Battle Story: Cambrai 1917 E-Book

Chris McNab

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Seitenzahl: 179

Beschreibung

Cambrai 1917 was the battle that sowed the seeds of future combined-arms tank and infantry warfare, while remaining a battle of singular drama in its own right. If you truly want to understand what happened and why – read Battle Story. Detailed profiles explore the background of the generals of the two opposing forces, as well as what made up the average German and British soldier. First-person, contemporary sources bring the reader into the world of the Battle of Cambrai and show what it was like to be in the thick of battle. Detailed maps highlight key points in the battle and the surrounding area. Photographs place you on the front line of the unfolding action. Orders of battle reveal the composition of the two opposing forces' army in detail. Packed with fact boxes, this short introduction is the perfect way to explore this important battle.

Leseprobe

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Jo de Vries of The History Press for her professional support and friendship throughout this project, and my family for their forbearance during an unusually busy period of work.

CONTENTS

Title

Acknowledgements

List of Illustrations

Introduction

Timeline

Historical Background

    The Offensives of 1915

    Verdun and the Somme

    The Road to Cambrai

The Armies

    The Soldiers

    Weapons

    Kit and Uniform

    Tactics

    Artillery

    Armour

The Days Before Battle

    Operation GY

    Preparations

The Battlefield: What Actually Happened?

    The First Day

    The First Morning

    Taking Stock

    Pushing On

    Bourlon Wood

    One Last Push

    Retaliation

    Exhaustion

After the Battle

    Investigation

    Seeing the Future

The Legacy

Orders of Battle

Further Reading

Copyright

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

    1.  Tank awaiting the order to advance at Cambrai. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

    2.  Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener. The Illustrated War News, 1916.

    3.  Neuve Chapelle and the surrounding advance, captioned in The Illustrated War News as ‘where the British Army has made a notable advance’. The Illustrated War News, 17 March 1915.

    4.  The infamous ‘first day of the Somme’ was announced by the explosion of a mine at Hawthorn Ridge on 1 July 1916 at 0730hrs. This day remains one of the bloodiest in the history of the British Army. Photograph taken by Ernest Brooks. Crown Copyright/Public Domain.

    5.  Sir Douglas Haig.

    6.  ‘ ”Hecatombs” sacrificed to the moloch of Prussian militarism: massed German infantry attacking at Verdun mown down by the French guns.’ This version of the attack at Verdun was drawn by Frédéric de Haenen. The Illustrated War News, 29 March 1916.

    7.  The British line as of April 1916. The Illustrated War News, 5 April 1916.

    8.  ‘By Hindenburg’s orders: “To be held at all costs”: Passchendaele Ridge stormed by the Canadians.’ Drawn by R. Caton Woodville. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

    9.  An illustration from a German newspaper of German soldiers repairing a telephone wire in their communication trench – note the depth of the trench walls. The Illustrated War News, 29 March 1916.

  10.  Von der Marwitz shown here on the right with the Kaiser on his way to inspect troops.

  11.  Sir Julian Byng.

  12.  The original caption for this image commented that ‘the war horse is not yet extinct’. However, the birth of tank warfare did mean its days were numbered. The War Budget, 13 April 1916.

  13.  Soldiers of the Machine Gun Corps. The Library of Congress.

  14.  German infantry line up on the edge of a forest. War of the Nations, New York Times Co., New York, 1919.

  15.  One of the more popular recruiting posters of the era. The War Budget, 5 August 1915.

  16.  As the war developed, entrenched cavalry found it harder to manoeuvre on the Western Front and the ever-present danger of barbed wire was an increasing threat that horsed cavalrymen found difficult to overcome. The Illustrated War News, Vol. 7, Illustrated London News & Sketch, London, 1918. Courtesy of www.gwpda.org.uk

  17.  The Lewis machine gun was known as the ‘hose of death’. The Illustrated War News, 3 May 1916.

  18.  German machine-gunners in action. The Illustrated War News, 12 April 1916.

  19.  Bayonet practice. This exercise in Toronto was part of a recruiting drive, however at close-quarters the bayonet could be a very deadly weapon. The Illustrated War News, 5 April 1916.

  20.  The new steel helmets were lauded in Britain and on the front. They were inserted with a padded leather band to help check the force of a blow. Factories (mainly manned by female war workers) were encouraged to get them to the front as soon as possible. The Illustrated War News, 3 May 1916.

  21.  Soldiers from the Northumberland Fusiliers relax after the Battle of St Eloi. Despite their new steel helmets, they still revel in ‘booty’ from the enemy – it was common for both sides to collect souvenirs, such as helmets, uniforms, spent cartridges and even weapons. The Illustrated War News, 3 May 1916.

