Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing Technology E-Book

Lev M. Klyatis

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley Series in Systems Engineering and Management
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 571

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Learn how ART and ADT can reduce cost, time, product recalls, and customer complaints

This book provides engineers with the techniques and tools they need to use accelerated reliability testing (ART) and accelerated durability testing (ADT) as key factors to accurately predict a product's quality, reliability, durability, and maintainability during a given time, such as service life or warranty period. It covers new ideas and offers a unique approach to accurate simulation and integration of field inputs, safety, and human factors, as well as accelerated product development, as components of interdisciplinary systems engineering.

Beginning with a comprehensive introduction to the subject of ART and ADT, the book covers:

• ART and ADT as components of an interdisciplinary systems of systems approach

• Methodology of ART and ADT performance

• Equipment for ART and ADT technology

• ART and ADT as sources of initial information for accurate quality, reliability, maintainability, and durability prediction and product accelerated development

• The economical results of the usage of ART and ADT

• ART and ADT standardization

The book covers the newest techniques in the field and provides many case studies that illuminate how the implementation of ART and ADT can solve previously inaccessible problems in the field of engineering, such as reducing product recalls, cost, and time during design, manufacture, and usage. Professionals will find the answers to how one can carry out ART and ADT technology in a practical manner.

Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing Technology is indispensable reading for engineers, researchers in industry, usage, and academia who are involved in the design of experiments, field simulations, maintenance, reliabilty, durabilty, accurate prediction, and product development, and graduate students in related courses.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

WILEY SERIES IN SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

About the Author

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 THE PURPOSE OF ACCELERATED TESTING (AT)

1.2 THE CURRENT SITUATION IN AT

1.3 FINANCIAL ASSESSMENT OF THE RISKS INVOLVED IN CREATING A TESTING PROGRAM

1.4 COMMON PRINCIPLES OF ART AND ADT

1.5 THE LEVEL OF USEFULNESS OF ART AND ADT

Chapter 2 Accelerated Reliability Testing as a Component of an Interdisciplinary System of Systems Approach

2.1 CURRENT PRACTICE IN RELIABILITY, MAINTAINABILITY, AND QUALITY

2.2 A DESCRIPTION OF THE PRODUCT/PROCESS RELIABILITY AND DURABILITY AS THE COMPONENTS OF THE INTERDISCIPLINARY SOS APPROACH

2.3 THE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF FAILURE AND USAGE DATA FROM THE FIELD

2.4 FIELD INPUT INFLUENCES

2.5 SAFETY PROBLEMS AS A COMPONENT OF THE FIELD SITUATION

2.6 HUMAN FACTORS AS A COMPONENT OF THE FIELD SITUATION

2.7 THE INTERCONNECTION OF QUALITY AND RELIABILITY

2.8 THE STRATEGY TO INTEGRATE QUALITY WITH RELIABILITY

2.9 THE PLACE OF ART/ADT IN HIGH QUALITY, RELIABILITY, MAINTAINABILITY, AND DURABILITY

Chapter 3 The Basic Concepts of Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing

3.1 DEVELOPING AN ACCURATE SIMULATION OF THE FIELD SITUATION AS THE BASIC COMPONENT OF SUCCESSFUL ACCELERATED RELIABILITY TESTING (ART) AND ACCELERATED DURABILITY TESTING (ADT)

3.2 CONCEPTUAL METHODOLOGY FOR THE SUBSTANTIATION OF A REPRESENTATIVE REGION FOR AN ACCURATE SIMULATION OF THE FIELD CONDITIONS

3.3 BASIC PROCEDURES OF ART AND ADT

3.4 ART AND LCC

Chapter 4 Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing Methodology

4.1 ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT SITUATION

4.2 PHILOSOPHY OF ART/ADT

4.3 ART/ADT METHODOLOGY AS A COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTING

4.4 ACCELERATED MULTIPLE ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING

4.5 ACCELERATED CORROSION TESTING

4.6 TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED VIBRATION TESTING

4.7 FIELD RELIABILITY TESTING

4.8 TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ART/ADT TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 5 Equipment for Accelerated Reliability (Durability) Testing Technology

5.1 ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT SITUATION WITH EQUIPMENT FOR ACCELERATED RELIABILITY (DURABILITY) TESTING

5.2 COMBINED EQUIPMENT FOR ART/ADT AS A COMBINATION (INTEGRATION) OF EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTING

5.3 CONSIDERATION OF COMPONENTS FOR ART/ADT AND COMBINED (INTEGRATED) EQUIPMENT TESTING

5.4 EQUIPMENT FOR MECHANICAL TESTING

5.5 EQUIPMENT FOR MULTI-ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING AND ITS COMPONENTS

5.6 EQUIPMENT FOR ELECTRICAL TESTING

Chapter 6 Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing as a Source of Initial Information for Accurate Quality, Reliability, Maintainability, and Durability Prediction and Accelerated Product Development

6.1 ABOUT ACCURATE PREDICTION OF QUALITY, RELIABILITY, DURABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY

6.2 THE STRATEGY FOR ACCURATE PREDICTION OF RELIABILITY, DURABILITY, MAINTAINABILITY AND QUALITY, AND ACCELERATED PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

6.3 THE ROLE OF ART AND ADT IN THE ACCURATE PREDICTION AND ACCELERATED DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY, RELIABILITY, MAINTAINABILITY, AND DURABILITY

Chapter 7 The Financial and Design Advantages of Using Accelerated Reliability/Durability Testing

Chapter 8 Accelerated Reliability Testing Standardization

8.1 OVERVIEW AND ANALYSIS

8.2 IEC STANDARDS

8.3 ISO STANDARDS

8.4 MILITARY RELIABILITY TESTING STANDARDS AND APPROPRIATE DOCUMENTS

8.5 STANDARDIZATION IN RELIABILITY (DURABILITY) TESTING BY SOCIETIES

Conclusions

COMMON CONCLUSIONS

SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS

Glossary of Terms and Definitions

References

Index

WILEY SERIES IN SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Andrew P. Sage, Editor

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Software Systems Engineering

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Design for Success: A Human-Centered Approach to Designing Successful Products and Systems

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Catalysts for Change: Concepts and Principles for Enabling Innovation

LIPING FANG, KEITH W. HIPEL, and D. MARC KILGOUR

Interactive Decision Making: The Graph Model for Conflict Resolution

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Evidential Foundations of Probabilistic Reasoning

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Systems Management for Information Technology and Software Engineering

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LEV M. KLYATIS

Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing Technology

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Klyatis, Lev M.

