Table of Contents
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PREFACE
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Introduction
Abstract
LUMINESCENCE AND ITS TYPES
COLOURS OF BIOLUMINESCENT LIGHT
LIGHT EMISSION IN MARINE ANIMALS
Types of Bioluminescence
Types of Bioluminescent Displays
BIOLUMINESCENT EMISSION SPECTRA OF MARINE ANIMALS
DISTRIBUTION OF BIOLUMINESCENCE IN MARINE ORGANISMS
DISTRIBUTION OF BIOLUMINESCENCE IN MARINE PLANKTON
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF BIOLUMINESCENCE
INTERACTIONS AMONG LUMINESCENT MARINE ZOOPLANKTON AND FISH
APPLICATIONS OF BIOLUMINESCENCE
Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)
Cypridina System
Bioluminescence Imaging
Bioluminescence and People
CONCLUSION
Chemical Mechanism of Bioluminescence
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
COLOURS OF BIOLUMINESCENCE
BIOLUMINESCENCE IN MARINE PLANKTON
Luciferins
Intrinsic Bioluminescence
BIOLUMINESCENT REACTION WITH THE LUCIFERIN COELENTERAZINE AND COPEPOD LUCIFERASE
EXTRINSIC BIOLUMINESCENCE
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Marine Dinoflagellates
Abstract
Introduction
BIOLUMINESCENCE IN DINOFLAGELLATES
LUMINESCENT MARINE DINOFLAGELLATES
Prorocentrum micans
Gymnodinium flavum
Gymnodinium sanguineum
Polykrikos schwartzii
Dissodinium pseudolunula
Pyrocystis acuta
Pyrocystis fusiformis
Pyrocystis lunula
Fragilidium heterolobum
Pyrophacus horologium
Ceratocorys horrida
Alexandrium monilatum
Alexandrium minutum
Alexandrium ostenfeldi
Pyrodinium bahamense
Gonyaulax polygramma
Gonyaulax scrippsae
Gonyaulax spinifera
Peridiniella catenata
Protoperidinium crassipes
Protoperidinium curtipes
Protoperidinium depressum
Protoperidinium divergens
Protoperidinium leonis
Protoperidinium oceanicum
Protoperidinium ovatum
Protoperidinium palladium
Protoperidinium pellucidum
Protoperidinium steinii
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Marine Radiolarians
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Emission Maxima in Luminescent Marine Radiolarians
LUMINESCENT MARINE RADIOLARIANS
Acrosphaera murrayana
Aulosphaera triodon
Collosphaera huxleyi
Siphonosphaera tenera
Thalassicola nucleata
Tuscaridium cygneum
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Marine Cnidarians
Abstract
Introduction
BIOLUMINESCENT MARINE HYDROZOAN MEDUSAE AND SIPHONOPHORES
Luminescent Marine Hydrozoan Medusae
Aegina citrea
Aeginura grimaldii
Aequorea macrodactyla
Aequorea victoria
Bougainvillia carolinensis
Bythotiara depressa
Colobonema sericeum
Cosmetira pilosella
Crossota alba
Cunina globosa
Eugymnanthea inquilina
Eugymnanthea japonica
Euphysora valdiviae
Eutima japonica
Eutonina indicans
Halicreas minimum
Haliscera conica
Halopsis ocellata
Leuckartiara octona
Liriope tetraphylla
Mitrocomella polydiademata
Obelia dichotoma
Obelia lucifera
Octophialucium funerarium
Pandea conica
Pegantha clara
Pegantha laevis
Proboscidactyla ornata
Rathkea octopunctata
Solmaris leucostyla
Solmissus albescens
Solmissus incisa
Solmissus marshalli
Solmundella bitentaculata
Tima bairdi
Tima nigroannulata
Tima saghalinensis
Luminescent Marine Siphonophores
Abylopsis eschscholtzii
Abylopsis tetragona
Agalma okeni
Amphicaryon acaula
Amphicaryon ernesti
Apolemia sp.
