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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
AN EFFECTIVE STRATEGY FOR SAFE DESIGN IN ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION Practically and efficiently implement the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations in any project In An Effective Strategy for Safe Design, safety and risk professionals David England and Dr Andy Painting provide a comprehensive exploration of the design process, from initial idea to the validation of the product in service, from a product and project safety perspective. In that context, the authors show how the appropriate implementation of the requirements of the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015 can not only improve health and safety on a project but can also improve the project's output as well as offering savings in both capital and operational expenditure. Readers will discover how the seemingly complex matters of regulation and risk management can be practically applied to projects via examples, illustrations, and real-world references. They will find out how safety regulation, standards, and initiatives all converge on the same goal--the safest output from any given project. The book achieves three primary goals: * To improve the understanding and implementation of the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015 * To reduce errors during the design process via the effective implementation of design management strategy * To embed the concept of safety in design Perfect for designers, design managers and supervisors, project managers, surveyors, and insurers, An Effective Strategy for Safe Design is also an invaluable addition to the libraries of principal designers, specifiers, and building control officers.
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An Effective Strategy for Safe Design in Engineering and Construction
David England & Dr Andy Painting
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data
Names: England, David (author), Painting, Andy (author). Title: An effective strategy for safe design in engineering and construction / David England and Andy Painting. Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021041749 (print) | LCCN 2021041750 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119832034 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119832041 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119832058 (epub) | ISBN 9781119832065 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Industrial safety. | Buildings--Safety measures. | Engineering design. Classification: LCC T55 .E445 2022 (print) | LCC T55 (ebook) | DDC 658.3/82--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021041749LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021041750
Original cover photography and design: © David England and Dr Andy Painting
Set in 9.5/12.5 STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright
Figures
Tables
Foreword
Introduction
Aims of the Book
Who the Book is For
How the Book is Structured
Promoting Safe Design
Example Case Studies
Nuclear Power Plant
Office Block
Warship
Home Printer
Motor Car
The Context of Design
Design and the Product Life Cycle
Influences on Design
Preventing Error
Safety as a Design Component
Introduction–Summary
Glossary of Terms
1 Elements of the Design Process
Initiating Need
Business Case
Requirements Capture
The Design Process
Design Feasibility
Design Specification
Full or Technical Design
Production Phase
Validating the Design
Lessons Learned
The Design Process–Summary
2 The Regulatory Environment
The Importance of Regulation in Design
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
Environmental Protection Act 1990
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations (CDM)
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998
CE Marking
Building Information Modelling
Standards
The “Four Cs”
How Construction Regulations Align with the Design Process
Benefits of Implementing CDM
Pre-construction Including Design
Construction Phase
Handover and Use
The Regulatory Environment–Summary
3 Design Process Considerations
Management Structure and Delegations
Client Relationship
Documentation and Management Systems
Communication and Dissemination
Project Management Methodologies
RIBA Plan of Work
PRINCE2
Environmental Impact and the Circular Economy
The Circular Economy
Environmental Impact–A Footnote
Further Considerations
Provision of Materials and Manufacturing Techniques
Ergonomics and the Work Environment
Space
Air Quality
Light–Quality, Quantity, Colour Temperature
Green Spaces
Anthropometry
Spatial Design
Operating and Maintenance Procedures in Service
Training Provision
Obsolescence
Influences Surrounding the Product Life Cycle
Managing/Maintaining the Design Objective
Design Management–Summary
4 The Management of Risk
The Importance of Managing Risk
Risk Management Process
The Risk Register
Influences on Risk Management
Risk Appetite
External Influencing Factors
Control Measures
Risk Identification Tools
Failure Modes Effects (and Criticality) Analysis
Fault Tree Analysis
Event Tree Analysis