 Accelerated reliability and durability testing technology / Lev M. Klyatis.

p. cm. – (Wiley series in systems engineering and management)

 ISBN 978-0-470-45465-7 (cloth)

 ISBN 978-0-470-54159-3 (epdf)

 ISBN 978-1-118-09400-6 (epub)

 1. Reliability (Engineering) 2. Accelerated life testing. I. Title.

TS173.K63 2009

620'.00452–dc22

2009017252

To My Wife Nellya Klyatis

Preface

In 2009–2010, Toyota experienced an increase in global recalls jumping to 8.5 million cars and trucks [1]. Similar situations have occurred and could happen again to other automakers as well as to companies in other industries. Toyota can have similar problems in the future as well. The basic reason behind many recalls and complaints, as well as higher cost and time for maintenance and life cycle cost than was predicted during design and manufacturing is the inaccurate prediction of the product’s reliability, durability, and quality during design and manufacturing. Predictions may be inaccurate due to the lack of proper accelerated reliability testing (ART) and accelerated durability testing (ADT) as a source of initial information for the prediction.

The focus of this book is to show multiple applications of the technology (methodology and equipment) that provide physically ART and ADT of an actual product in a way that represents the real world’s many product influencing interactions.

Integrated global solutions for many engineering problems in quality, safety, human factors, reliability, maintainability, durability, and serviceability were not available in the past. One of the basic reasons for this design deficiency was the inability to solve a fundamentally important problem—accelerated reliability (durability) testing. ART and ADT provide an integrated solution that will positively influence product development time, cost, quality, design, and effective product/process. The context for this treatise is an industrial product design and development. This approach applies to the development of a large number of products and processes such as, for example, in the consumer goods, industrial, producer, medical, banking, pharmaceutical, teaching, and military factors.

The weakness of prior accelerated testing approaches such as vibration testing, corrosion testing, step-stress testing, thermoshock testing, highly accelerated life testing (HALT), highly accelerated stress screening (HASS), accelerated aging, mechanical crack propagation and growth, and environmental stress screening (ESS) was the result of inappropriately using only a few of the influencing factors and using these factors in isolation. Such testing improved the design in a one-dimensional way but failed to provide the needed global optimum solution formed by combining the many complex factors in a systematically integrated approach. These types of individually conducted tests do not provide sufficient information for the accurate prediction of the interval product/process degradation and failures. The complex interaction of these factors with the multitude of real-world factors is not considered.

Hence, the results are potentially (and usually) misleading. Such suboptimal solutions cannot accurately account for the global impact of complicated interactions that result in delays in development, time to market, and in increased costs related to

Design time and resultCustomer satisfaction and expenseMaintenance frequency, cost, and accessWarranty costs and recallsDegradation of product/process over timeFailures during time intervals and warranty periodsQuality requirements and indicesProduct safetyHuman factors

Many people seek to artificially increase the value of limited testing by including the word “durability” in the title (e.g., “Vibration Durability Testing”). Vibration testing is not sufficient for the evaluation or prediction of product durability. Vibration testing is only one of many components of mechanical testing as a part of complicated durability testing. Vibration testing alone is not sufficient for accelerated development predictions for reliability, maintainability, and durability improvement or for solving many other related problems.

ART or ADT based on a combination of many types of accelerated tests (field, laboratory, multi-environment, mechanical, electrical, etc.) integrated with safety and human factors helps to solve the identified problems. ART and ADT both use an accurate simulation of a field environment. Chapter 1 describes this phenomenon.

What is technology? Technology is often a generic term to encompass all the technologies people develop and use in their lives. The United Nations Education, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines technology as “… the know-how and creative processes that may assist people to utilize tools, resources and systems to solve problems and to enhance control over the natural and made environment in an endeavor to improve the human conditions” [2]. Thus, technology involves the purposeful application of knowledge, creativity, experience, insight, and resources to create processes and products that meet human needs or desires. The needs and wants of people in particular communities coupled with their creativity determine the type of technology that is developed and how it is applied.

The simple definition of ART and ADT technology is a “complex” composed of specific testing methodologies, equipment, and usage that influence accurate prediction and successful accelerated development of product quality, reliability, durability, maintainability, availability, and supportability.

Each type of reliability and durability laboratory testing conducted as a component of ART or ADT consists of many subcomponents. The simulation of multiple inputs individually and simultaneously influences the result. For example, multi-environmental testing consists of a combination of temperature, humidity, chemical pollution, dust pollution, a complex of ultraviolet, infrared, and visible parts of the light spectrum, air pressure, and other influencing factors.

This is the first book on ART and ADT that intends to acquaint the reader with the evolving methodology and equipment necessary to conduct true ART and ADT. To answer the question “How?” the author uses more than 30 years of experience in this field, especially in the area of ART and ADT, as well as drawing from the world’s experience in this area.

This work covers new ideas and technologies for accurate ART and ADT that enhance the high correlation between testing and field data. This important testing process is continuously developing and expanding. In the real world, most of the significant factors for design and development are interconnected. Simulation, testing, quality, reliability, maintainability, human–system interaction, safety, and many other factors are interconnected and collectively influence each other. This is also true for the interacting influences of temperature, humidity, air pollution, light exposure, road conditions, input voltage, and many other parameters.

If one ignores these interactions, then one cannot accurately represent the real-world situation in a simulation. Consequently, testing based on a simulation without considering real-world interactions cannot give sufficient information for the accurate prediction of all the quality parameters of interest. This book provides strategies to eliminate these negative aspects and to sufficiently describe ART and ADT.