Bargmannia elongata
Chelophyes contorta
Chuniphyes multidentata
Craseoa lathetica
Diphyes dispar
Erenna spp.
Forskalia edwardsi
Frillagalma vityazi
Hippopodius hippopus
Maresearsia praeclara
Muggiaea sp.
Nanomia bijuga
Nanomia cara
Nectadamas diomedeae
Nectopyramis natans
Physalia physalis
Praya dubia
Rhizophysa eysenhardti
Rosacea plicata
Sulculeolaria sp.
Vogtia glabra
Vogtia serrata
Vogtia spinosa
BIOLUMINESCENT MARINE SCYPHOZOAN MEDUSAE
Bioluminescence In Marine Scyphozoans
Luminescent Marine Scyphozoan Medusae
Atolla parva
Atolla vanhoeffeni
Atolla wyvillei
Chrysaora hysoscella
Nausithoe atlantica
Nausithoe globifera
Nausithoe rubra
Paraphyllina intermedia
Paraphyllina ransoni
Pelagia noctiluca
Periphylla periphylla
Periphyllopsis braueri
Phacellophora camtschatica
Poralia rufescens
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Ctenophores
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
LUMINESCENT SPECIES OF CTENOPHORES
Aulacoctena acuminata
Bathocyroe fosteri
Bathyctena chuni
Bolinopsis infundibulum
Bolinopsis vitrea
Cestum veneris
Charistephane fugiens
Deiopea kaloktenota
Dryodora glandiformis
Euplokamis dunlapae
Euplokamis stationis
Eurhamphaea vexilligera
Haeckelia beehleri
Haeckelia bimaculata
Haeckelia rubra
Hormiphora luminosa
Kiyohimea aurita
Lampea pancerina
Lampocteis cruentiventer
Leucothea multicornis
Leucothea pulchra
Mertensia ovum
Mnemiopsis leidyi
Ocyropsis fusca
Ocyropsis maculata
Thalassocalyce inconstans
Tizardia phosphorea
Velamen parallelum
Beroe abyssicola
Beroe cucumis
Beroe forskalii
Beroe gracilis
Beroe ovata
Nepheloctena sp.
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Planktonic Marine Annelids
Abstract
Introduction
LUMINESCENT SPECIES OF PLANKTONIC ANNELIDS
Alciopina sp.
Rhynchonereella sp.
Odontosyllis sp. (larva)
Tomopteris anadyomene
Tomopteris (Johnstonella) apsteini
Tomopteris carpenteri
Tomopteris(Johnstonella) helgolandica
Tomopteris krampi
Tomopteris mariana
Tomopteris nationalis
Tomopteris nisseni
Tomopteris planctonis
Tomopteris rolasi
Tomopteris septentrionalis
Chaetopterid Worm
Chaetopterus pugaporcinus
Flabelligerid Worm
Poeobius meseres
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Chaetognaths
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Caecosagitta macrocephala
Eukrohnia fowleri
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Marine Crustaceans
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
BIOLUMINESCENT MARINE OSTRACODS
Bioluminescent Marino Ostracods
Vargula antarctica
Vargula hilgendorfii
Vargula morini
Vargula norvegica
Conchoecia spinifera
Conchoecia subarcuata
Conchoecia mega
BIOLUMINESCENT MARINE COPEPODS
LUMINESCENT SPECIES OF MARINE COPEPODS
Centraugaptilus horridus
Centraugaptilus rattrayi
Centropages typicus
Chiridius poppei
Euaugaptilus laticeps
Euaugaptilus magnus
Gaussia princeps
Heterorhabdus norvegicus
Heterorhabdus papilliger
Heterostylites longicornis
Lucicutia flavicornis
Lucicutia grandis
Lucicutia wolfendeni
Metridia gerlachei
Metridia longa
Metridia lucens
Metridia pacifica
Metridia princeps
Pleuromamma abdominalis abdominalis
Pleuromamma robusta
Pleuromamma xiphias
Corycaeus spciosus
BIOLUMINESCENT MARINE AMPHIPODS
Luminescent Planktonic Marine Amphipods
Cyphocaris faurei
Phtisica marina
Scina borealis
Scina crassicornis
Scina rattrayi
BIOLUMINESCENT MARINE MYSIDS
Luminescent Marine Mysids
Gnathophausia longispina
Gnathophausia zoea
Bioluminescent marine euphausiids
Luminescent Planktonic Marine Euphausiids
Euphausia americana
Euphausia brevis
Euphausia vrystallorophias
Euphausia eximia
Euphausia frigida
Euphausia gibboides
Euphausia hemigibba
Euphausia krohnii
Euphausia pacifica
Euphausia superba
Euphausia tenera
Euphausia triacantha
Meganyctiphanes norvegica
Nematobrachion boöpis
Nematobrachion flexipes
Nematobrachion sexspinosum
Nematoscelis atlantica
Nematoscelis difficilis
Nematoscelis gracilis
Nematoscelis megalops
Nematoscelis microps