  22.  Here a French artillery bombardment has done it’s job on a section of German trench, near Verdun. The Illustrated War News, 22 March 1916.

  23.  A solidly constructed concrete dugout in a captured section of German trench, near Ypres. The Illustrated War News, 22 March 1916.

  24.  British gunner copying gun registrations. The Book of History, The World’s Greatest War, Vol. XVII, The Grolier Society, New York, 1920. Courtesy of www.gwpda.org.uk

  25.  German ordnance being moved into position and aligned for firing. The Illustrated War News, 12 April 1916.

  26.  Armoured cars such as these began to prove their worth on the East African front. The Illustrated War News, 12 April 1916.

  27.  An experimental transport tractor van, enabled to move in ‘caterpillar fashion’ due to the addition of tracks. Such vehicles as these were a precusor to the tank. The Illustrated War News, 19 April 1916.

  28.  The tank made famous by the Battle of Cambrai. This iconic image has come to represent the birth of tank warfare during the First World War. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  29.  ‘Crusty’ crosses a shell-hole, although many tanks were to get bogged down in such obstacles during the battle. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  30.  A French fire trench at Verdun. The Illustrated War News, 26 April 1916.

  31.  Map showing the British line before the advance and the direction of the advance. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  32.  A high-explosive shell bursts over the German trench lines. The Illustrated War News, 10 May 1916.

  33.  German soldier surrendering. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

34/35. ‘The Perfect Lady’ – here a tank makes easy work of crossing     the trenches. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

36/37. Makeshift dressing stations were created in deep dugouts to tend to the wounded. Here German prisoners can be seen helping the British to haul the wounded out of deep trench systems using a windlass. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  38.  Tanks crossing a light railway before going into action at Cambrai. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  39.  English Eastern county troops stop for a meal on a section of the Hindenburg Line. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  40.  Pioneer units were used to help clear the way for artillery and transport. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  41.  Blocked roads were a major problem in hampering the advance; here trees felled by the Germans obstruct a main road. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  42.  Refugees from Cantaing flood the roads around the area, halting the Allied advances. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  43.  The original caption for this image of German prisoners at Cambrai read: ‘like a ridge of Kipling’s “whale-backed downs”: a slag-heap captured, recaptured, and again captured – German prisoners passing by.’ The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  44.  Highland Territorials during their advance after the taking of the German first line. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  45.  The Highlanders using duckboards to cross over a deep German fire trench. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  46.  A Highlander bringing in two captured German machine-gunners. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  47.  Irish troops rest alongside northern county units and the Scottish Territorials. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  48.  Irish troops in action, crossing the German second line. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  49.  German prisoners are used as stretcher-bearers, carrying a wounded British officer to a first aid post. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  50.  The evolution in aeroplane technology was continual throughout the Great War, as the RFC played an increasingly important role in Allied operations. Here a new double-engined biplane with central gun is being inspected. The Illustrated War News, 31 May 1916.

  51.  Captured German field guns waiting to be removed by British troops, near Ribécourt. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  52.  Despite both the British and Germans claiming success, both sides still felt the pain of heavy casualties after Cambrai. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  53.  Villagers are evacuated from Noyelles, escaping the heavy German machine-gun fire. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  54.  Tanks often found it difficult and dangerous to manouevre through narrow village streets. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  55.  Cavalry slowly wend their way over a reserve line road in territory just captured from the Germans. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  56.  After Cambrai, the British government were keen to extol the virtues of the tank to the public. Here, one of the tanks used in the Cambrai battle is placed in Trafalgar Square as a ‘tank bank’, encouraging visitors to purchase a ‘tank bond’ or ‘tank certificate’ to help raise funds to manufacture more of these ‘iron monsters’. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

  57.  British tank at Cambrai, bringing in a captured German artillery piece. War of the Nations, New York Times Co., New York, 1919. Courtesy of www.gwpda.org.uk

INTRODUCTION

On 23 November 1917, church bells rang out across London, tolled in jubilation at what appeared to be a great British victory unfolding across the English Channel in northern France. The First World War had by now been convulsing Europe since August 1914. For three long years, the British Army had launched periodic offensives on the Western Front, each carrying with it hopes of punching through the formidable German trench lines and bringing about a general collapse of the Kaiser’s army. The names associated with these offensives have become part of the British historical psyche – Neuve Chapelle, Arras, Somme, Ypres (Passchendaele) – yet, instead of bringing about German defeat, these blood-soaked attacks famously purchased massive British and Commonwealth casualties for extremely limited gains. Most notoriously, the first day of the Battle of the Somme (1 July 1916) resulted in 57,470 British casualties, including 19,240 dead. The battle would drag on until the winter of 1916, taking the British casualty count up beyond 600,000 for a maximum depth of advance of just 6 miles.

