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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
The implementation of near-field communication (NFC) technology in smartphones has grown rapidly, especially due to the use of this technology as a payment system. In addition, the ability to use the energy transmitted not only for communication, but also for feeding other devices, which together with the low cost of NFC chips and the internet connectivity of the smartphones, allows the design of battery-less RF tags with sensing capabilities, whose information can be sent to the cloud. This is of great interest in the increasing amount of IoT (Internet of Things) scenarios. This book studies the feasibility of these sensors, analyzing the different parameters that have an influence on performance and in the range of operation. It also presents techniques to increase the range and analyzes the effects of certain materials when they are close to the antenna. The design and analysis of several sensors that can be powered and read by any NFC enabled device are presented in this work.
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Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Introduction
Chapter 1. Wireless Power Transfer Applied to NFC
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Theoretical background
1.3. NFC systems
1.4. NFC constraints
1.5. NFC simulation and measurement
Chapter 2. Case Study 1: Soil Moisture Sensor
2.1. Motivation
2.2. Soil moisture measurement techniques
2.3. System description
2.4. Experimental results
Chapter 3. Case Study 2: Smart Diaper
3.1. Motivation
3.2. Capacitive moisture detection
3.3. Capacitance simulation
3.4. Experimental results
3.5. Comparison with other technologies
Chapter 4. Case Study 3: NFC Sensor for pH Monitoring
4.1. Motivation
4.2. System description
4.3. Signal processing
4.4. Experimental results
4.5. App and cloud storage
Chapter 5. Case Study 4: Fruit Ripeness Sensor
5.1. Motivation
5.2. System overview
5.3. Experimental results
5.4. Mobile app
List of Acronyms
References
Index
List of Illustrations
Introduction
Figure I.1.
Barcode reading.
Figure I.2.
“http://google.com encoded” as (a) a QR code and...
Figure I.3.
RFID system overview
Figure I.4.
Number of NFC-enabled mobile devices worldwide from 2012 to...
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1.
Nikola Tesla in his laboratory in 1899. Image by Dickenson V....
Figure 1.2.
Methods of WPT. (a) Inductive coupling; (b) resonant coupling; a...
Figure 1.3.
Representation of the Biot–Savart law to measure the...
Figure 1.4.
Representation of mutual inductance (
M
) between coils
Figure 1.5.
Circuit model of the reader, including the matching network (top)...
Figure 1.6.
Block diagram of the NFC tag IC
Figure 1.7.
RF limiter model inside the NFC IC
Figure 1.8.
Model of the full-wave rectifier based on the CMOS gate cross-coup...
Figure 1.9.
Shunt regulator circuit model
Figure 1.10.
Load modulator model formed by two NMOS transistors
Figure 1.11.
Simplified circuit model of the tag including the tag antenna, tuni...
Figure 1.12.
Wireless power transfer model between the reader and the tag
Figure 1.13.
(a) Circuit model for a loop antenna and (b) antennas of different siz...
Figure 1.14.
Circuit considered to obtain the
AF
Figure 1.15.
Frequency spectrum of the NFC system with the carrier frequency (
f...
Figure 1.16.
ASK with a 100% modulation envelope amplitude.
T
p
is the
...
Figure 1.17.
Presence of a metal close to the antenna. (a) Normal operation; (b) field a...
Figure 1.18.
Circuit model for an implanted loop antenna
Figure 1.19.
Back of the Xiaomi Mi Note 2 (right) and the NFC antenna (green square).
Figure 1.20.
Setup to measure the magnetic field, block diagram (a) and photograph (b). The...
Figure 1.21.
Magnetic field measurements of a coil antenna as a function of distance using...
Figure 1.22.
Coils that have been designed and tested for characterizing the coupling coef...
Figure 1.23.
Coupling coefficient (
k
) between coil 1 and six different coils.
Figure 1.24.
Measured (◻) and simulated (solid line) inductance (
L
2
)...
Figure 1.25.
