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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A guide to the scientific interpretation of blood traces Blood Traces provides an authoritative resource that reviews many of the aspects of the interpretation of blood traces that have not been treated with the thoroughness they deserve. With strict adherence to the scientific method, the authors -- noted experts on the topic -- address the complexities encountered when interpreting blood trace configurations. The book provides an understanding of the scientific basis for the use of blood trace deposits, i.e. bloodstain patterns, at crime scenes to better reconstruct a criminal event. The authors define eight overarching principles for the comprehensive analysis and interpretation of blood trace configurations. Three of these principles are: blood traces may reveal a great deal of useful information; extensive blood traces, although present, may not always yield information relevant to questions that may arise in a given case; and a collection of a few seemingly related dried blood droplet deposits is not necessarily an interpretable "pattern". This important resource: * Provides the fundamental principles for the scientific examination and understanding of blood trace deposits and configurations * Dispels commonly accepted misinformation about blood traces. * Contains a variety of illustrative case examples which will aid in demonstrating the concepts discussed Written for forensic scientists, crime scene investigators, members of the legal community, and students in these fields, Blood Traces presents the fundamental principles for the scientific examination of blood trace deposits and configurations.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Epigraph
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Preface to
Blood Traces: Interpretation of Deposition and Distribution
Areas of Concern
Cautionary Principles of the Analysis and Interpretation of Blood Trace Configurations
References
CHAPTER 1: Physical Evidence Record
1.1 Generation of Physical Evidence Record
1.2 Capturing the Physical Evidence Record: Crime Scene Analysis
1.3 Reconstruction of Past Incidents from the Physical Evidence Record
References
CHAPTER 2: Historical Perspective
2.1 Edgar Allen Poe and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle: History in Fiction
2.2 Hans Gross
2.3 History of Research in Blood Traces
2.4 Detective Charlie Chan: History in Film
2.5 Paul Kirk
2.6 Herbert MacDonell
2.7 Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Committees and Organizations
References
CHAPTER 3: Characteristics of Liquids Including Blood
3.1 Physical Properties and Fluid Mechanics of Liquids
3.2 Physical Characteristics of Blood
3.3 Optical Properties of Blood Deposits
3.4 Physiological Characteristics of Blood
3.5 Use of Blood Substitutes in Training and Simulations
References
CHAPTER 4: Detection, Visual Enhancement, Identification, and Source Attribution of Blood Deposits and Configurations
4.1 Optical Visualization of Blood Trace Deposits
4.2 Catalytic Tests
4.3 Protein Stains
4.4 Blood Typing and DNA Technology
4.5 A Limitation of Laboratory SOPs
4.6 Ongoing and Future Research
4.7 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 5: Terminology, Typology, and Taxonomy
5.1 History of Terminologies Applied to Blood Trace Configurations
5.2 A Typology for Blood Trace Deposits
References
CHAPTER 6: Blood Droplet Dynamics and Deposit Formation
6.1 Blood Droplet Motion and Velocity Vectors
6.2 Angle of Impact
6.3 Blood Droplet Trajectory and Resulting Impact Geometry
6.4 Region of Convergence and Region of Origin
6.5 Equivalence of Relativistic Motion
6.6 Impact Mechanism and Blood Trace Deposit Formation
6.7 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 7: Blood Trace Interpretation and Crime Scene/Incident Reconstruction
7.1 Principles of Blood Trace Reconstruction
7.2 Utility
7.3 Limitations, Problems, and Common Acceptance of the Status Quo
7.4 Blood Trace Configuration Analysis as Part of a Holistic Approach to Reconstruction
References
CHAPTER 8: Science and Pseudoscience
8.1 Science
8.2 Pseudoscience
8.3 Bad Science
8.4 Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 9: Modes of Practice and Practitioner Preparation and Qualification