The attack at Cambrai – launched on 20 November 1917 – appeared to be different. Tactically and technologically it was more sophisticated, particularly in the use of artillery and the armour of the nascent Tank Corps. The attack was launched with the benefit of surprise, achieved through painstaking night-time deployments of guns, tanks and men, and the avoidance of an extensive preparatory bombardment (the traditional signal of an impending infantry assault). Pre-offensive intelligence had been used comprehensively, building up a detailed picture of the forces and positions opposite.

The preparation seemed to pay off. The British drove forward nearly 4 miles in just a few hours on that chilly, overcast November morning, an unprecedented physical surge that lifted the hearts of the British people and caused the bells to peal out in joy. The German Hindenburg Line defences appeared to be mortally wounded, and the British and Commonwealth journalists wrote with a confident satisfaction as they viewed events unfolding. The Daily Mail proclaimed the offensive a ‘Splendid Success’, and one New Zealand journalist stated that:

Sir Douglas Haig’s great and splendidly successful stroke in the region between St. Quentin and the Scarpe is one of the surprises of the war … The ingeniously conceived and well executed coup which has driven the Germans back over so considerable a distance is bound to have far-reaching effects.

Marlborough Express, 24 November 1917

Optimism is a fragile gift in war, and the bells and eulogies of those late days of November did indeed prove to be premature. The German forces around Cambrai flexed, recovered, then counter-attacked, and with brutal commitment began to claw back many of the gains made by the British. By the end of the first week of December the British push had collapsed, with another 44,000 casualties added to the lists. An offensive born in victory withered into stalemate and wearying disappointment.

As we shall see in this book, Cambrai was a battle in which old and new ways of warfare were still imperfectly merging. The old ways were represented by the ‘poor bloody infantry’ – overburdened, tired and armed with rifle and bayonet – and the cavalry, a relic of a former age that was desperately attempting to justify its existence. The new ways of war were the tools of mechanised slaughter: machine-guns (both light and heavy), poison gas, combat aircraft, long-range artillery and tanks. Battlefield communications, the glue that could provide co-operation between these elements, were still haphazard and could be severed in the microseconds it took for a shell-burst to slash through a field telephone cable. The friction between traditional human warriors and machines capable of mass killing power produced the dizzying death tolls of many First World War battles.

Subsequent histories of the First World War, particularly those that followed during the revisionist and less patriotic 1960s and ’70s, put much of the blame for nearly 1 million British dead firmly on the shoulders of the commanders, the infantry themselves classically portrayed as ‘lions led by donkeys’. This view was cemented by accounts such as Alan Clark’s The Donkeys (1961), and in more recent times it was popularly evoked by plays such as Oh What a Lovely War! and TV dramas like Ben Elton and Richard Curtis’ Blackadder Goes Forth. In the latter, Stephen Fry’s immaculately portrayed General Melchett, supported by his sycophantic aide Captain Darling, blithely consigns his men to death in battle for little purpose and with no compunction. Rowan Atkinson’s Captain Blackadder, with infinite weariness, declares that Haig’s next ‘big push’ is nothing more than ‘another gargantuan effort to move his drinks cabinet six inches closer to Berlin’.

Thankfully, much current research has shown that the real command picture of the First World War is far more nuanced and complex. Richard Holmes in Tommy rightly points out that British commanders were no strangers to death and danger – fifty-eight generals were killed during the war and ‘Three divisional commanders were killed at Loos in September 1915, more British divisional commanders than were killed by enemy fire in the whole of the Second World War’ (Richard Holmes, Tommy, Harperperennial, 2005, p.xx).

Holmes and others, such as Gary Sheffield (see his Forgotten Victory), have also shown that what we might see as the tactics of unimaginative slaughter are more understandable when we genuinely engage with the actual command conditions of the time. The British commanders went from leading small expeditionary operations in far-flung corners of the British Empire to managing tens of thousands of men in industrial combat on the Western Front and elsewhere. Their negotiation of this new world was hampered tactically by the poor state of battlefield communications, which often meant that once a fight was under way it was almost impossible to make nimble, real-time modifications to the battle plan. Tactics were therefore often simplistic and operational objectives frequently broad. Such is not to deny that the First World War was graced with its share of incompetent or over-promoted commanders, but this is true of all wars.