Probabilistic Risk Assessment
Bow Tie Method
General Principles of Prevention and the Hierarchy of Control
CDM Deliverables in Support of Risk Management
Pre-construction Information
Construction Phase Plan
Health and Safety File
Competently Dealing with Risk
Risk Management Summary
5 Effective Design Strategy
The Importance of an Effective Design Strategy
Initiating Need
Business Case
“Make/Buy” and “Do Nothing” Approaches
Key Stakeholder Engagement
Responsibilities
Design Risk Management
Requirements Capture
Initiating the Design Process
Management Structure and Delegations
Documentation and Management Systems
Pre-construction Information
Design Feasibility
Environmental and External Influences
Design A
Design B
Design C
Design D
General Principles of Prevention
Design Review–Feasibility
Additional Stakeholder Engagement
Supplier Engagement
User Requirements
Design Specification
Regulatory Environment
Operating and Maintaining
Design Review–Specification
Full/Technical Design
Design Review–Full
Construction Phase Plan
Production
Production Risk Management
Design Review–Validation
Acceptance/Handover
Health and Safety File
In Service
Risk Management in Service
Training Provision
Operation and Maintenance
Repurposing
Disposal
Disposal Risk Assessment
Bibliography
Index
List of Figures
Introduction
I.1 Design Inputs
I.2 Time, Cost, and Quality Balance
I.3 Product Life Cycle and the Design Process
I.4 Product and Design Symbiosis
I.5 External Influences
Chapter 1
1.1 The Design Process
Chapter 2
2.1 Influences on Design and Vice Versa
2.2 Fatal Injury Rate 1981 to 2018–2019 (HSE, 2019)
2.3 Costs Due to Error in Construction (GIRI)
2.4 Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle
2.5 CDM Alignment with Other Regs
2.6 CDM Risk Capture and Management
Chapter 3
3.1 Design Process (Top), CDM 2015 (Middle), and RIBA Plan of Work 2020 (Bottom)
3.2 Design Process (Top), CDM 2015 (Upper Middle), RIBA (Lower Middle), PRINCE2 (Bottom)
3.3 Environmental Inputs and Outputs
3.4 Circular Economy
3.5 Influences
3.6 External Influences
3.7 Managing the Design Objectives
Chapter 4
4.1 General Risk Management Process
4.2 Influences on Risk Management
4.3 Risk Strategies
4.4 External Influences on Design
4.5 Threats and Opportunities
4.6 Example Influencing Factors
4.7 James Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model
4.8 Fault Tree Analysis Diagram
4.9 Event Tree Analysis Diagram
4.10 Bow Tie Diagram
4.11 Bow Tie With FTA and ETA
4.12 General Principles of Prevention
4.13 Control Measure
4.14 Hierarchy of Controls
4.15 Project Risk Management
4.16 Silo Safety
4.17 Integrated Safety
Chapter 5
5.1
The Design Process
5.2 Management of Risk
5.3 Design Scenarios and Risks
List of Tables
Introduction
I.1
Home Printer Influences
I.2
Nuclear Power Station Influences
I.3
Office Block Influences
I.4
Warship Influences
I.5
Car Influences
I.6
Application of Safety Across Various Factors
Chapter 1
2.1
HASAWA Section 6 (1)
2.2
HASAWA Section 6 (2)
2.3
HASAWA Section 6 (3)
2.4
HASAWA Section 6 (6)
2.5
CDM Definition of “Construction Work”
2.6
CDM Definition of a “Structure”
2.7
CDM2015 Schedule 3 Work Involving Particular Risks
2.8
General Principles of Prevention in Regulations
2.9
PUWER 1998 Applicability of Regulations
2.10
Items for Inclusion in the Technical File
2.11
List of European Union Directives Subject to CE Marking
2.12
CDM as a Template for the Design Process
2.13
Alignment of the Four Cs
2.14
Compliance—the Four Cs
2.15
Compliance—the Four Cs
Chapter 3
3.1
Influences on the Project
3.2
RIBA Plan of Work 2020 Stages
3.3
Environmental Life Cycle Phases
3.4
Operation and Maintenance; Case Studies
Chapter 4
4.1
Risk Management Objectives
4.2
Principles of Prevention—Possible Applications
Chapter 5
5.1
Ambitions and Drivers
5.2
Threats and Opportunities
5.3
SoR Depth of Information
5.4
Design Process Reliance
5.5
PCI Considerations
142
5.6
GPoP Applications
5.7
GPoP Control Measures
5.8
Additional Stakeholder Insights
5.9
Operator and Maintainer Influences
5.10
CPP Considerations
5.11
Possible Emerging Risk During Production
5.12
CDM 2015 Appendix 4
5.13
Examples of Possible Emerging Risks
5.14
Training Considerations
Guide
Cover
Series page
Title page
Table of Contents
Copyright
Figures
Tables
Begin Reading
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
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Figures
I.1 Design Inputs
I.2 Time, Cost, and Quality Balance
I.3 Product Life Cycle and the Design Process
I.4 Product and Design Symbiosis
I.5 External Influences
1.1 The Design Process
2.1 Influences on Design and Vice Versa
2.2 Fatal Injury Rate 1981 to 2018–2019 (HSE, 2019)
2.3 Costs Due to Error in Construction (GIRI)
2.4 Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle
2.5 CDM Alignment with Other Regs
2.6 CDM Risk Capture and Management
3.1 Design Process (Top), CDM 2015 (Middle), and RIBA Plan of Work 2020 (Bottom)
3.2 Design Process (Top), CDM 2015 (Upper Middle), RIBA (Lower Middle), PRINCE2 (Bottom)
3.3 Environmental Inputs and Outputs
3.4 Circular Economy
3.5 Influences
3.6 External Influences
3.7 Managing the Design Objectives
4.1 General Risk Management Process