ART and ADT is an important component of a more complicated problem: accurate prediction of product quality, reliability, durability, and maintainability using accelerated tests. This unique approach shows that ART and ADT represent a significant tool for the integration of multiple interactions generated by other test parameters. This methodology uses a system of systems approach and shows how to use ART and ADT for estimating reliability parameters and related maintainability, durability, and quality parameters. One uses it to get an accurate prediction of optimal maintainability, durability, and a desired level of quality during a given time (warranty period, service life). This approach reduces customer complaints, product recalls, life cycle costs, and “time to market,” while facilitating the solution of related problems.

Most publications concentrate on the theoretical aspects of data analysis (including test data), test plans, parameter estimation, and statistics in the area of accelerated testing. The description of the test equipment, test protocol, and its application is seldom available. One can rarely find any information describing the process and equipment required to conduct ART and ADT.

Engineers and managers particularly need to know how to correctly perform ART and ADT. The specific advantage this book provides is an explanation of the technology, technique, and equipment sufficient to enable engineers and managers and other service professionals to successfully conduct practical ART and ADT. The book provides the direction to rapidly find causes (with examples) for the degradation and failures in products and processes and to quickly eliminate or mitigate these causes or their effects. This approach demonstrates how to accelerate the processes to provide an accurate prediction during the development of the product’s quality, reliability, durability, and maintainability for a given warranty period and service life.

Each individual product needs a specific test plan and testing technique, but the concepts for solving these problems are universal. Therefore, this book will be useful for different types of products in various industries and applications that work on land, at sea, in the air, and in space.

ART/ADT need an initial capital investment in equipment and high-level professionals to manage and conduct it. Only a limited number of industrial companies have appropriate guidance for this type of testing. Many CEOs who make decisions about testing investments do not sufficiently understand that an investment in ART/ADT will typically result in a 10-fold increase in profits. It reduces complaints and recalls, increases reliability, durability, and maintainability, and decreases total life cycle costs. Accelerated reliability (durability) testing is more complicated than many other types of accelerated tests currently in use.

It was not until the late 1950s that professionals began to understand that the myriad interactions among different influences on the product/process could result in overlooking a significant degradation failure mechanism. Originally, testing occurred in series by using one input influence at a time, for example, temperature alone. Then adding another, humidity, for example, was tested. When it became clear that temperature and humidity did not account for all of the failures, then another influence, perhaps vibration, was tested. This serial process continued with the addition of other influencing parameters as necessary to explain the unexpected failures. Although the design was improved to ensure the equipment would be reliable in each individual environment, unexpected failures occurred when the equipment was finally tested in a real-world environment. No assessment had been made of the collective interactions of the many input influences. Eventually, engineers realized that the synergistic effects of the interaction of different environmental factors caused the degradation and failures.

A new approach to testing, where the product simultaneously experiences different input influences, is combined environmental reliability testing (CERT) [3]. CERT required new testing facilities and testing equipment. For example, vibration tables and ovens were combined to create what were humorously referred to as “shake ’n bake” chambers [4]. In fact, such a multi-environmental test only partly reflects the field input influences. Mechanical testing, electrical testing, and other types of testing also exist. The basis for ART and ADT is the simultaneous simulation of all field influences, integrated with safety and human factors, on the product or process.

Each laboratory research study applies different field simulations and testings. This book may improve the quality of this work by enabling professionals to execute research on a higher level.

ART is identical in many aspects to ADT. Therefore, many refer to “ART” as “ADT.” Repetition of the term “simultaneous combination” reflects the basic essence of ART and ADT.

The book is for industrial engineers, test engineers, reliability engineers, and managers. It is also for personnel in the service area, maintenance area, engineering researchers, teachers, and students who are involved in quality, reliability, durability, maintainability, simulation, and testing. The author wishes to express his thanks to Y.M. Abdulgalimov, J.M. Shehtman, E.L. Klyatis, V.A. Ivnitsky, and posthumously to D. Lander for help provided in various stages of this project.

Lev M. Klyatis

About the Author

Dr. Lev Klyatis is Senior Consultant at SoHaR, Inc. and a member of the Board of Directors for the International Association of Arts and Sciences in New York. His scientific/technical expertise is in reliability, durability, and maintainability. He created new approaches for accelerated solution of reliability/durability/maintainability problems, through innovation in the areas of accurate physical simulation of field conditions, accelerated reliability/durability testing, and accurate prediction of quality/reliability/durability/maintainability. He developed a methodology of complaints and recalls reducing. He holds three doctoral degrees: a Ph.D. in Engineering Technology, a high-level East European doctoral degree (Sc.D.) in Engineering Technology, and a high-level West European doctoral degree in Engineering (Habilitated Dr.-Ing.).

He was named a full life professor by the USSR’s Highest Examination Board in 1991 and a full professor at Moscow University of Agricultural Engineers in 1990–1992. He came to the United States in 1993. He is the author of over 250 publications, including eight books. His most recent work is Accelerated Quality and Reliability Solutions (2006). He holds more than 30 patents in different countries. He is a seminar instructor for the ASQ seminar Accelerated Testing of Products. He is a frequent speaker on accurate simulation of field conditions, accelerated testing, and accurate prediction of quality, reliability, durability, and maintainability at national conferences in the United States as well as international conferences, congresses, and symposiums.

Dr. Klyatis has worked in the automotive, farm machinery, and aerospace industries, among others. He was a consultant for Ford, DaimlerChrysler, Thermo King, Black & Dekker, NASA Research Centers, and Karl Schenck (Germany), as well as other industries.

Dr. Klyatis served on the U.S.–USSR Trade and Economic Council, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, and the International Electrotechnical Commission as an expert of the United States and an expert of the ISO/IEC Joint Study Group in Safety Aspects of Risk Assessment. He was the research leader and chairman of the state enterprise TESTMASH, and the principal engineer of a governmental test center. He is presently a consultant of ACDI VOCA, a U.S. agency, and a member of the World Quality Council, the Elmer A. Sperry Board of Award, the SAE G-11 Executive and Reliability Committees, the Quality and Robust Design Committee of SAE, and the Governing Board of the SAE International Metropolitan Section.