The burdens of command in the First World War must be borne in mind as we study the Battle of Cambrai. Equally, we must also acknowledge that there were innovators in the British Army, men who sought to adapt warfare to new technological and tactical possibilities. For what seems undeniable is that the Battle of Cambrai does at least represent the imperfect attempt to embrace a new form of combined-arms warfare, in which armour, infantry, aircraft, artillery and intelligence worked co-operatively to achieve more decisive battlefield results. Taking lessons from the failures and experiments of previous engagements, officers such as General Sir Julian Byng, Brigadier General Hugh Elles, Lieutenant Colonel John Fuller, Major General John Davidson and even the British commander-in-chief, Sir Douglas Haig, pursued or permitted fresh tactical approaches at Cambrai, and the greatest use of tanks since they were first introduced on to the Somme in 1916. Hence, despite the fact that the British Official History of Cambrai concluded that the offensive ‘showed little profit’, the battle captures our imagination today as a precursor of mobile warfare, an augur of the rolling armoured engagements of France in 1940 or of North Africa in 1942.

1. Tank awaiting the order to advance at Cambrai. The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1917.

Yet caution is also required here, particularly regarding the role of armour. Cambrai has been popularly labelled history’s ‘first tank battle’, primarily on account of the unprecedented volume of armour committed to the campaign (476 tanks were assembled for the attack, 350 of those being combat vehicles) and its central role in the advances of the first hours of the campaign. Some post-war analysts, including the great Sir Winston Churchill, even went so far as to claim that had the technology and tactics of Cambrai been applied to the offensives of 1915–17, the war might have developed very differently. (Admittedly, Churchill had an eye to posterity here, as a former head of the Landships Committee that pioneered the development of tanks from 1915.)

Although there is an element of truth in Churchill’s views, there is also much hyperbole. As this book will show, the value of the tank on the Cambrai battlefield can and has been overstated. Some 180 British tanks were out of action by the end of the first day of a campaign that ran for nearly three weeks. The Germans were initially routed as much by the sheer surprise of the offensive as by the appearance of massed armour, and they quickly recovered. Moreover, the presence of tanks must not mask the fact that Cambrai was a major infantry engagement, one that cost a combined 90,000 casualties on both sides. Even if we grant Cambrai as the ‘first tank battle’, we must never fall into the trap of discussing it as purely a tank battle, with the infantry and cavalry in a secondary role.

The other oft-neglected element in many histories of Cambrai is the skill and innovation of the German counter-attacks that reversed the British gains. These counter-attacks were delivered with as much aplomb as the British offensive itself, and they displayed some elements of the Stoßtruppen (‘shock troops’ or, more popularly, ‘storm troopers’) tactics that would be applied to even greater effect in the German offensives of 1918. Giving more weight to the British efforts at Cambrai is understandable for British historians, eager to explore the nation’s martial history, but it is only part of the story.

Ultimately, the Battle of Cambrai is a human narrative, like all battles. For the individual soldier who took part, the offensive was about the portion of field or woodland in front of him, the comrade by his side and the demands of surviving until the end of the day. The picture ‘on the ground’ can be very different, therefore, to the picture from the historian’s overview, but ultimately I shall attempt to do justice to both.

TIMELINE

1914

3–4 August

Germany declares war on France and Belgium, invading Belgium on 3 August

5–10 September

German invasion of France stopped at the First Battle of the Marne

September–December

German, British and French forces establish trench networks running from the Channel coast down to Switzerland

1915

10–13 March

Failed British offensive at Neuve Chapelle

22 April–25 May

Second Battle of Ypres; German forces use poison gas

25 September– 14 October

First Battle of Loos. Major British offensive that includes British use of poison gas and of the ‘creeping’ artillery barrage. Costs 50,000 British casualties

19 December

Douglas Haig becomes commander-in-chief of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)

1916

21 February–18 December

The Germans force the French into a massive battle of attrition around Verdun. The campaign eventually costs the Germans as many casualties as the French, and by December the German forces have lost all their initial gains

1 July–18 November

The Battle of the Somme. This major British offensive is launched to relieve pressure on the French at Verdun. For limited gains the British suffer more than 600,000 casualties. Tanks used for first time in combat

1917

February

German forces on the Western Front, weakened by fighting in 1916, are forced to withdraw back to the Hindenburg Line

6 April

The United States declares war on Germany

April–May

A British offensive at Arras and French attack at Chemin des Dames both end with few solid results, except thousands of casualties

31 July–10 November

Third Battle of Ypres. A major British offensive runs aground in appalling weather and in the face of terrible casualties – 400,000 men are killed or wounded. Germans take similar punishment, however

13 October

Operation GYreceives approval from Haig

20 November

Operation GYis launched, making impressive first-day gains through the Hindenburg Line

21 November

The offensive continues with British assaults on Bourlon, Fontaine and Cantaing, plus crossings of the St Quentin canal

23–27 November

There is intensive fighting across the Cambrai front, particularly around Bourlon and Fontaine, but the British advance has effectively stalled

30 November