4.2 Influences on Risk Management
4.3 Risk Strategies
4.4 External Influences on Design
4.5 Threats and Opportunities
4.6 Example Influencing Factors
4.7 James Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model
4.8 Fault Tree Analysis Diagram
4.9 Event Tree Analysis Diagram
4.10 Bow Tie Diagram
4.11 Bow Tie With FTA and ETA
4.12 General Principles of Prevention
4.13 Control Measure
4.14 Hierarchy of Controls
4.15 Project Risk Management
4.16 Silo Safety
4.17 Integrated Safety
5.1 The Design Process
5.2 Management of Risk
Tables
I.1 Home Printer Influences
I.2 Nuclear Power Station Influences
I.3 Office Block Influences
I.4 Warship Influences
I.5 Car Influences
I.6 Application of Safety Across Various Factors
2.1 HASAWA Section 6 (1)
2.2 HASAWA Section 6 (2)
2.3 HASAWA Section 6 (3)
2.4 HASAWA Section 6 (6)
2.5 CDM Definition of “Construction Work”
2.6 CDM Definition of a “Structure”
2.7 CDM2015 Schedule 3 Work Involving Particular Risks
2.8 General Principles of Prevention in Regulations
2.9 PUWER 1998 Applicability of Regulations
2.10 Items for Inclusion in the Technical File
2.11 List of European Union Directives Subject to CE Marking
2.12 CDM as a Template for the Design Process
2.13 Alignment of the Four Cs
2.14 Compliance—the Four Cs
2.15 Compliance—the Four Cs
3.1 Influences on the Project
3.2 RIBA Plan of Work 2020 Stages
3.3 Environmental Life Cycle Phases
3.4 Operation and Maintenance; Case Studies
4.1 Risk Management Objectives
4.2 Principles of Prevention—Possible Applications
5.1 Ambitions and Drivers
5.2 Threats and Opportunities
5.3 SoR Depth of Information
5.4 Design Process Reliance
5.5 PCI Considerations
5.6 GPoP Applications
5.7 GPoP Control Measures
5.8 Additional Stakeholder Insights
5.9 Operator and Maintainer Influences
5.10 CPP Considerations
5.11 Possible Emerging Risk During Production
5.12 CDM 2015 Appendix 4
5.13 Examples of Possible Emerging Risks
5.14 Training Considerations
Foreword
As a Chartered Surveyor and Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Building, with some fifty years of wide international construction industry experience, I have seen all too often the importance of “getting it right” during the design stage of any project. Ensuring that a project is delivered safely takes planning and cooperation and extends beyond just ensuring the safety of the workers at the construction stage. We saw the value of safety—and safe delivery—at the London 2012 Olympic Park, as well as my own experiences in delivering such notable designs as the concrete ski hill in Finland for the Winter Olympics; the triple water towers in Kuwait City; 55 Lombard Street and Thames House. In 2018 I was appointed to the executive board of the Institute of Construction Management (ICM) and in 2019 I started to construct a digital gateway for CDM professionals to access the exciting and vitally important new world of building information modelling (BIM).
Despite explicit construction regulations having been with us since 1994, we are still witness to waste and error and, of course, appalling tragedy. This book uniquely provides sound, in-depth but straightforward advice at what can only be regarded as one of the most critical stages in the recent timeline of the industry—marking a paradigm shift into new ways of working, thinking, and procuring construction in a fast-evolving, digitally connected world. The message for the reader of this book is just how vitally important it is to effectively manage the improvement of our built environment. The shared expertise contained in this book is so phenomenally timely.
The authors are perfectly positioned to lead in the writing of this book at this critical time in the industry—driving safety, quality, and eliminating error to create important safe projects. This book is important to all those who are interested in construction, engineering, and the built environment, and perfectly demonstrates the duty of care we owe to those who will build, operate, maintain, and perhaps live or work in the things we create.
Since 1994, a prime focus for the industry has been creating a culture of integration, of better safety and workplace health. In those early days I was one of the very first tranche of fewer than two hundred construction professionals to envisage where the future of the safety culture needed to be positioned within the sector. Unfortunately, my early clear vision soon became disillusioned and so, for the last twenty-seven years, I have led teams championing change to construction design and management culture, proudly being recognized in 2008 by the Health and Safety Executive with one of only three awards in the UK as “Health & Safety Champion of The Year.” This commitment to safety is something I continue today as head of the ICM Competence Working Group, something that is supported by the ideals and approach contained in the wealth of content in this book. The pragmatic sequencing of safety described in this book I believe profoundly helps to solve how to view the whole landscape and detail of any project, whilst at the same time ensuring the effective management of risk.