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 THE PURPOSE OF ACCELERATED TESTING (AT)

In an AT, one accelerates the deterioration of the test subject beyond what is expected in an actual normal service environment. AT began many years ago with the development of the necessary methodology and equipment. Development continues into the future. As the knowledge about life and the laws of nature evolves, the requirements for products and technologies have also increased in complexity. Thus, the requirements for AT have and continue to increase in scope. Often, AT methods and equipment that were satisfactory in the past are no longer satisfactory today. Those that are good today will not satisfy the requirements of producers and users in the future. This encourages research and development for AT. This process, reflected in the literature, encourages and directs the research and advancement of test disciplines.

Unfortunately, in real life, people who perform AT for industry and other organizations usually do not have the time, incentive, or the opportunity to write books. Authors of AT books unfortunately often know their subject primarily in theory rather than from an actual application of AT. The situation is not better if an author includes such terms as “practical,” “practice,” or “practitioner’s guide” in the title of the publication. As a result, most books on AT do not demonstrate how to conduct testing or identify what type of testing facility and equipment is appropriate, and they also neglect to identify the benefits of one method over another. Publications usually fail to show the long-term advantages and savings accruing from an investment in more expensive and advanced testing equipment to increase product quality, reliability, durability, and maintainability while reducing the development time and decreasing a product’s time to market. How can one accomplish this? One must provide a combination of practical and theoretical aspects for guidance and use.

The basic purpose of AT is to obtain initial information for issues of quality, reliability, maintainability, supportability, and availability. It is not the final goal. It is accomplished through prediction using the information provided by AT under laboratory (artificial) conditions. The most effective AT of a product design needs to occur under natural (field) conditions. AT design and the selection of appropriate testing parameters, equipment, and facilities for each method or type of equipment to be tested must be coordinated to provide the test inputs and results that are most beneficial for the quality, reliability, or maintainability problems that the test identifies. An AT design is very important in determining how accurate the decision process is in selecting the method and type of equipment to use.

Quality, reliability, durability, and maintainability are factors that are not separable. They are interconnected, have complex interactions, and mutually influence each other. This complex represents the parameters and processes needed to conduct AT and includes simulation, testing, quality, reliability development, maintainability, accurate prediction, life cycle costs, field reliability, quality in use, and other project-relevant parameters and processes. AT is a component of a complex supporting the design, manufacturing, and usage processes, and its benefits depend on how one configures the complex for optimization.

If industrial companies would properly apply this optimization process, then they would choose more carefully among the many popular current test methods and types of equipment such as highly accelerated life testing (HALT), highly accelerated stress screening (HASS), accelerated aging (AA), and others to use them for the accurate prediction of reliability, durability, maintainability, supportability, and availability. It is verifiable that buying simple and inexpensive methods and equipment for testing becomes more expensive over a product’s life. It is also true for a simulation as a component of an AT, evaluation, and prediction. A basic premise of this book is that the whole complex needs to be well-thought-out and approached with a globally integrated optimization process.

1.2 THE CURRENT SITUATION IN AT

The following presents three basic approaches for the practical use of AT as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1. The basic directions of accelerated testing.

1.2.1 The First Approach

The first approach is special field testing with more intensive usage than under a normal use. For example, a car is usually in use for no more than 5–6 h/day. If one uses this car 18–20 or more hours per day, this represents true AT and provides enhanced durability research of this car’s parameters of interest. This is a shorter nonoperating interval than normal (4–6 hours instead of the normal 18–20 hours). The results of this type of test are more accelerated than they would be under normal field conditions.

This type of AT is popular with such world-class known companies as Toyota and Honda; they call it “accelerated reliability testing” (ART). For example, in the report of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), INL/EXT 06-01262 [5], it was stated that

A total of four Honda Civic hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have entered fleet and accelerated reliability testing since May 2002 in two fleets in Arizona. Two of the vehicles were driven 25,000 miles each (fleet testing), and the other two were driven approximately 160,000 miles each (accelerated reliability testing). One HEV reached 161,000 miles in February 2005, and the other 164,000 miles in April 2005. These two vehicles will have their fuel efficiencies retested on dynamometers (with and without air conditioning), and their batteries will be capacity tested. Fact sheets and maintenance logs for these vehicles give detailed information, such as miles driven, fuel economy, operations and maintenance requirements, operating costs, life-cycle costs, and any unique driving issues

Another example is cited by Frankfort et al. [6] in the Final Report of the Field Operations Program Toyota RAV4 (NiMH) Accelerated Reliability Testing. This field testing took place from June 1998 to June 30, 1999 corresponding to the Field Operation Program established by the U.S. DOE to implement electric vehicle activities dictated by the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976. The program’s goals included evaluating electric vehicles in real-world applications and environments, advancing electric vehicle technologies, developing the infrastructure elements necessary to support significant electric vehicle use, and increasing the awareness and acceptance of electric vehicles. The program procedures included specific requirements for the operation, maintenance, and ownership of electric vehicles in addition to a guide to conduct an accelerated reliability test. Personnel of the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) managed the Field Operation Program. The following appeared in the final report:

One of the field evaluation tasks of the Program is the accelerated reliability testing of commercially available electric vehicles. These vehicles are operated with the goal of driving each test vehicle 25,000 miles within 1 year. Since the normal fleet vehicle is only driven approximately 6,000 miles per year, accelerated reliability testing allows an accelerated life-cycle analysis of vehicles. Driving is done on public roads in a random manner that simulates normal operation.

This report summarizes the ART of three nickel metal hydride (NiMH) equipped Toyota RAV4 electric vehicles by the Field Operation Program and its testing partner, Southern California Edison (SCE). The three vehicles were assigned to SCE’s Electric Vehicle Technical Center located in Pomona, California. The report adds “… To accumulate 25,000 miles within 1 year of testing, SCE assigned the vehicle to employees with long commutes that lived within the vehicles’ maximum range. Occasionally, the normal drivers did not use their vehicles because of vacation or business travel. In that case, SCE attempted to find other personnel to continue the test.”

A profile of the vehicle’s users from Frankfort et al. is presented in Table 1.1.This is a useful work in many areas, but practice shows that this type of field testing is not applicable for an accurate reliability, durability, and maintainability prediction, by this book’s definition and methodology, for several reasons:

1. Many years of field testing for several specimens are necessary to gather initial information for an accurate quality, reliability, and maintainability prediction during a given period. This book proposes a methodology and equipment that can accomplish this at a much faster pace and at a lower cost.