Measured S
11
of the antenna for different distances between the tag...
Figure 1.26.
Tag quality factor and bandwidth (BW) as a function of distance to metal depen...
Figure 1.27.
Calculated minimum magnetic field
H
min
(
A
RMS
/m
...
Figure 1.28.
Measured average magnetic field as a function of the tag-to-reader distance for...
Figure 1.29.
Measurement of the energy-harvesting output (V
DD
) (a) and the data of...
Figure 1.30.
Setup for backscattering measurement.
Figure 1.31.
Spectrum of the signal generated by the tag, at a 10 mm separation between the re...
Figure 1.32.
Measured power of the carrier frequency (blue) and the sidebands (red and orange) as...
Figure 1.33.
Same tag with three different chips. M24 (left), ST25 (center) and NT3H (right).
Figure 1.34.
Rectified energy-harvesting output of the chip (
V
DD
, continuous line)...
Figure 1.35.
Discovery signals sent by the reader when no tag is present.
Figure 1.36.
Power harvested for different loads, with different NFC ICs. (a) M24; (b) ST25; and (c) NT3H....
Figure 1.37.
Power at the rectified output for the M24, ST25 and NT3H ICs as a function of the load conne...
Figure 1.38.
Maximum distance at which the NFC ICs can supply a constant current for different loads for the...
Figure 1.39.
(a) Coil antenna with six loops printed on one side and an area of 50×50 mm and (b) coil...
Figure 1.40.
Comparison of (a) power and (b) magnetic field received by a 50×50 mm coil antenna (blue...
Figure 1.41.
Same tag with three different chips. M24 (left), NT3H (center) and ST25 (right) with a 15×15...
Figure 1.42.
Measured voltage (
V
DD
) for three different ICs (NT3H blue, M24 red and ST25...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1.
Representation of a volume separated into constituent parts where 70% of the total volume is the...
Figure 2.2.
System overview
Figure 2.3.
(a) Top view of an interdigital capacitor.
(b) Cross section of an interdigital capacitor
Figure 2.4.
Simulated and modeled capacitance as a function of the relative dielectric permittivity. Insulat...
Figure 2.5.
Cross-section view of the IDC sensor with its superimposed equivalent circuit (a) for low permit...
Figure 2.6.
Circuit to obtain a voltage proportional the interdigital capacitor (IDC) value
Figure 2.7.
Output voltage of the circuit to obtain a voltage proportional the interdigital capacitor (IDC)...
Figure 2.8.
Average error in the measurement of the capacitance from the analysis of sensitivity
Figure 2.9.
Designed PCB prototype with the antenna, the IDC and the chipset
Figure 2.10.
Operation flow diagram of the system, indicating the tag on the left and the reader on the right
Figure 2.11.
Flow diagram of the tag firmware
Figure 2.12.
Image of the developed app graphic interface which uses the tag UID to retrieve the information...
Figure 2.13.
Measured capacitance (blue squares), model [2.12] (blue line) and soil permittivity (orange line)...
Figure 2.14.
Comparison of measured (ϒ) and modeled volumetric water content as a function of the normal...
Figure 2.15.
Measured VWC compared to the irrigated water
Figure 2.16.
Measurement of VWC after irrigation using the proposed NFC sensor and a commercial soil moisture...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1.
Block diagram of the NFC tag for smart diapers
Figure 3.2.
Cross-section of a diaper
Figure 3.3.
(a) Scheme of the circuit used for measuring the capacitance. (b) Waveforms at TX PIN, RX PIN and...
Figure 3.4.
Cross-section used for capacitance simulation showing the electric field distribution inside the...
Figure 3.5.
Simulated capacitance per unit length (a) and normalized increment in capacitance (b) between the...
Figure 3.6.
Simulated capacitance per unit length (a) and normalized increment in capacitance (b) between the...
Figure 3.7.
Simulated capacitance per unit length (a) and normalized increment in capacitance (b) between the...