I am personally proud and delighted to introduce the unique content in this rather special reference book—enjoy the good read; then read again and reflect.
David F Jones FCIOB FASI MRICS MIConstM
Introduction
Aims of the Book
Design is the cornerstone of creating and producing any structure, product, or item either for bespoke use or mass reproduction. Anything that is created, constructed, or manufactured relies on design whether for aesthetic, functional, or critical purposes. Of paramount importance is the designer’s understanding of the intended use and the application of the product and their subsequent ability to translate this into a finished design. Some examples of products that require specialist design knowledge are:
Architecture—such as habitable or commercial property or structures.
Electronics—such as printed circuit boards or electrically controlled devices.
Marine—such as ships, oil rigs, jetties, and quays.
Mechanical—such as mechanized plant, engines, and wearable or implantable medical devices.
Chemical—such as nuclear, biological, and explosible materials, or structures that contain them.
Emergent technologies—where designers may be dealing with novel production techniques or exotic materials.
Of equal importance to the designer is an understanding of the operating environment in which the product is to be used and how this environment is controlled by such considerations as regulations, standards, or social norms. These considerations may have a direct influence (such as the regulations surrounding health and safety) or indirect influence (such as ethical or moral concerns) on the design process.
Additionally, the actual individuals who will use the product should be considered, as well as any others who may come into contact with it. What is important in any design process is that the criteria of the design requirement are developed within this sphere of considerations and that the product is capable of being subsequently produced accurately to that requirement. This is known as the input-process-output cycle.
This book aims to explain this cycle in detail in order to provide the reader with a broader understanding of the responsibilities of the designer not only to their profession and industry but also of the wider implications of their output by explaining the many considerations that any design should take into account. These considerations are not always apparent and it is the product of not only successful designs, but also successful design management, that ensures that they are appropriately considered in the design process.
Equally, we aim to demonstrate the important connection between good design and safe design and how this can be achieved as well as show how the various design professions, with their own standards and practices, are often a reflection of each other, and how design can be improved through the application and management of effective safety.
There are many associations, organizations, and standards, active in a wide range of design disciplines, that aim to improve the design process for either the designer or the client. This book intends to demonstrate that the essential tools for improving safety in design for both designer and client are already well established and readily available but, possibly, not well understood. By utilizing these tools any design project can be improved in terms of safety, quality, cost benefit, and project outcome.
Who the Book is For
This book is intended for use by all stakeholders who are involved in the design process, either directly or indirectly, as well as students of any discipline where design is a component part of their syllabus. It is also intended for those who have a responsibility for specifying during the design process and, of course, for those who have an interest in understanding more about the process and the best practice that can be achieved in this demanding and rewarding profession. This book is therefore aimed at:
designers;
clients;
design managers and supervisors;
those with oversight for design—such as project managers, surveyors, and insurers;
principal designers (duty holders under the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015);
specifiers—such as Building Control representatives;
procurers—such as marketing, sales, or financial departments;
manufacturers, constructors, and developers;
students of engineering, architecture, software development, and so forth;
suppliers.
How the Book is Structured
Different disciplines—or professions—where design is practised tend to generate their own language for the inputs, processes, and outputs that they perform and it is not the intention of this book to attempt to harmonize these differences. Instead, a glossary is provided in this chapter in order that the reader can disseminate the information contained herein and translate it, as required, into the language or phraseology with which they are familiar in their own profession.
Each of the first five chapters deals with a separate component or consideration of the design process. The last chapter prescribes an effective strategy for managing the logical sequence, from the initiating need prior to design commencing, through to the proposed or anticipated disposal of the product. Whilst it is clear that not all design disciplines require all elements of this book’s design management process, it is the hope that the reader should become familiar with the generality of its intention. The chapters in the book are concerned with:
the design process—the life cycle of the design process, its influences, and the expectations we have of it;
regulations—how they affect design and how they can be used for effective process control;
design management—the tools and techniques used to manage the design process;
risk—identifying, managing, and controlling all aspects of risk in design;
design strategy—applying the techniques of safe and successful design.
The final chapter on effective design strategy uses, as a guiding framework, the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015. This is the third incarnation of the United Kingdom’s statute interpretation of the European Union temporary and mobile construction site directive 92/57/EEC. The reason for this may not seem immediately obvious to the reader, but we shall demonstrate how the extensive reach of this legislation over the variety of disciplines and objectives to which they apply, combined with the spirit of the regulations with respect to good design management, make them an excellent benchmark.