2. An industrial company usually changes the design and manufacturing process of its product every few years, not always on a regular basis. In this situation, test results of a previous model’s testing have only relative usefulness, but they are not directly applicable.

3. Field testing can only provide incomplete initial information for solving problems related to an integrated system of quality, reliability, and maintainability as will be shown in this book.

4. A combination of laboratory and field testing is more useful for finding a solution to these and many other problems.

TABLE 1.1 Profile of Vehicle Users [2]

These problems show that after describing its field testing, and the tests of the above-mentioned models, Toyota still had many problems in reliability and safety that led to recalls, complaints, degradation, and failures. Consider one more example from Toyota’s practice. The report Hybrid Electric Vehicle End-of-Life Testing on Honda Insight [7] stated that “Two model year 2004 Toyota Prius hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) entered ART in one fleet in Arizona during November 2003. Each vehicle will be driven 160,000 miles. After reaching 160,000 miles each, the two Prius HEVs will have their fuel efficiencies retested on dynamometers (with and without air conditioning), and their batteries will be capacity tested. All sheets and maintenance logs for these vehicles give detailed information such as miles driven, fuel economy, operations and maintenance requirements, operating costs, life-cycle costs, and any unique driving issues …”

In fact, this was an accelerated field test performed by professional drivers for short periods of time (maximum of 2–3 years). This testing cannot provide the necessary information for an accurate prediction of reliability, life cycle costs, and maintenance requirements during a real service life since it does not take into account the following interactions during the service life of the car:

The corrosion process and other output parameters, as well as input influences that act during a vehicle’s service lifeThe effects of the operators’ (customers’) influences on the vehicle’s reliability because it was used by professional drivers during the above testingThe effects of other real-life problems

Mercedes-Benz calls similar testing “durability testing.” For example, the test program for the new Mercedes-Benz C-Class stated in Reference 8 “… For the real-life test that involved 280 vehicles they were exposed to a wide range of climatic and topographical conditions. Particularly significant testing was carried out in Finland, Germany, Dubai, and Namibia. The program included tough ‘Heide’ endurance testing for newly developed cars, equivalent to 300,000 km (186,000 mi) of everyday driving by a typical Mercedes customer. Every kilometer of this endurance test is around 150 times more intensive than normal driving on the road, according to Mercedes. Data gathered are used to control test rigs for chassis durability testing …”

A similar situation existed with a Ford Otosan durability testing in 2007. It was stated in the article “LMS Supports Ford Otosan in Developing Accelerated Durability Testing” [9] that “Ford Otosan and LMS engineers developed a compressed durability testing cycle for Ford Otosan’s new Cargo truck. LMS engineers performed dedicated data collection, applied extensive load data processing techniques, and developed a 6-to-8-week test track sequence and 4-week accelerated rig test scenario that matched the fatigue damage generated by 1.2 million km of road driving.”

Companies specializing in testing areas often find similar situations. For example, in the note about MIRA’s (MIRA Ltd.) durability testing [10], it was stated in the Proving Ground Durability Circuits & Features that MIRA’s proving ground is used extensively for accelerated durability testing (ADT) on the whole vehicle in addition to these traditional durability surfaces:

Belgian paveCorrugationsResonance roadStone road

Many other proving ground surfaces and features serve to build up a track base equivalent to real-world road conditions.

Referring to different sources about proving ground testing published 30–40 years ago, in The Nevada Automotive Test Center (NATS) [11], in Kyle and Harrison [12], and in others, one will see that similar proving ground stress testing was used for obtaining initial information for machinery strength and fatigue. Professionals understand that this type of testing cannot offer the information for an accurate prediction of a test subject’s durability and reliability because it does not take into account the

Environmental factors (temperature, humidity, pollution, and sun exposure) and their effect on a product’s durability and reliability during its warranty period or service lifeRandom character of real input influences that affect a product’s performance in the fieldThe type of data simulation required for system control is not capable of being simulated during a proving ground testMany other real-life tests cannot be simulated on the proving ground

Many authors often ignore the above-mentioned points, especially in publications of companies that design, produce, and use the equipment or methodology for AT. Therefore, this flawed reasoning occurs in many publications that relate to reliability or durability testing.

1.2.2 The Second Approach

The second approach is to use accelerated stress testing (AST). For example, if one conducts research upon or tests the actual car using a simulation of the field input influences with special equipment (vibration test equipment, test chambers, and proving grounds), then the level of the car (or other product) loading is higher than it is in normal usage. In this case, there is a physical simulation of the field inputs on the actual test subject. In most instances, there is a separate simulation of each of the field input influences such as temperature, humidity, sun exposure, pollution, or several of the many field inputs. Therefore, this type of testing does not offer the possibility of obtaining an accurate quality and reliability prediction and of conducting accelerated development.

The level of inaccuracy of this prediction depends upon the level of inaccuracy of the simulation of field input influences, safety problems, and human factors. More details for this situation are provided later in this book.

1.2.3 The Third Approach

This approach relies on using a computer (software) simulation or analytical/statistical methods. A computer simulation is a “computer program that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system” (Wikipedia).

Computer simulations have become a useful part of the mathematical modeling of many natural systems in physics, chemistry, and engineering. They help to gain insight into the operation of those systems. Wikipedia classifies computer models according to several criteria:

Stochastic or deterministic (and as a special case of deterministic, chaotic)Steady-state dynamicContinuous or discrete (and as an important special case of discrete, discrete events, or discrete event models)Local or distributed

Simulation results are different from actual results.

A simulated test subject is different from the actual test subject, and simulated field input influences are different from the actual field input influences. The results of a reliability and quality prediction and evaluation using computer (software) simulation show a greater difference from the appropriate field results than results from using methods 1 and 2 mentioned earlier. This is attributable to a greater difference from a real field environment. Two examples show the economics of software simulation: “Standish Group, a technology consultancy, estimated, that 30% of all software projects are cancelled, nearly half come in over budget, 60% are considered failures by the organizations that initiated them, and nine out of ten come in late. A 2002 study by the American’s National Institute of Standards (NIST), a government research body, found that software errors cost the American economy $59.5 billion annually” [13]. Currently, this approach is in the early stages of development and is more popular with professionals in the software development field.