9.1 Existing Modes of Crime Scene Investigation Practice
9.2 Preparations and Qualifications of Practitioners
References
CHAPTER 10: Interesting and Illustrative Cases
10.1 The Sam Sheppard Case
10.2 Knife in the Gift Bag
10.3 The Farhan Nassar Case
10.4 Passive Documentation
10.5 The British Island Holiday Case
10.6 Absence of Evidence is Not Evidence of Absence
10.7 Triple Homicide
10.8 The O.J. Simpson Case
10.9 A Vertical Crime Scene
10.10 Tissue Spatter from a Large Caliber Gunshot
10.11 Shooting of a Driver
10.12 A Contested Fratricide
References
CHAPTER 11: “Bad” Cases – Misleading or Incompetent Interpretations
11.1 David Camm
11.2 Dew Theory
11.3 Murder of an Off‐Duty Police Officer
11.4 The Imagined Mist Pattern
11.5 Concealed Blood Traces
11.6 A Stomping Homicide – Misuse of Enhancement Reagents
References
CHAPTER 12: More Broadly Assessed Cases: Going Beyond the Request
12.1 Gunshot to the Forehead and the Runaway Car
12.2 The Obscured Bloody Imprint
12.3 The Murder of a Deputy: Shooting in a Hospital Room
CHAPTER 13: Widely Held Misconceptions
13.1 Blood Traces Produced by Gunshot Wounds
13.2 The “Normal Drop” Claim
13.3 MacDonell Priority Claims Relative to the Seminal 1939 Balthazard et al. Paper
13.4 The Claimed Equivalence of Deposits Diameters and Drop Diameters
13.5 Ambiguous Trace Configurations
13.6 Issues with Interpretation of Asymmetrical Blood Projections from Impacts
References
CHAPTER 14: Resources
14.1 Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Groups
14.2 Publications and Other Information Sources
14.3 Training and Education
14.4 Proficiency Tests
References
CHAPTER 15: Concluding Remarks and Looking to the Future
15.1 Importance of Science on the Front End
15.2 The Integration of Physical Evidence with Police Investigations
15.3 Troubling Developments and Perceptions
15.4 Testing Facilities & the Creeping Inversion
15.5 The Pernicious Effects and Fallout from Bloodstain Workshops
15.6 Future Directions
References
Appendix 1: Fundamentals Revisited
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
TABLE 1.1 Modes of available documentation.
Chapter 3
TABLE 3.1 Approximate surface tension of common liquids at approximately 20 °C...
TABLE 3.2 Approximate densities of common liquids at roughly room temperature
TABLE 3.3 Approximate viscosities of common liquids at roughly room temperatu...
Chapter 7
TABLE 7.1 Principles of the Analysis and Interpretation of Blood Trace Config...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.1 A timeline of historical sciences that reconstruct the past based...
FIGURE 1.2 Image of a Jersey barrier, as viewed from a moving vehicle.
FIGURE 1.3 The physical evidence continuum, where the items written in blue,...
FIGURE 1.4 The scientific method.
FIGURE 1.5 Deductive, inductive, and abductive reasoning summary.
FIGURE 1.6 This image demonstrates the value of deductive, inductive, and ab...
FIGURE 1.7 The photograph shows the use of protective screens to shield the ...
FIGURE 1.8 Image of blood traces altered by swabbing, showing alteration of ...
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2.1 An image from Piotrowski's book (1895) depicting the blood traces...
FIGURE 2.2 Images from the 1936 film “Charlie Chan at the Race Track,” showi...
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.1 Diagram showing the imbalance of forces between molecules at the ...
FIGURE 3.2 A diagram of showing the physics of sheer as applied to a stack o...
FIGURE 3.3 Laminar (a) and turbulent (b) flows of water from a faucet. Figur...
FIGURE 3.4 High‐speed photograph of a bullet from a gunshot followed by part...
FIGURE 3.5 Rayleigh spout.
FIGURE 3.6 Photographs of sessile (or nonmoving) liquid blood droplets on a ...
FIGURE 3.7 Figure showing the effect of the wettability of the surface on th...
FIGURE 3.8 Coagulation in vivo by Dr. Graham Beards – Own work.
Chapter 4
FIGURE 4.1 Visible (overhead fluorescent) light (a) and IR photographs (b) o...
FIGURE 4.2 No visible blood traces are observed with normal white light (a),...
FIGURE 4.3 Photographs of an evidence jacket from a bludgeoning case, showin...
FIGURE 4.4 A sketch of the front (a) and back (b) of the evidence black leat...