Although these regulations deal predominately with what may be considered to be the “traditional” construction industry (that is to say, buildings and structures), the spirit of the legislation is to improve the safe function of design in any given project. Regulation is just one of several influences on design and, therefore, to utilize that regulation to the benefit of the design process—rather than consider it burdensome to it—can only provide positive results: by improving management of the design process; ensuring legal compliance; and providing a considered, proper, and safe design output (see Figure I.1).
Figure I.1 Design Inputs.
Construction regulations as a separate piece of legislation were originally introduced in 1994 in response to the high level of injuries and fatalities in the industry historically and they remain one of the many pieces of legislation concerned with workplace health and safety. The third version of the regulations in 2015 encompassed a number of changes which we believe are of fundamental importance not only to the functional requirements of health and safety, but also to the wider moral and financial implications of good design. Moreover, the commercial release of designed products into the UK marketplace is governed by various safety regulations and it is an ambition of this book to encourage the reader to plan their particular project with this knowledge in mind.
Whilst not every design process will require every element described in this book, the reader is encouraged to identify which elements are salient to their particular project or discipline. The establishment of a well-defined and structured environment in which to conduct any design project is a feature of regulations, standards, and practices, which we shall examine in more detail throughout this book. The advantages of creating such an environment, whatever the size or complexity of the project, include:
better translation of the client’s originating requirements for the finished product;
clear parameters within which the designer can operate;
control over scope creep or design variance, whether or not intentionally;
the capture and control of risks which promotes—
the reduction of errors;
the control of costs.
Promoting Safe Design
The central tenet for this book is to reinforce the concept of safety as a critical part of the design process. Not just from the perspective of preventing harm to people, but also in ensuring the safety of the project: that is, preventing errors and miscommunication that can cause delays, increase costs, and reduce the quality of the finished product.
There are many factors which can influence any design and these will be explored in detail throughout the book. These factors can have greatly varying effects on a particular design of course, depending on what it is for, how and where it is intended to be used, and how it is to be produced and, if necessary, distributed. There are, though, three factors that affect the scope of all design projects and which are key not only to the designer’s appreciation of the fundamentals of the design requirements, but are also an imperative part of the client’s decision-making process.
Time, cost, and quality—often thought of as a triangle—affect the scope of any project through being inextricably linked: affecting one will always have an effect on either of the other two or, will affect, either positively or negatively, the quality of the output (see Figure I.2). In this sense, they can be thought of as a see-saw, where the effect of increasing or decreasing any one element can be imagined. What can also be imagined is the necessary response in order to return to equilibrium. Demanding a better-quality product will either affect the cost of it or the time it takes to produce, for example. Demanding a less expensive product may make it quicker to produce but will invariably reduce the quality. Understanding their interrelation and, most importantly, understanding how the client views this interrelation with regard to their requirements, will help to ensure that the design remains as relevant to the client’s needs as possible.
Figure I.2 Time, Cost, and Quality Balance.
The concept of a safe, effective design strategy overall can help to promote the following factors:
The reduction of harm occurring to users or operators of the product.
Ease of maintenance methodologies through the thoughtful provision and layout of systems and access points.
The reduction of losses occurring during the product’s life cycle.
The prevention of errors in the design, which necessitate redesigns and reworking.
The inclusion of external factors in the product’s requirements resulting in a more mature design output.
The inclusion of expectations from the product’s use, and environment of use, which will provide a better experience for the end user.
A design solution that “learns” from previous examples and builds upon them to advance technologies, techniques, materials, and experiences.
Better experiences for future users from having a well-considered and well-documented disposal process.
Example Case Studies
Throughout the book, we shall be using five hypothetical case studies in order to highlight the differences between the various concepts and processes discussed. These five have been chosen to demonstrate that, whilst there may be disparity between perhaps the levels or intensities required of each process in comparison, they are all intrinsically linked by the core process of design management. Often this is for different reasons and equally for differing outcomes. The impression that should be gained, however, is that proper design management—and the need to work towards the safest possible outcome—is relevant to all projects.
A precis of each study is given below in order to provide background to the reason for choosing them.
Nuclear Power Plant
A nuclear power plant is arguably the zenith of critical design input in terms of operation, maintenance, and disposal. Despite worldwide public concerns, they continue to contribute a large part of non-fossil-fuelled electricity generation in several countries. Everything to do with this type of infrastructure is on a huge scale: preliminary works, design, construction, maintenance, and, of course, disposal, which—in terms of the waste they create—can be counted in thousands of years.
Office Block
Worldwide, the office block has long been a rather dowdy and functionary building. In the late 20th century, however, novel architectural solutions were being developed as a result of new materials being available and the desire of clients to incorporate other spaces into the design; such as accommodation, retail, and leisure. In the aftermath of the global pandemic of 2020, the value of offices as a workspace began to be questioned and once again architects are developing novel ways of enhancing and repurposing these buildings.