It is often popular with customers because it is less expensive and less complicated than methods 1 and 2. The following tests are included in computer simulation methods: fixed duration, sequential, test to failure, success test, reliability demonstration, reliability growth/improvement, or others. This book does not address these types of testing. They include qualitative accelerated tests, quantitative accelerated tests, or quantitative time and event compressed testing.

1.2.4 The Second Approach: A More Detailed Review

One common example applies to the following discussion. When Boeing wanted to produce a sensor system for satellites with minimum expenditures, the company specialists decided not to conduct the subsystem testing until they mounted the subsystems with more complicated components to provide testing for the entire block. This approach required more funding than planned. The subsystems that had not been tested had failures that led to the failures of completed blocks, which then had to be dismantled and reassembled [14]. This approach complicates the problem of finding the root cause of failures. Therefore, costs were higher and more time was required to complete testing and reassembly.

There are several approaches to AT, and it is important to differentiate among them because each approach needs its specific techniques and equipment. The effectiveness of these approaches sometimes depends upon the complexity of the product. It sometimes depends on the complexity of the operating conditions for the product, including the need for one or several climatic zones of usage and indoor/outdoor usage. For example, electrode testing requires simpler techniques and equipment than engine testing. Devices or vehicles having indoor applications do not need solar radiation testing. The testing approach for devices that operate for a short period of time needs to be different from the testing approach for devices that operate for a long period of time for greater testing effectiveness. In general, there are three basic methodological concepts to the second approach of AT. Let us briefly describe them:

1. Accelerate the test by reducing the time between work cycles. Many products experience brief usage during a year. Therefore, one can test them by ignoring the time between work cycles and the time with minimal loading that has no influence on the product degradation or failure process. For example, most farm machinery, such as harvesters and fertilizer applicators, have seasonable work schedule. Harvesters work only several weeks during a year. If this work occurs 24 hours a day with an average field loading, one accumulates the equivalent of 8–10 years of field operation in several months. The same principle relates to aircraft testing. However, this approach ignores the degradation process during storage time (corrosion and other environmental influences, as well as its contact with mechanical and other factors). Therefore, for reliability/durability testing, one has to take into account stress from the above-mentioned factors.

2. Accelerate the test using stresses. Most industrial companies use this approach to testing (Fig. 1.2).

3. Acceleration through high-level stresses. This method involves increasing the intensity of stress factors. Stress factors accelerate a product’s degradation process in comparison with its normal usage. There are many types of higher-level stresses that occur under normal usage: higher loading (tension), higher frequencies and amplitudes of vibration, and a higher rate of change in input influences (temperature, humidity, higher concentration of chemical pollutions and gases, higher air pressure, higher voltage, higher fog, and dew). This approach is often used and is beneficial if the stress does not exceed the given limit. This approach is relatively simple and effective for raw materials and simple components. But often, it applies stresses that are higher than the field stresses and for complicated components or for the entire equipment. The above-mentioned testing approach relates to most types of current AT, including HALT [15], AA [16], and [17], and HASS [18]. Often, these tests are incorrectly called “ADT” or durability testing.

Figure 1.2. Example of separate types of simulation and accelerated stress testing during design and manufacturing.

HALT is a process that uses a high-stress approach in order to discover design limitations of products. HALT usually includes two parameters: vibration and temperature [19]. The following example demonstrates HALT and HASS testing.

System Performance

HALT/HASS temperature range: −100 to 200°CHALT/HASS temperature change rate: 60° per minuteHALT/HASS temperature stability: ±1°C after stabilizationHALT/HASS vibration type: repetitive shock and triaxial noncoherent testing: The product experiences 6 degrees of freedom during broadband random vibrationHALT/HASS working area ranges: 30–48” × 40–48” × 36–48” highHALT/HASS maximum vibration power: 60 gHALT/HASS frequency ranges: 5–5000 Hz and 5–20,000 Hz

HASS: Apply high stress levels to reduce the reliability stress screening (RSS) time as much as possible. However, do not exceed the specifications of the operational limits of components unless it is a management decision. RSS is a reliability screening process using environmental and/or operational stresses as means of detecting flaws by inducing them as detectable failures.

Combined stresses, combined temperature change, and vibration or bumps are especially efficient for stimulating flaws as failures. Before starting the RSS with its high stress levels, the operational limits for the assemblies must be determined. Furthermore, by repeating the RSS cycle a large number of times, it must be proven that the planned RSS cycles reduce the lifetime of the assemblies to an insignificant degree, even during repeated RSS due to the repairs of induced failures.

Perform the screening process under consideration at the subsystem level of the manufacturing system. The planning includes a number of steps:

Step 1. Specify the maximum allowable fraction of weak assemblies. Perform this step by examining the requirements for the end product including the printed board assembly (PBA) as a subsystem. In this case, no other parts of the end product contribute to early failures. Therefore, the acceptable fraction of weak assemblies that remained after reliability screening is the same for the end product and the PBA.

Step 2. Evaluate the actual fraction of weak assemblies. Calculations in Steps 1 and 2 are required. In this case, there are two rogue component classes: integrated circuits (ICs) and power transistors. It is necessary to reduce the fraction of early failures by an order of magnitude before including the PBA in the end product.

Step 3. Consider the stress conditions. First, identify the flaws that one expects to induce during the assembly process.

For ICs, the following may appear:

Partial damage of the internal dielectric barriers due to electrostatic discharge (ESD) in the production handlingFormation of cracks in the plastic encapsulation due to a difficult manual production process

Transistors may appear to have the formation of cracks in the plastic encapsulation due to a difficult manual production process.

Users of the above-mentioned approaches, especially AA, claim that after several days of testing, they can obtain results equivalent to several years of field results. They call these approaches reliability and durability testing. To achieve an accurate field simulation, one has to carefully use and truly understand a high level of acceleration.