FIGURE 4.5 A close‐up photograph of the midline region of the jacket, taken ...
FIGURE 4.6 A close‐up photograph of the right pocket area of the leather jac...
FIGURE 4.7 Raman spectrum of blood from a ~40‐year‐old female (Thermo Scient...
FIGURE 4.8 An illustration of the application of rapid DNA technology at a p...
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.1 Bloody footwear trace onto fabric.
FIGURE 5.2 Contact transfer of a bloody fingerprint onto copy paper.
FIGURE 5.3 Contact transfer of a bloody print onto an index card. Little inf...
FIGURE 5.4 Bloody fabric impression and overlying rivulets.
FIGURE 5.5 White labels affixed to the floor adjacent to each bloody footwea...
FIGURE 5.6 Trail of bloody footwear patterns.
FIGURE 5.7 Dynamic contact transfer.
FIGURE 5.8 Blood trace produced from droplet falling vertically onto station...
FIGURE 5.9 Blood trace produced from a blood drop projected horizontally and...
FIGURE 5.10 Arc or cast‐off patterns from a bludgeoning. The uppermost stain...
FIGURE 5.11 Arterial spurt where a femoral artery was breached.
FIGURE 5.12 Configurations resulting from a failed ateriovenous (AV) graft....
FIGURE 5.13 Blood traces resulting from droplets that possessed entrained ai...
FIGURE 5.14 Radial spatter traces from bludgeoning that has been “roadmapped...
FIGURE 5.15 Secondary spatter projected onto nearby sneaker.
FIGURE 5.16 Numerous blood traces on paneling and baseboard produced as seco...
FIGURE 5.17 Secondary spatter produced from blood impacting ribbed flooring....
FIGURE 5.18 Illustration of some of the droplet traces that were present onl...
FIGURE 5.19 Forward and retrograde secondary projectiles as a result of bull...
FIGURE 5.20 Traces deposited on witness panel situated parallel to firearm a...
FIGURE 5.21 Photographs of a wire rack with backspatter from penetrating wou...
FIGURE 5.22 Tissue particles on headliner and door frame accompanied by no i...
FIGURE 5.23 Change in flow direction of rivulets.
FIGURE 5.24 The flow of rivulets on the bottom of this door can help establi...
FIGURE 5.25 Example of serum separation from clot in a pool of blood on a ho...
FIGURE 5.26 It may not be possible to determine whether or not the clotting ...
FIGURE 5.27 Falcon™ conical tubes containing blood diluted with water (hemol...
FIGURE 5.28 Blood trace possibly diluted with saliva. The presence of appare...
FIGURE 5.29 When traces with apparent voids are encountered an effort should...
FIGURE 5.30 Attempted altering of the configuration of a large quantity of b...
FIGURE 5.31 Rear seat was treated with Luminol and the chemiluminescence doc...
FIGURE 5.32 Maggot trails.
FIGURE 5.33 Photographs of blood traces from flies, with an overall image (a...
FIGURE 5.34 Two blood traces on a steering wheel apparently deposited by fli...
FIGURE 5.35 Three rivulets disturbed after being deposited.
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6.1 (a) Representation of an elliptical blood deposit in the impact p...
FIGURE 6.2 (a) Shadow of a sphere projected onto a planar surface at 0°, 30°...
FIGURE 6.3 Representation of the parabolic trajectory of a blood droplet, ig...
FIGURE 6.4 A high‐speed multiple image stroboscopic photograph of a single d...
FIGURE 6.5 Deposit from blood droplet impact at 80° angle of incidence.
FIGURE 6.6 Blood trace deposits created by droplets falling onto an inclined...
FIGURE 6.7 A graph showing the angle of impact as the independent variable a...
FIGURE 6.8 Depiction of the area of convergence (original caption in French ...
FIGURE 6.9 A demonstration of the visualization of the region of origin, mad...
FIGURE 6.10 Manual determination of elevation angle (out‐of‐plane impact ang...
FIGURE 6.11 A belt device with the drive spool in the foreground on the left...
FIGURE 6.12 Resulting blood trace deposits produced using the moving impact ...