Warship
Naval fleets were once populated with many types of specialized vessels: frigates, destroyers, battleships, support ships, and so forth. In recent years the tendency has been towards fewer, large command vessels combined with smaller, lighter vessels which can fulfil a multirole function. Although the operators of warships are highly trained, they often have to work under extreme conditions. Reliability is an absolute requirement. And, as has long been the case, warships often get sold on to other navies after their initial period in service, so the ability to remove sensitive equipment and materials is important.
Home Printer
Printers for domestic use are generally designed on a strict cost/quality basis and with an eye to having relatively short-lived periods in service due to the market forces and upgrades to consumables. Internally they are often composed of proprietary components but externally they must fit the client’s aesthetics and brand image. Made in large numbers, design errors can cause large-scale, even potentially worldwide, recall issues.
Motor Car
Ostensibly, the car has changed very little from that developed by Karl Benz in 1885, which was, in turn, a progression of self-powered vehicles that had been developed for over a hundred years before it. Critically built to a price point, the design must take account of aesthetics, aerodynamics, brand image, safety, security, a raft of legislation in each national marketplace, as well as the knowledge that the vehicle will be operated by persons of widely varying levels of skill. Composed of many third-party components, the failure of any of which can cause long-term reputational damage to the client’s brand, vehicles can have several operators during their life and their final disposal has become a serious concern environmentally.
The Context of Design
Design and the Product Life Cycle
To understand the design process, we should consider the connection between design and the life cycle of the product which is being designed. The main stages of this life cycle are:
design;
production (including manufacture or construction—see Glossary);
in service (including maintenance and repair);
disposal (including demolition, repurposing, or recycling).
At each stage of the cycle, a design process may interact with it in a number of ways (see Figure I.3). At the beginning, there will be an initiating need for the product, whether this is a warship, a housing estate, or a software application. The need for the product originates from an entity which may be an organization, an individual, or even another project, which we call the client. At this early stage, the design process is concerned with identifying the intention of the design and might (and indeed, should) include radical and unorthodox solutions. The feasibility of producing the various conceptual solutions will be tested, a specification for the product decided upon and, ultimately, a final design will be delivered from which the product may be produced.
Figure I.3 Product Life Cycle and the Design Process.
During the next stage, the design process may be involved in solving emergent issues and risks that may be encountered during the production process; or it may be necessary to incorporate advances in production techniques or materials. Pre-production prototypes may be required to test certain production techniques or material combinations and the design may be necessarily shaped further by these outcomes. Sometimes very large or complex products can take so long to reach the final commissioning/validation stage that they can be affected by such advances, or even by economic, political, or social events, or upheaval.
When the product reaches the “in-service” stage, there may be such issues as fettling or snagging that require possibly minor design changes. Or, there may be a requirement for substantial changes over time, if the original intent for which the product was designed changes. All the while, the amended design must interact fully with the existing one in order not to compromise the safe use of the product. It is also possible that for mass-produced products, mid-life amendments are possible due to feedback on the product’s use, or perhaps due to changes in external factors such as regulations or societal demands.
Other questions that we must ask during the design process, connected with the product in general, are:
Is the product feasible?
Is the product required?
Can the product be technically produced and in the required quantity?
Is there a marketplace for the product?
Are there acceptable limitations of use for the product?
Is there the capability and capacity to produce the product?
These are fundamental questions that can be regarded as risks associated with the design of the product. Risk is a complex area of analysis that may not be readily understood nor even identified within the design process and we shall cover this subject in more detail later on. For now, it is merely enough to say that an appropriate understanding of risk at the earliest stages of the design of a product is important in providing a safe design solution, in terms of production, use, and disposal.
Upon reaching the end of its designed life, the product will then undergo disposal. This may mean destroying or demolishing it (such as in an office block); repurposing it (such as with a warship); or recycling it (such as with a motor car). Or it may even have been designed to be sustainably managed in a “circular” manner, so that the product’s end of life forms very much part of its origination—also known as the circular economy. In any of these events, the design process may need to provide solutions for such things as temporary works or methods of removing contaminants. Additionally, in the case of repurposing or recycling, there may be a need to redesign the product for its new role, hence the circular style of the diagram (see Figure I.3). In any case, it is entirely possible that the original design process at the start of the product’s life cycle should have incorporated the intended disposal method within its considerations.