Practically, if one wants to obtain accurate initial information for an accurate prediction of product reliability or durability, then one has to take into account that the most current test equipment may only be able to simulate one or a few of the field inputs. But many actual environmental influences such as temperature, humidity, chemical and dust pollution, and sun radiation act simultaneously with many mechanical, electrical, and other influences. Most of the current test equipment simulate these actions (or only a part of the real input complex) separately. Therefore, users tend to implement these parts of the environmental influences separately. As a result, this equipment is not appropriate for accelerated durability, reliability, or environmental testing.

This circumstance applies to the methodology and equipment that simulates not only one type of input influence (e.g., temperature) but also two (temperature and vibration), and three types (temperature, vibration, and humidity) of input influences. The same is true for mechanical and other types of testing. The companies that design and manufacture equipment for AT and especially the users of this equipment should ask themselves, “What can we evaluate or predict after testing? How extensively can we simulate the field environment?” If one wants to cause the product to fail more quickly than in the field, then it is necessary to ask a second question: “How is the product degradation process in the field similar to the degradation process during AT?”

Those who have a high level of professional experience in practical AT for product development and reliability/durability prediction will agree that one cannot accurately predict product durability and reliability if only a part of the field environment is simulated. To solve this problem, some who work in the area of accelerated product development use HALT, AA, and other types of AST with a high level of stress to quickly obtain test results. So, in a few days, one can obtain test results that compare adequately to a few years of use in the field. For example, “When a 10-year life test can be reduced to 4 days, you have time to improve reliability while lowering cost” [16]. This method is simple because the intense stress applied for a short time period is sufficient to determine the results quickly. Also, the equipment is less expensive.

However, what is the quality of these results? The quality of these results is poor. The basic reason for poor results is that by using this approach, one cannot obtain the physics-of-degradation (or the chemistry degradation) mechanism that would be similar to the one obtained in the field physics-of-degradation (or the chemistry degradation) mechanism. Therefore, this approach cannot provide a sufficient correlation between ART/ADT results and field results. If one takes measurements of the time of failure during an AT, it is still impossible to know how accurately these measurements represent the time of failure taken in the field. Moreover, testing may destroy the product during ART/ADT or may show failures in the laboratory that do not occur in the field, because the level of temperature and vibration is higher than in real life.

Today the automotive, aerospace, aircraft, electronic, farm machinery, and many other industries often utilize this approach with minimal success. The accelerated test results (reliability and maintainability) are different from the field results. Consequently, product development, reducing complaints, and recall facilitation need more time, incurring an associated delay in product availability, a decrease in sales numbers, higher production costs, and a decrease in customer satisfaction. Most highly educated professionals in these areas monitor the stress level very carefully and use the physics-of-degradation mechanism as a criterion of simulation. To conduct AT for a unit of electronic equipment, they often combine a minimum of three parameters in the test chambers simultaneously with a minimum level of stress. These parameters include temperature (humidity), multiaxis vibration, and input voltage.

More negative aspects of this approach follow. Those who have practical experience in AT know that one cannot estimate the acceleration coefficient of the whole product (car or computer) or the unit during a test of the whole product or its units (which consist of different assemblies, and each assembly has a different acceleration coefficient). Therefore, if we know the time to failure for different components of the whole product during an AST, we still cannot accurately estimate the time to failure and other reliability parameters of the whole product or unit during real life. This is true because the ratio of the acceleration coefficients (the ratio between the AT time and the field time) for the failures of the test subject elements varies too widely.

This relates to the situation shown in this book when different subunits interact with each other and cause possible failures to disappear. However, additional new subunit failures also appear. Thus, we have nonlinear combinations. For example, for different parts of caterpillar units, the ratio of failure acceleration varied from 17 to 94 [20]. In this case, it is impossible to find the reliability parameters for the whole caterpillar device. One of the research conclusions was that “This confirms the practical impossibility of selecting the regime of AST that will give the ratio of loading of all parts and units of the complete device that will correspond to field” [20].

J.T. Kyle and H.P. Harrison [12] wrote more than 40 years ago that “… Absence of tensions with small field amplitude by AT gives an error in the estimation of the ratio of the number of work hours in the field and on AST conditions, for evaluation of details under high tension and fluctuation of load.” Therefore, this approach to AT is one of the basic reasons why one cannot obtain a sufficient correlation between the AT results and the field results.

Test equipment (chambers) for the automotive industry usually includes a volume from 0.5 to 500 or more cubic meters. Accelerated environmental testing (AET) results of electronics, automobiles, aerospace, aircraft, and other types of products all experience similar negative results.

Specific areas of industry have specific types of AT. For example, AT of farm machinery can be

In the fieldOn special experimental proving groundsOn special test equipment in the laboratoryAny combination of the above tests

It can be a complex testing of entire machines or testing of components or combinations of components.

Usually, complex testing of an entire machine occurs in the field and at proving grounds. Components and their combinations are tested at proving grounds and on laboratory equipment. At proving grounds, it moves the whole machine but usually tests only the components of the machine, mostly the body. In the field, one can also test new or modern components that are components of entire machines. Methodological aspects of current AT in the laboratory vary depending on the specifics of test subjects and operating conditions. In general, laboratory AT uses various methods of loading such as

Periodic and constant amplitude loadingBlock-program stepwise loadingMaximum stress loadingMaximum simulation of basic field loads in simultaneous combinations

It is important to consider a load process while analyzing field environments and testing performances, especially when stress testing (AST) is used. One has to identify and evaluate different levels of real-life input influences (loads) and how to account for them when performing an accelerated test. In this case, we classify accelerated tests as constant stress, step stress, cycling stress, or random stress. The highest level is random stress, because it is closer to the real world. In the real world, all loads for mobile equipment, as well as many loads for stationary equipment, have a random character. A field simulation using other types of stress is not accurate, but it has a lower cost. Often people prefer lower cost simulations and tests, but they ignore the consequent increase in costs for the subsequent work during design and manufacturing. If they would take this into account, they would understand that a less expensive test in actuality becomes more expensive and produces more problems and delays during design and manufacturing phases. During testing, one cannot find the real-world degradation and failures and accurately predict field reliability, durability, recalls, time to market, and the cost of maintenance. The least expensive test is the one that uses constant stress, and the constant stress test causes more problems for the subsequent processes.