FIGURE 6.13 High speed stroboscopic photograph (strobe pulse rate is 6000 pu...
FIGURE 6.14 Diagram and resulting calculation of the EAI (Ø) using the trigo...
FIGURE 6.15 Plot of data from blood droplets that have been produced in thre...
FIGURE 6.16 Traces produced by blood falling onto a fixed inclined surface (...
FIGURE 6.17 Blood trace deposits made on a belt moving horizontally at a con...
FIGURE 6.18 Photograph of blood traces resulting from droplets striking a st...
FIGURE 6.19 Blood droplet deposits made by varying both the belt velocity an...
FIGURE 6.20 (a and b) The motion of the target may significantly affect the ...
FIGURE 6.21 (a) Orientation of belt device for production of traces in (b); ...
FIGURE 6.22 Diagrams of four primary situations that result in blood traces ...
FIGURE 6.23 A sequence (a–j) of individual high‐speed photographs of 26 μl d...
FIGURE 6.24 Some of the satellite droplets that are depicted in Figure 6.23 ...
FIGURE 6.25 A montage of a synthesized sequence of a falling drop impacting ...
Chapter 7
FIGURE 7.1 Incomplete cleanup. In this case, a victim was found in the stree...
FIGURE 7.2 In this case, the victim was found in the backyard of an apartmen...
FIGURE 7.3 A blood trace deposit with an unknown and uncharacterizable mecha...
FIGURE 7.4 The investigative information that can be obtained from a bloody ...
FIGURE 7.5 Initial responder crime scene photographs showing blood trace dep...
FIGURE 7.6 Physical fit of two bullet fragments.
FIGURE 7.7 Throw rug from the suspected victim's residence, showing the dist...
FIGURE 7.8 Photograph of a homicide scene before (a) and after (b) removal o...
FIGURE 7.9 Overlapping blood trace consisting of a bloody fingerprint on top...
FIGURE 7.10 Very different trace morphology from impact with same wooden sur...
FIGURE 7.11 Same height of fall onto glass (top) and carpet (bottom). Carpet...
FIGURE 7.12 Glass v. ceramic tile. As commonly recognized, blood traces resu...
FIGURE 7.13 Photographs of a latent transfer blood trace on the rear seat of...
FIGURE 7.14 A concentric circle target (bull’s eye) representation of the co...
Chapter 10
FIGURE 10.1 Paul Kirk's diagram showing the configuration of blood traces on...
FIGURE 10.2 The strings illustrate the cone of the void pattern on the wall,...
FIGURE 10.3 Paul Kirk's photographs of the adjacent twin bed (a) and a close...
FIGURET 10.4 Paul Kirk's photographs of the closet (wardrobe) door on the ea...
FIGURE 10.5 Police photograph from the initial investigation showing the east...
FIGURE 10.6 Crime scene sketch of the store. Legend:#1 spatter pattern ...
FIGURE 10.7 A picture of the shelving showing blood traces and hair bundles ...
FIGURE 10.8 The directional blood trace deposits on the shelving pillar with...
FIGURE 10.9 The undersurface of the shelving showing the blood droplet trace...
FIGURE 10.10 A photograph of the knife blade showing the blood demarcation a...
FIGURE 10.11 Plan view of the three levels of the Bundy Drive residence. The...
FIGURE 10.12 Crime scene photograph of Nicole Simpson's body, as found. The ...
FIGURE 10.13 Crime scene photograph of Ronald Goldman's body, as found. Of p...
FIGURE 10.14 The bloody trail leading away from the bodies, with the footwea...
FIGURE 10.15 (a and b) Close‐up photographs of the bloody footwear outsole p...
FIGURE 10.16 Blood droplet deposit on the driveway apron, at the end of the ...
FIGURE 10.17 Plan view of the North Rockingham Avenue residence. The positio...
FIGURE 10.18 Photograph of a blood deposit on the driver's side door of O.J....
FIGURE 10.19 A view of the driveway of the North Rockingham Avenue residence...
FIGURE 10.20 A blood droplet deposit on the street pavement in front of the ...
FIGURE 10.21 Blood droplet deposits on the driveway outside of O.J. Simpson'...