Influences on Design
The design, then, affects a product’s use, maintenance, repair, and so forth, but also the use of a product can affect design, either of the product or subsequent versions of the product that follow. The single simplest mechanical device—the wheel—is an example of this. The advantages of using rollers to move loads led to the development of the axle-mounted wheel, which, in turn, saw them being used in a wide variety of applications where they were often redesigned in order to be more efficient. By adapting a wheel by adding a series of pins perpendicular to the rim allowed the user to turn another adjacent wheel synchronously. This, in turn, led to the design of the cogwheel, which is to be seen in practically every mechanized device on earth.
This symbiosis between design and use means that we cannot isolate one from the other (see Figure I.4). A designer cannot design a product without understanding to what purpose it will be put and, similarly, a user or operator cannot use or operate a product without knowing its design limitations. And as safety is the overriding moral and ethical requirement for the design and use of any product, we cannot perform either function—designing or operating—without recourse to the legal, technical, and moral requirements for safety within the parameters of the product that we are designing.
Figure I.4 Product and Design Symbiosis.
Use, however, is but one part of a product’s life cycle; and safety is but one concern for which the designer must find solutions. We can see there are various external influences and demands, including those of design itself, placed on any product for which a solution must be formed (see Figure I.5).
Figure I.5 External Influences.
Not all products will of course be influenced similarly by all of these factors but they will all, to some extent, impose considerations or limitations on any design solution. They will also affect the design throughout the life cycle of the product in varying ways too. To what extent will depend very much on the client’s originating need, their intention for the product, its operational environment, and the regulatory environment in which it operates.
Let us consider these influences on the product life cycle through these four stages using our five illustrative case studies to which we shall refer to throughout the book (see Table I.1 to Table I.5 inclusively).
Table I.1 Home Printer Influences.
Home Printer
Design
This is a generic product, widely available and relatively straightforward in purpose. It is unlikely to yield many conceptual variations.
Many of the printer’s components are proprietary. Design will probably be more about corporate aesthetics than radical changes to the layout or function.
Production
Proprietary components are unlikely to require further design changes. Novel processes (such as 3D printing) may require design engagement.
In service
Use of the product may be counted in years. Original design errors may cause the recall of many thousands of units globally. Updates to operating software can lead to malfunctions or obsolescence.
Disposal
Likely to be considered household waste. The use of as much recycled and recyclable material as possible will help to mitigate the waste impact.
Table I.2 Nuclear Power Station Influences.
Nuclear power station
Design
Despite nuclear power having been available since the 1950s, the design of reactors remains quite fluid due to safety issues and public concern.
The design of the plant will involve ground studies, environmental issues, reviews of nearby watercourses, seismic studies, wind analysis, and many other surveys prior to even beginning the process of designing a complex structure.
Production
Due to the complexity and length of time to produce the plant, many design issues may arise. There may also be advances in materials and techniques that may need to be incorporated after the final design is established.
In service
Use of the product may be in decades. Original design errors may lead to expensive redesign of complex systems or structures or to inestimable harm and loss.
Disposal
Waste will require specialist handling for many thousands of years. Disposal of the plant itself may take decades depending on the separation of hazardous materials with their surroundings.
Table I.3 Office Block Influences.
Office block
Design
The need to house a quantity of people in one place to perform administrative work has been around for many years. Recently this has been in combination with living, retail, and relaxation space to increase market value.
Changes in life/work balances, and the issues of welfare and viral transmission have created opportunities for re-thinking the office workspace and such issues as access, egress, and air circulation.
Production
Although greatly composed of “standard” construction techniques, the ability to increase or decrease the dimensions of the workspace calls for novel building techniques and materials.
In service
Flexibility is becoming a key element of building use as landlords and owners engage with the risks of future usage of their buildings.
Disposal
Buildings with the greatest flexibility in design will be the easiest to transfer ownership of. The use of pre- and post-stressed elements can pose a specific hazard during demolition. Environmental disposal concerns can influence many material choices their the design.
Table I.4 Warship Influences.
Warship
Design
Modern nations are moving away from large fleets of single purpose ships to more multirole vessels that can fulfil peacetime as well as combat roles.
Modern weaponry may be more compact than previous types but often requires large amounts of energy to power it. Stealth technologies can have an effect on space and provision for innocuous items like anchors and portals.
Production
Sometimes built in multiple locations simultaneously, modern warships may also use advanced materials alongside regular ones.
In service
Designed to operate for several decades in potentially harsh conditions, warships should be capable of being maintained and repaired whilst under way (i.e., whilst at sea). Multirole vessels must be capable of transitioning from one role to another easily and readily.
Disposal
Warships often transfer ownership at the end of their first life cycle. The removal of weapons systems and hazardous or secret materials or items is vital prior to transfer or scrapping.
Table I.5 Car Influences.