Figure 3.8.
Simulated capacitance per unit length (a) and normalized increment in capacitance (b) between the...
Figure 3.9.
Measured count with the NFC as a function of discrete SMD capacitors C
Figure 3.10.
Layout of the tag and the screen of the mobile app
Figure 3.11.
Time-dependent sensor response to a 120 cm
3
urine volume injected into the diaper....
Figure 3.12.
NFC reading as a function of the level of saline water for two electrode widths (Electrode 1:...
Figure 3.13.
Comparison of the capacitance between the electrodes and the NFC reading for two electrode w...
Figure 3.14.
Comparison of the models proposed for the normalized volume equation [3.3] as a function of the...
Figure 3.15.
Comparison of the NFC readings in terms of the distance to metal. The dashed lines show the val...
Figure 3.16.
Histogram of variation in NFC reading from the mean for five adult night diapers with a volume...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1.
Block diagram of the proposed NFC-based pH sensor
Figure 4.2.
(a) Working principle of the colorimeter; (b) spectral responsivity of the four channels
Figure 4.3.
Photograph of the prototype: (a) top view; (b) bottom view; and (c) 3D printed enclosure
Figure 4.4.
(a) pH as a function of the color of the paper strip; (b) hue.
Primary colors are at 0º...
Figure 4.5.
(a) RGB color space; (b) HSV color space
Figure 4.6.
Color charts for the three paper strips tested: (a) chart for pH scale 1 to 14; (b) chart for pH...
Figure 4.7.
Hue measurements of several known pH values. (a) Strips pH 1 to 14; (b) strips pH 3 to 6; and (c)...
Figure 4.8.
Comparison of hue angle for 30 iterations of four different cases. (a) Strips from 1 to 14: pH 4;...
Figure 4.9.
Histograms of measured values for four different cases.
(a) Strips from 1 to 14: pH 4; (b)...
Figure 4.10.
Designed Android app: (a) main screen and (b) calibration screen
Figure 4.11.
Reading the color of a strip and calculation of the pH with the Android application
Figure 4.12.
Cloud database showing the pH measurements of a swimming pool taken over several months
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1.
System overview
Figure 5.2.
Tag inside the 3D printed housing
Figure 5.3.
(a) RGB color space; (b) HSV color space; and (c) CIELab color space
Figure 5.4.
Histograms for a golden apple for different days: histogram of the hue (a), saturation (b) and...
Figure 5.5.
Histograms for a banana for different days: histogram of the hue (a), saturation (b) and value (c)...
Figure 5.6.
Histograms for a red apple for different days: histogram of the hue (a), saturation (b) and value...
Figure 5.7.
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of the hue parameter for the golden apple in the refrigerator...
Figure 5.8.
CDF of the hue parameter for the banana in the refrigerator (a) and at room temperature (b) as a fun...
Figure 5.9.
CDF of the hue parameter for the red apple in the refrigerator (a) and at room temperature (b) as a fun...
Figure 5.10.
Decision boundaries and scatter plot (class 1 squares and class 2, crosses) for the golden apple. (a)...
Figure 5.11.
Decision boundaries and scatter plot (class 1 squares and class 2, crosses) for the banana. (a) Naive...
Figure 5.12.
Decision boundaries and scatter plot (class 1 squares and class 2, crosses) for the red apple. (a) Naive...
Figure 5.13.
Flowchart of the mobile application
Figure 5.14.
Phone screen of the developed Android application. (a) Fruit selection;
(b) screen indicating that...
Figure 5.15.
Measurement of a red apple using the designed system and application
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Introducation
Begin Reading
List of Acronyms
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Battery-less NFC Sensors for the Internet of Things
Martí BoadaAntonio LazaroDavid GirbauRamón Villarino
First published 2022 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
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London SW19 4EU
UK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2022
The rights of Martí Boada, Antonio Lazaro, David Girbau and Ramón Villarino to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022939222
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-836-8