Nematoscelis tenella
Nyctiphanes australis
Nyctiphanes capensis
Nyctiphanes couchii
Nyctiphanes simplex
Stylocheiron abbreviatum
Stylocheiron elongatum
Stylocheiron longicorne
Stylocheiron maximum
Stylocheiron suhmii
Tessarabrachion oculatum
Thysanoëssa furcilia
Thysanoëssa gregaria
Thysanoëssa inermis
Thysanoëssa longicaudata
Thysanoëssa macrura
Thysanoëssa raschii
Thysanopoda acutifrons
Thysanopoda monacantha
Thysanopoda microphthalma
Thysanopoda spinicaudata
Thysanopoda tricuspidata
BIOLUMINESCENT PLANKTONIC MARINE DECAPODS
Luminescent lucifers
Lucifer orientalis
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Marine Mollusc
Abstract
Introduction
Phylliroe bucephala
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Tunicates
Abstract
Introduction
BIOLUMINESCENT APPENDICULARIANS (LARVACEANS)
Folia gracilis
Oikopleura albicans
Oikopleura dioica
Oikopleura labradoriensis
Oikopleura rufescens
Stegosoma magnum
BIOLUMINESCENT THALIACEANS
Bioluminescent pyrosomes
Pyrosoma atlanticum
Pyrosoma spinosum
Pyrosomella verticillata
Bioluminescent salps
Cyciosalpa affinis
Cyclosalpa bakeri
Cyclosalpa floridana
Cyclosalpa foxtoni
Cyclosajpa ihlei
Cyclosalpa pinnata
Cyciosalpa polae
Cyclosalpa sewelli
Helicosalpa komaii
Helicosalpa younti
Bioluminescent doliolids
Doliolula equus
Paradoliopsis harbisoni
Pseudusa bostigrinus
CONCLUSION
Marine Bioluminescence and Biotechnology
Abstract
Introduction
THE ROLE OF MARINE BIOLUMINESCENT PLANKTONIC CRUSTACEANS IN CANCER IMMUNOTHERAPIES
Bioluminescent Imaging
MARINE BIOLUMINESCENT PLANKTON AND THEIR BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
Hygiene Control
Mapping out Pollution in Ecosystems
FUTURE ISSUES IN MARINE BIOLUMINESCENCE
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescent Marine Plankton
Authored by
Ramasamy Santhanam
Fisheries College and Research Institute
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Thoothukudi
India
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PREFACE
Ramasamy SanthanamBioluminescence, the “cold living light” or the “cold fire of the sea,” is extremely common in all oceans at all depths. However, this phenomenon is nearly absent in freshwater, with the exception of a freshwater limpet. More than 75% of deep-sea creatures have been reported to produce their own light. The luminescent marine plankton such as dinoflagellate, radiolarians, jellyfish, comb jellies, annelids, copepods, ostracods, mysids, amphipods, euphausiids, and tunicates form an important component in the marine food chain. Research on luminescent marine plankton is gaining momentum now-a-days owing to its importance in human health. The glowing Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) extracted from the North Pacific jellyfish, Aqueorea victoria (for which the Japanese biologist, Osamu Shimonmura won the Noble Prize in Chemistry in 2008) has helped shed light on key processes such as the spread of cancer, the development of brain cells, the growth of bacteria, damage to cells by Alzheimer's disease, and the development of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Furthermore, GFP has been “a guiding star for biochemists, biologists, medical scientists and other researchers” besides serving as an indispensable tool in cellular research and medicine. Recent research findings have also shown that the natural products of the bioluminescent marine plankton could be of great use in therapeutical and biotechnological applications. Further application of “bioluminescence imaging” has grown tremendously in the past decade, and it has significantly contributed to the core conceptual advances in biomedical research. This technology has provided valuable means for monitoring different biological processes for immunology, oncology, virology, and neuroscience. Bioluminescence imaging has also been successfully used to monitor infections caused by various microorganisms, particularly bacteria.
