated business outcomes. Job performance is viewed as the result of several cognitive, psychomotor tasks or abilities working together. Murphy (1989, p. 185) explained the distinction as:

Job performance is certainly a function of the individual’s performance on the specific tasks that comprise standard job descriptions but is also affected by variables such as success in maintaining good interpersonal relations, absenteeism and withdrawal behaviors, substance abuse, and other behaviors that increase hazards in the workplace …

Thus, to produce overall job performance, several other things are required, such as teamwork, self-development, and personal attributes like perseverance, interpersonal and communication skills. Seconding Murphy’s (1989) assertion, other studies also maintained similar view: ‘Total [job] performance is much more than specific task or technical proficiency’ (Campbell, McHenry & Wise 1990, p. 214). Viswesvaran & Ones (2000, p. 218) observed that several classic studies in the 1980s and 1990s had recognized that ‘job performance entails more than just task performance’.

2.2.3Dimensions of job performance

During the last several decades, the literature has generated a range of dimensions that characterized job performance. In the review of performance-related studies spanning the last few decades, Viswesvaran (1993) and Viswesvaran & Ones (2000) observed 486 different performance dimensions across various occupations which were reported in the literature prior to 2000. They classified these dimensions into ten groups: (1) overall job performance; (2) job performance or productivity; (3) effort; (4) job knowledge; (5) interpersonal competence; (6) administrative competence; (7) quality; (8) communication competence; (9) leadership; and (10) compliance with rules (Viswesvaran & Ones 2000). However, they found that there was not one dimension that could fully explain the dynamics of job performance and that each dimension was complexely interrelated:

The existing research in this area [individual job performance] appears to be that each performance dimension is complexly determined (jointly by ability and personality) and that it is impossible to specify a sole cause or antecedent of a particular dimension of job performance. (Viswesvaran & Ones 2000, p. 224)

More recently, Koopmans et al. (2011) conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis across 107 studies related to individual performance framework published until 2010 in four major databases. They found that performance had several different dimensions, which may be similar across several jobs and each of those dimensions could be measured with some indicators, varying from job to job. They reasoned that it was difficult to say if these measures captured the complexity of performance at work. Alongside the dimensions of job performance, the measures of job performance also showed the similar diversity that there was not one single measurement prevailing across occupations.

2.2.4Complex nature of job performance

The complexity of job performance was discussed in the literature with reference to factors that impact performance as well. In a meta-analysis, Sonnentag & Frese (2002) found that there were two kinds of studies on the effects of situated work factors of on-the-job performance. They noticed that one set of studies indicated job characteristics such as job design interventions (e.g., meaningful tasks), control at work and group-work enhanced the job performance, while another set of studies showed factors such as role ambiguity, role conflict, and work environment stressors inhibit performance. This showed that the job environment, as well as job design, impact job performance. Among others, team performance plays an important role in the successful attainment of organizational goals within the team (or group). The interplay of such factors makes job performance a complex phenomenon.

In a study conducted by Campbell, McHenry & Wise (1990, p. 314), the authors elaborated on the complex nature of job performance as: ‘There is not one outcome, one factor, or one anything that can be pointed to and labeled as job performance. Job performance really is multidimensional’. Swanson (1999) maintained the same view.

2.3 PERSPECTIVES ON JOB PERFORMANCE

Historically, literature has suggested several different perspectives to explain performance: task vs. contextual performance (Borman & Motowidlo 1993); behavioural vs. outcome performance (Campbell et al. 1993); task vs. job performance (Kanfer & Kantrowitz 2002); individual vs. team performance (Sonnentag & Frese 2002), and job vs. organizational performance (Griffin, Neal & Parker 2007; Sudnickas 2016). Collectively, the literature suggests a range of dimensions, major ones being behavioral performance, task performance, outcome performance, contextual performance, individual and team performance. These dimensions are reviewed next.

2.3.1Behavioral vs outcome performance

Sonnentag & Frese (2002) stated that performance has two different aspects that represent extremes - behavioral or action aspect (what an individual does) and an outcome aspect (what the consequence or result of the action is).

Behavioral performance

Behavioral performance was one of the key dimensions found in the classic studies of Campbell (1990) and Murphy (1989). Murphy (1989) pioneered the work performance theory in which he emphasized behavior as performance. Apart from task-related skills and behaviors, the contribution of other skills and attitudes affected overall task performance. Murphy (1989) believed that task performance is about the accomplishment of duties and tasks written in job descriptions. He theorized that work performance has four dimensions: (1) task behaviors; (2) interpersonal behaviors; (3) downtime behaviors (related to work avoidance); and (4) destructive/hazardous behaviors (related to noncompliance, violence, etc.).

Building on the work of Murphy (1989), Campbell (1990) considered not only task-related behaviors but also performance behaviors not directly related to the task. He acknowledged that performance is not just about job-specific task proficiency. Rather, an individual’s proficiency in several non-job-specific tasks as well, such as perseverance and discipline that is required to obtain reasonable performance. Campbell (1990) included eight dimensions to the work performance: (1) job-specific task proficiency; (2) non-job-specific task proficiency; (3) written and oral communications; (4) demonstrating effort; (5) maintaining personal discipline; (6) facilitating peer and team performance; (7) supervision; and (8) management and administration.