Car
Design
Under the body, the modern motor car is little changed from its invention in the late 19th century. Power plants and drivetrains are the most likely sources of conceptual progress, with motor sports providing incremental innovations in materials and techniques.
Heavily influenced by regulations and crash standards, the exterior of cars is also dominated by aerodynamics. Internally, design is influenced by anthropometry and conventions to reduce operator errors.
Production
From vehicles being completely hand-built originally, modern cars are now often laser welded or chemically bonded by robots. The use of any fuel source requires careful location and protection.
In service
Cars may pass through several owners in their lifetime with varying levels of operator skill and possibly little maintenance. Failures of any kind may affect the brand image overall.
Disposal
Environmental concerns now dominate issues such as material reuse. The reuse of old parts may assist older cars to remain on the road but play no part in the brand’s image
Preventing Error
The importance of proper design management cannot be underestimated in ensuring the quality of the final output. The design stage is where all considerations for the output must be made in order to prevent errors later on. These errors can be manifested, for example, as: failures to deliver the output on time or in the format originally required; increases in cost; a product which requires essential modification after delivery or where it is unsafe to use in its final state. Where a designed product requires interaction or operation by persons after its delivery, it is vital that this operability also forms part of the considerations of the designer. This is a philosophy which we call “safe to operate and operated safely.” This means that a product has been specifically designed with the safety of the operator or user in mind and, similarly, that it is used safely for the purpose it was designed for. It is about embedding safety into the very core of all products from the very start.
Safety as a Design Component
Safety is a concept with which we are all familiar. To design a product that is not “safe” is unethical from a professional point of view and immoral from a societal point of view. But safety in this regard is not the only context in which we can put the word “safe.” We have already briefly touched on some of the factors that can influence a product, its use, and its design. If we take the word safe to mean “without harm or loss” then we may apply it to a number of these factors (see Table I.6).
Table I.6 Application of Safety Across Various Factors.
Operation
Application of safety
Exceptions (faults, failures, and breakdowns)
The provision of complete and accurate information regarding the product is supplied to the end user, allowing them to identify exceptional occurrences and respond appropriately, thereby minimizing production losses.
Maintenance
Repairs and maintenance—both scheduled and exceptional—can be conducted without causing injury or ill-health to the maintainer.
Financial
The design accurately reflects the client’s requirements thereby preventing increased costs due to redesign or rework.
Project management
The design project is delivered on time and within budget due to accurate communication and cooperation between all project stakeholders, thereby preventing financial loss.
Amendments
In-service design changes are performed accurately with full consideration of the existing product’s capabilities and limitations thereby preventing unnecessary production losses.
Disposal
Residual risks inherent in the product are accurately recorded for the end user allowing end-of-life disposal of the product without harm to the persons disposing of it.
The invention and introduction of the power loom in England in the late 1700s, and the various improvements made in the early 1800s, saw a meteoric rise in the use of machinery in the textile industry. This of course led to the migration of large swathes of the population from the countryside to the cities and subsequently paved the way for dramatic socio-economic change in Britain throughout the period. The early looms were manually controlled by the weaver who required training and experience in order to operate them properly. The later Lancashire Loom, from around 1840, was semi-automatic and therefore could be operated as part of a number of similar machines by only one person. This person required a smaller skill set than a fully-trained weaver as the machine was conducting many of the complex routines autonomously.
Whilst many of these machines may not have been designed with explicit safety features, it could be said that they were not dangerous to operate per se, given sufficient training. What was dangerous—and the cause of many horrific accidents—was their maintenance. This was often carried out by young children who were able to fit nimbly under the frames of the machines to collect the cotton dust and fluff, which could clog the machine, or cause the risk of fire—and all whilst the machines were running. In addition to the risk of being maimed or killed, there were ill-health effects such as breathing in dust and hearing disorders from working alongside noisy machinery. We can see from this example that even if a design may be considered safe in use (for a given value of safe!), other external influences such as maintenance or repair may lead to harm or loss. The likelihood and the severity of these losses occurring is the risk; but risk—or risky—is not the opposite of safe.
We examine risk and its management in a later chapter; for now, we shall merely look at how to reflect risk in the examples (see Table I.6). For the risk of some harm or loss occurring in one of the situations given, there must be some exclusion or omission to have occurred. For example, under “operation” we have concluded that the “use of the product does not cause injury or affect the health of the user in the normal parameters of operation.” For harm or loss to occur, therefore, we must have excluded or omitted some part of the design process that ensures the safe operation of the product. Or, alternatively, the use of the product falls outside of the normal parameters of operation; that is, someone uses it in a way, or in a place, for which it was not intended. In either case, the likelihood of this happening, and the severity of the outcome should it do so, are entirely dependent on the product, its use, its environment, and the persons operating it.