Though a few books are presently available on bioluminescence, a comprehensive volume dealing with the “Bioluminescent Marine Plankton ” has not so far been published. The first of its kind, this publication would answer this long-felt need. It deals with the chemistry of bioluminescence, types of bioluminescent displays, distribution of bioluminescence among marine plankton, ecological functions and uses/applications of planktonic bioluminescence; and the biology and ecology of about 200 species luminescent marine plankton of the different seas. It is hoped that the present publication, when brought out, would be of great use as a standard text-cum-reference for teachers, students, and researchers of various disciplines such as Marine Biology, Fisheries Science, and Environmental Sciences; and as a valuable reference for libraries of colleges and universities.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am highly indebted to Dr. K.Venkataramanujam, former Dean of Fisheries College and Research Institute, and the Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, in Thoothukudi, India, for his valued comments and suggestions on the manuscript. I sincerely thank all my international friends who were kind enough to share their images for the present publication. The services viz. photography and secretarial assistance rendered by Mrs.Albin Panimalar Ramesh are also gratefully acknowledged.
Ramasamy Santhanam
Fisheries College and Research Institute
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Thoothukudi
India
Introduction
Ramasamy Santhanam
Abstract
This chapter deals with the different types of luminescence: chemiluminescence, photoluminescence, fluorescence, phosphorescence, and bioluminescence; types of bioluminescence viz. extra cellular luminescence, intrinsic luminescence and extrinsic luminescence (bacterial luminescence); distribution of bioluminescence in different groups of marine plankton such as dinoflagellates, crustaceans, cnidarians, ctenophores and tunicates; biological functions of bioluminescence; interactions among luminescent marine zooplankton and fish; and commercial and therapeutic applications of bioluminescence.
Keywords: Applications of bioluminescence, Bioluminescent marine life, Cold living light, Extrinsic luminescence, Intrinsic luminescence.
The Greeks and Romans were the first to mention bioluminescent organisms, and Aristotle (384 – 332 BC) discovered self-luminosity in 180 marine species [1]. Bioluminescence, the cold living light, is a visible light produced by organisms. It is one form of chemiluminescence generated by a chemical reaction. Unlike fluorescence and phosphorescence, bioluminescence reactions do not need the initial absorption of sunlight by a molecule to emit light. A wide range of colours characterize bioluminescence. For example, it is blue in jellyfish, dinoflagellates, and ostracods; blue-green in bacteria and the limpet-like snail, Latia; and green-red in fireflies and railroad worms [2]. Some species of fungi are known to emit light continuously, and its glow is called foxfire. Most organisms, however, flash for periods of less than a second to about 10 seconds and these flashes occur in specific spots, such as the dots on a molluscan squid [3]. Bioluminescence has been reported to be very common in the water column of the ocean, less common on coral reefs and other places near the shore, rare on land, and nearly non-existent in freshwater (with the exception of a limpet-like freshwater snail, Latia neritoides, and a land snail, Quantula striata). The bioluminescence of the sea otherwise known as “cold fire of the sea” is present at all depths. It is estimated that 76% of the animals of the seas and oceans are bioluminescent. About 800 genera representing 13 phyla of marine animals are believed to be bioluminescent [4]. It is worth- mentioning here that for most of the well-known ocean glows, the dinoflagellate blooms are largely responsible.