There are two possible stress loading scenarios: loads in which the stress is time independent and loads in which the stress is time dependent. For a mathematical analysis, models and assumptions vary depending on the relationship between stress and time. Similar to the discussion in the previous paragraph, time-independent stress and loading is the cheapest and simplest to conduct but becomes more expensive and needs more time for subsequent design, research, and manufacturing processes.

In Figure 1.3, one can see the basic reasons that AST often cannot help to accurately predict reliability and durability.

Figure 1.3. Reasons one-dimensional accelerated stress testing makes often incorrect predictions.

AST requires the extensive use of universal and specific test equipment and proving grounds for automobiles, tractors, tanks, farm machinery, and off-highway machinery on concrete and other surfaces. Usually, a number of tracks/surfaces exist in one particular section of the proving ground that is equipped with a drainage system. The procedure for testing under these conditions follows from the principle of a substantial increase in the frequency of application of the maximum working loads. For an accelerated environmental stress test, the increase in temperature, humidity, and/or air pressure makes sense.

The AT of vehicles, tractors, tanks, farm machinery, off-highway vehicles, and other mobile products occurs on specially equipped proving grounds designated for

Wheeled machine frames by running them under various conditions along a racetrack set with obstaclesInvestigation of the coupling properties of wheeled machines, tool carriers, and wheeled tractors on a concrete trackTesting of tanks, tractors, agricultural machines, and other mobile vehicles in abrasive media (in bath)

To improve working conditions, in addition to more rationally using the testing time and creating a higher level of testing conditions, one can use an automatic system of control. Usually, this control system includes the following basic components:

A system to automatically drive a machine along the proving ground track and operate its attachmentsA remote control system for the unit’s operating scheduleA system for the prevention of damage

AST is also applicable to laboratory equipment (universal and specific) found in proving ground test centers. These are different types of vibration equipment, dynamometers, and test chambers. When this equipment is used for an accelerated test for engines of mobile products, the permissible limits of wear on components such as cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, and crank assembles can be determined quickly. Artificially increasing the dust content of the intake air and introducing solid particles into the crankcase oils accelerates engine component wear. These current methods and equipment for AT simulate primarily separate components or subcomponents of field input influences for the real field situation. Chapter 5 describes the testing equipment in more detail.

Some authors have believed accelerated durability testing or durability testing are related to this category of AT. In Reference 21, P. Briskman considered a cycling stress test to be a durability test. This fails to take into account the real-life input influences on the test subject. For example, the Bodycote Testing Group [22] considered environmental testing to be durability testing. Another example, taken from the article “Full Vehicle Durability” from the RGA Research Corporation, shows that “… There are six test tracks with over 30 different types of surfaces available for full vehicle durability tests.” But proving ground testing is not accurate durability testing as previously described. In one more example, C.E. Tracy et al. [23] considered ADT of electrochromic windows. They wrote: “… The samples inside the chamber were tested under a matrix of different conditions. These conditions include cycling at different temperatures (65, 85, and 107°C) under irradiance, cycling versus no-cycling under the same irradiance and temperature, testing with different voltage waveforms and duty cycles with the same irradiance and temperature, cycling under various filtered irradiance intensities, and simple thermal exposure with no irradiance or cycling.” The above-mentioned citation equating a proving ground test to a durability test is another example of a misconception of what “durability test” or “reliability test” actually means. As one can see from the above, the cycling test is not an “accelerated durability test” because in a field environment, a change of input and output parameters has a random character, but not in cycling.

The use of reliability and durability testing terms in the scientific literature often misleads practical engineers. The term “reliability testing” (“ART,” durability testing, ADT) is often blocked out by other words or phrases that change its meaning. This happens most of the time in theoretical discussions, and sometimes it occurs in standards. For example, “accelerated reliability demonstration,” “acceleration of quantitative reliability tests,” “acceleration reliability compliance or evaluation tests,” “acceleration reliability growth tests,” and other terms are inappropriate to represent ART.

1.2.5 Durability Testing of Medical Devices

The application of ART/ADT in this book relates not only to mobile equipment but also to stationary equipment. A current situation in AT, especially durability testing, for one group of stationary equipment, medical devices, will be examined. There are many publications [24, 25, 31] that address building state-of-the-art durability and fatigue testing devices for biomaterials, engineered tissues, and medical devices such as stents, grafts, orthopedic joints, and others. Real-time computer control, electrodynamic mover technology, and laser measurement and control options are just some of the features of these test systems. Mechanical testing is a critical step in the development of medical devices. Medical Device Testing (MDT) Services provides a wide variety of mechanical tests from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International, and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) medical testing requirements. Some of these tests are

Stent testingGraft testingIntravascular medical device testingOrthopedic medical device testingDental implant and materials testingBiomaterials evaluation testing

However, medical device durability testing has similar negative features as described earlier for the AT of mobile products. Let us begin with durability testing formulation. For example, as the Orthopedic and Rehabilitation Devices Panel of the Medical Devices Advisory Committee [28] described: “The durability testing of medical devices should involve cyclic loading testing several loading models (e.g., flexion/extension, lateral bending, and axial rotation) and involve a maximum of six samples of the worst-case construct out to ten million cycles. This test can incorporate all testing directions into one test or conduct separate tests for each loading mode. Durability testing establishes loading direction, stability of the device, and the potential to cause wear. Clinical justification for the loads and angles chosen should be provided.”

As we can see, the above-mentioned test requirements have the same negative features as the description of mobile product tests for farm machinery or the automotive industry product tests that were created 50 or more years ago. In industrial areas, professionals came to the conclusion many years ago that this test could not offer satisfactory initial information for an accurate prediction of durability, reliability, and maintainability in a real-world situation. This is true since this type of testing does not take into account real factors such as

The speed of change for the real stress processesA random character of loading in a real situationA simultaneous combination of many factors that influence durability in a real environment

Additionally, this type of testing does not provide an accurate simulation of the whole complex of factors in a real field situation. For example, a heart attack is often the result of a sudden high stress, not step-by-step stresses.

“The 10 million cycles” approach is one used for metals (or other materials). However, it should not be used for devices constructed from these metals because this approach does not take into account local concentrations of tension within these devices.