LUMINESCENCE AND ITS TYPES
Luminescence is the process of giving off light and is defined as any emission of light from a substance that does not arise from heating. There are many types of luminescence, viz. “Chemiluminescence” where a light emission is initiated by a chemical reaction; “photoluminescence “ is the emission of light from a material following the absorption of light; “fluorescence” is prompt photoluminescence that occurs very shortly after photoexcitation of a substance; “phosphorescence” is long-lived photoluminescence that continues long after the photoexcitation has ceased; and “bioluminescence” is the production and emission of light by a living organism and it is otherwise known as “cold living light.”
COLOURS OF BIOLUMINESCENT LIGHT
While most land organisms, including fireflies, glow in the yellow spectrum, almost all marine bioluminescence is blue due to two related reasons. Firstly, the blue-green light (wavelength around 470 nm) transmits furthest in water. Underwater photos are usually blue because water absorbs red light quickly as one descends. Secondly, most marine organisms are sensitive only to blue light, and they lack visual pigments that can absorb longer (yellow, red) or shorter (indigo, ultraviolet) wavelengths [5].
LIGHT EMISSION IN MARINE ANIMALS
While the bioluminescence of marine animals is invariably blue, the colour of the light can range from nearly violet to green-yellow (and very occasionally red), emitted in three different ways. In some species, the light is actually vomited from the animals. In other animals, the light is emitted by specialized cells called photocytes,sometimes grouped into lensed structures called photophores. On the other hand, some animals may have colonies of bioluminescent bacteria which glow continuously [6].
Types of Bioluminescence
Based on the source of illumination in marine animals, the luminescence may be classified as follows:
Extracellular Luminescence: In this type of luminescence, the light is generated by luminous secretion from the glandular tissues of animals. Extracellular luminescent organs are found in a very limited species of fish. For example, certain fish like rat tails emit light by secreting extracellular slime. These fish possess special glands near their anus, which secrete luminous slime sufficiently.Intrinsic Luminescence (Intracellular Luminescence): In this type, light is produced intracellularly and the light is emitted by special cells called photocytes which form light producing photophores developed from the epidermis. This type of luminescence is mainly seen in teleost fish of the families, such as Sternoptychidae, Myctophidae, Halosauridae, Stomiatidae, Brotulidae, Lophiidae, and Zoarcidae.Extrinsic Luminescence (Bacterial Luminescence): In this type, symbiotic bacteria present in the photophores or luminous cells (photocytes) discharge light. The bacterial genera, Photobacterium and Achromobacterium, have been reported to contribute much to this type of luminescence. These bacterial species commonly found in dead fish or spoiling meat, have been isolated and grown in cultures.
Types of Bioluminescent Displays
Based on the appearance, the bioluminescent displays may be classified into three types viz. sheet type, spark type, and gloving-ball or globe type.
Sheet-type Display: This is the most common type in coastal waters and is caused by dinoflagellates or bacteria. It is also known as spilled or “milky” bioluminescence. During the formation of this type, the seawater is cloudy and may appear dully luminescent. The colour of the water is usually green or blue, and in many displays, it may also appear white when the organisms are present in great numbers i.e., during the bloom formation. Apart from the microscopic organisms, dense and extensive concentrations of large tunicate organisms, such as luminescent Pyrosoma (giving a flashing appearance during lower concentrations) or luminescent euphausiid species Nyctiphanes norvegica may also yield sheet-type display. The display of this euphausiid species was associated with large spots and long bands of milk-white water [7].Spark-type Display: This type of display is largely due to the appearance of large numbers of luminous euphausiids or copepods. This display occurs most often in colder waters and only when the waters are disturbed. The luminescence colour during this display is brilliant blue or white [7].Glowing-ball- or Globe-type Display: This display is normally observed in the warmer waters of the world. During this condition, the ocean may appear as full of balls or discs of light which may be flashing brightly when they are disturbed or dimming after the stoppage of the initial stimulus. Depending on the size of the luminescent organisms, the flashes of light may range in size from a few centimeters to a few meters in diameter. The colour of the light during this display is normally blue or green, and rarely it may be white, yellow, orange, or red. The light so emitted may rarely be continuous (Staples,1966). Combinations of either two or all three types of displays have also been reported. Apart from these displays, exotic light formations like “phosphorescent wheels,” undulating waves of light, and bubbles of light have also been reported due to large concentrations of luminescent organisms [8].Other Bioluminescence: Marine organisms normally luminesce when they are disturbed. However, changes in the marine environment, such as a drop in salinity, may force bioluminescent algae to glow, for instance. These living lanterns are often seen as spots of pink or green in the dark ocean. “Milky seas” are yet another example of bioluminescence. Unlike the bioluminescent algae, which emit light when their environment is disturbed, these milky seas yield continuous glow which may be bright and large enough to be seen even from satellites in orbit above the earth. “Milky seas” are believed to be produced by the millions of bioluminescent bacteria present on the surface of the ocean. Satellite imagery of milky seas has been captured in tropical waters of the Indian Ocean [9].
BIOLUMINESCENT EMISSION SPECTRA OF MARINE ANIMALS
Light production associated with bioluminescence in marine animals has a significant range of emission patterns, viz. continuous glow (single flashes of light) common in the phytoplanktonic dinoflagellates, or repetitive pulse patterns that are often species specific. Visible light (i.e. VIBGYOR- V to R) has wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nm i.e., between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths). Most non-marine organisms are generally at longer wavelengths (480-620 nm). For example, millipedes emit indigo (and coleopteran beetles emit reddish-orange light. On the other hand, in marine organisms, the emission maxima are clustered in the range of 450-500 nm, though maxima from 395-545 nm have been recorded. Marine species found in the pelagic environment are mostly blue-emitting, with a relative increase in green-emitting species in the benthic environment [10]. Although, it is reported that the majority of luminescent marine organisms emit blue light (410–550 nm), a change from violet and blue (420–500 nm) in the deep sea to blue-green (460–520 nm) in shallow waters is common [11]. Further, the colour of the bioluminescent light is largely dependent on factors such as the luciferins and luciferases, which are involved in the bioluminescent reaction.
DISTRIBUTION OF BIOLUMINESCENCE IN MARINE ORGANISMS
Bioluminescence exhibits a diversity of organisms from bacteria to fish, and it has been shown that 76% of the marine animals are bioluminescent. The percentage of bioluminescent marine animals is remarkably uniform over depth. Moreover, the proportion of bioluminescent and non-bioluminescent animals within taxonomic groups changes with depth, especially for taxonomic groups such as Ctenophora, Scyphozoa, Chaetognatha, and Crustacea [12]. The luminescent marine invertebrates include protozoans (viz. dinoflagellates and radiolarians), sponges, jellyfish, comb jellies, sea pens, worms, copepods, ostracods, mysids, amphipods, euphausiids, shrimps, squids, and echinoderms; and among the luminescent vertebrates, the tunicates and fish possess several species. It is worth mentioning here that more than 97% of Cnidarians are bioluminescent; among 20,000 known species of fish, about 1500 (8%) species are luminescent. While the majority of deep-sea bony fish (about 70%) are luminous, only a small fraction of deep-sea elasmobranchs (about 6%) are endowed with bioluminescence.
DISTRIBUTION OF BIOLUMINESCENCE IN MARINE PLANKTON
A total of 556 species of marine zooplankton have been reported to display bioluminescence. Among them, the crustaceans dominated with 283 species followed by cnidarians (92), protozoans (90), ctenophores (45), tunicates (22), annelids (15), echinoderms (4), chaetognaths (3), and gastropod molluscs (2) [13].
Dinoflagellates: Marine planktonic organisms which emit blue and green light are mainly responsible for bioluminescence in the sea. Among these organisms, the dinoflagellates of the genus Noctiluca assume greater significance, and they are often responsible for strong displays of light owing to their prodigious numbers. They colour the seawater pink or red by day. Noctiluca is particularly abundant in coastal waters, and at night it gives a rather brilliant greenish glow to the water when agitated. Other dinoflagellates of equal importance include the species of Phaeocystis, Ceratium, Peridinium, and Gonyaulax [14]. The genus Gonyaulax also is one of the prime causes of “red tide.”
Crustaceans: Among the luminescent crustaceans, ostracods, copepods, and euphausiids are important and most of their displays are seen in colder waters and rarely in tropical waters. The light emitted by these animals appears to twinkle at a distance because of each individual’s abrupt flashing, usually in blue or green [7].
Cnidarians and Ctenophores: Among the cnidarians (=coelenterates), the luminescent jellyfish (scyphozoan medusae) have been reported to cause many bright displays which may cover a large area. One of the most spectacular forms of the Cnidaria is the large luminescent medusa Pelagia noctiluca. When it is touched lightly, the whole surface of the organism starts to luminesce, first at the point of contact and then spreading out to its umbrella and tentacles. It is worth mentioning here that all the ctenophores (comb jellies) are luminescent, giving off a greenish glow [7].
Tunicates: Among the transparent tunicates, the colonial species of Pyrosoma are largely responsible for some of the prominent displays, especially in the warmer waters in the seas and oceans. The slightest touch at one end of the colony can cause blue light in these species. Various colours of Pyrosoma luminescence, such as red, orange, yellow, and white light, have been reported. However, the light normally given off in the sea by these organisms is bluish-green or green. In colder waters, the luminescent salps are often in great abundance, and they may be present as individuals or in great chain-like aggregations. The species of Salpa emit blue or green light [7].
Others: Among the other important marine bioluminescent groups of organisms are the luminescent annelid worms, Odontosyllis. Similarly, the deep-sea squid Watasenia scintillans (Japanese firefly squid), has been reported to congregate in large numbers on the surface, especially during the spring, giving displays. The microscopic radiolarians may rarely impart a weak luminescence in the ocean. The bioluminescent marine animal groups, theirnumber of species, and percentage contribution are given in Table 1.
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF BIOLUMINESCENCE
Bioluminescence of marine animals assumes several important functions including predation, defense against predators, and reproduction. In other words, this adaptation can help animal survival in at least three critical ways viz. it can help in locating food, either by means of built-in headlights or by the use of its glowing lures; it can function as a defense against predators; and it can be used to attract its mate by means of species-specific spatial patterns of light emission.
INTERACTIONS AMONG LUMINESCENT MARINE ZOOPLANKTON AND FISH
Fish–luminescent marine plankton interactions such as predation by fishes on luminescent plankton, competition between luminescent zooplankton and fish are complex. However, these interactions have not so far been convincingly demonstrated. The bright coloration of animals is believed to be toxicity or unpalatability and this phenomenon is also quite valid for many gelatinous planktonic marine organisms such as cnidarian jellyfish and ctenophores; and tunicate pyrosomes. The coloration of such bioluminescent zooplanktonic organisms has been reported to Function this way. As these jellyfish are fragile and potentially deadly, they make use of their bright coloration as an adaptation to avoid physical encounters with their predators such as fish.
It is reported that the luminescent Jellyfish species Pelagia noctiluca which forms very large population outbreaks with millions of individuals that hinders the physiology of fish including their growth and reproduction. Further, the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi was found to be responsible for the collapse of the anchovy fishery in the Black Sea. Furthermore, potentially harmful species such as the scyphomedusae Pelagia noctiluca and the siphonophore Muggiaea atlantica have affected the fish farming practices in the North Atlantic region [15].
In coral and seagrass beds, the luminescent jellyfish have also been reported to provide shelter for the juvenile carangid fishes beneath their sub-umbrella. It is suggested to be an act of commensalism where the tentacles of the jellyfish served as a protective shield for the juvenile fishes against their predators [16].
APPLICATIONS OF BIOLUMINESCENCE
Research on the bioluminescence of marine invertebrates and fishes is gaining momentum owing to its importance in human health.
Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)
The glowing Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) extracted from the North Pacific jellyfish, Aqueorea victoria (for which the Japanese biologist Osamu Shimonmura won the Noble Prize in Chemistry in 2008) has helped shed light on key processes such as the spread of cancer, the development of brain cells, the growth of bacteria, damage to cells by Alzheimer's disease, and the development of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Further, GFP has been “a guiding star for biochemists, biologists, medical scientists and other researchers” besides serving as an indispensable tool in cellular research and medicine. An American Biotechnology company has now generated a fluorescent mouse to observe cancer’s growth. Similarly, a research team in England has produced fluorescent-green testicles on male mosquitoes, for their separation from females to reduce the spread of malaria [17]. The calcium-sensitive photoprotein aequorin and green fluorescent protein (GFP) and their derivatives are presently used for a wide range of applications, including subcellular calcium imaging, cell lineage tracing and gene regulation analysis.
Cypridina System
Among other applications, the Cypridina system has been widely used in bioimaging, in studies of circadian rhythms, and in immunoassays [18].
Bioluminescence Imaging
Recent research findings have also shown that the natural products of the bioluminescent marine invertebrates could be of great use in therapeutical and biotechnological applications. For example, the application of “Bioluminescence imaging” has significantly contributed to the advancement of biomedical research. This technology has helped considerably in the monitoring of different biological processes for immunology, oncology, virology and neuroscience. Biolumines-cence imaging has also been successfully used to monitor infections caused by the different species of pathogenic bacteria [17].
Bioluminescence and People
Certain other uses of bioluminescence of marine animals are in experimental stage. For example bioluminescent trees could help light city streets and highways. If this is materialized, the need for electricity could be considerably reduced. Bioluminescent crops and other plants could be made to emit light when they are in need of water or other nutrients, or when they are ready to be harvested. This would considerably reduce the costs of agriculture. Further the importance of bacterial bioluminescence is well understood in recent days [19]. The luminescence of marine bacteria and planktonic animals possess commercial applications viz. source of electricity, detection of toxins, bio-imaging in treatments, navigation aid, and watering plants [20] as shown in Table 2.
CONCLUSION
Bioluminescence is a fascinating aspect possessed by many of the marine creatures including plankton living in our oceans. While scientists have been aware of this ability and its mechanism for centuries, we are still far from understanding everything about bioluminescence in general and marine plankton in particular. Indeed, researchers have not discovered all the reasons why marine plankton are bioluminescent. Also, the chemical reaction which creates bioluminescence, while understood for some marine animals, remains secret for many planktonic animals, such as some planktonic worms and molluscs. It is therefore important for scientists to keep studying bioluminescence for the benefit of humans.
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Chemical Mechanism of Bioluminescence
Ramasamy Santhanam
Abstract
This chapter deals with the basic bioluminescence reactions, emission maxima, and colour of light in pelagic and deep-sea bioluminescent organisms, luciferins of planktonic organisms, types of intrinsic bioluminescence such as coelenterazine-based light production and cypridina luciferin-based light production, and extrinsic bioluminescence.
Keywords: Cypridina Luciferin, Emission Maxima, Extrinsic Bioluminescence, Intrinsic Bioluminescence Coelenterazine, Luciferin.