FIGURE 10.22 A swab of the master bedroom basin drain showing a presumptive ...
FIGURE 10.23 A swab of the master bedroom shower drain showing a presumptive...
FIGURE 10.24 Inside of cut open bindle used to contain swatches used for blo...
FIGURE 10.25 Black dress socks found on the bedroom floor at Simpson's resid...
FIGURE 10.26 Evidence photographs of the black dress socks found on the bedr...
FIGURE 10.27 Close‐up photograph of the black dress socks found on the bedro...
FIGURE 10.28 Photomicrographs of the black dress socks found on the bedroom ...
FIGURE 10.29 Image C shows an alleged “ball of blood” (circled in black mark...
FIGURE 10.30 Photographs of the envelope before (a) and after (b) it was pic...
FIGURE 10.31 The right black leather glove recovered at O.J. Simpson's North...
FIGURE 10.32 A image showing the stairwell of the tenth floor landing and st...
FIGURE 10.33 An image showing blood traces on the stair treads between the s...
FIGURE 10.34 An image showing blood traces on the second floor landing where...
FIGURE 10.35 Two images (a and b) of the Nyclad® (a proprietary nylon coatin...
FIGURE 10.36 The bullet from Figure 10.35 had torn and carried a swatch from...
FIGURE 10.37 Photograph of the Colt Cobra six‐shot 38‐special handgun recove...
FIGURE 10.38 Photograph of the murdered driver from the vehicle's passenger ...
FIGURE 10.39 Photograph of the top of the driver's side seatback and headres...
FIGURE 10.40 Photograph of the passenger seat area showing radial blood drop...
FIGURE 10.41 Photograph of the victim showing vaporized lead deposits on his...
FIGURE 10.42 (a, b) A photograph of the passenger door speaker grill, with t...
FIGURE 10.43 Photograph showing the configuration of blood deposits extended...
FIGURE 10.44 A simple stringing of selected blood trace deposits in the pass...
FIGURE 10.45 A simple stringing of selected blood trace deposits in the pass...
FIGURE 10.46 A photograph of the suspected weapon, a pocket pen knife, recov...
FIGURE 10.47 (a, b) Photographs of the defendant's socks, removed by the EMT...
FIGURE 10.48 (a–c) Photographs of the defendant’s sweatshirt, removed by the...
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11.1 Mid‐range (a) and close‐up (b, c) photographs of blood traces on...
FIGURE 11.2 Stereomicroscope photomicrograph of two blood traces in Area 30 ...
FIGURE 11.3 Stereomicroscope photomicrographs of two deposits (a and b) in A...
FIGURE 11.4 Two blood traces deposited on the bottom of edge of the hem of t...
FIGURE 11.5 Photograph (a) and closer views (b–e) of cuttings from Area 30 f...
FIGURE 11.6 Mid‐range (a) and close up (b) photographs of the back of David ...
FIGURE 11.7 Close‐up photograph of the blood trace deposit in Area 40. It is...
FIGURE 11.8 Photograph of the front of a t‐shirt from an experiment by Barie...
FIGURE 11.9 Photograph (a and b) of the results of an experiment performed a...
FIGURE 11.10 Mid‐range (a–c) and close‐up (d) photographs of the inside the ...
FIGURE 11.11 Photograph of the inside roof area of the Camm vehicle, showing...
FIGURE 11.12 Mid‐range (a) and close‐up (b) photographs of the back seat of ...
FIGURE 11.13 Overhead view of possible position of shooter and trajectories ...
FIGURE 11.14 A view of the position of the shooter and Jill Camm, prepared b...
FIGURE 11.15 A photograph of the sidewalk showing chalk outlines of the thre...
FIGURE 11.16 One of three unfired intact cartridges recovered on the sidewal...
FIGURE 11.17 Photograph of the head of the victim showing an initially unrec...
FIGURE 11.18 The bullet impact point on the building's aluminum‐clad sheathi...
FIGURE 11.19 Photomicrograph of a bullet that passed through one of the vict...
FIGURE 11.20 Glock's recoil spring chamber containing particulate traces of ...
FIGURE 11.21 Photomicrographs of thin sections prepared from tissue particul...
FIGURE 11.22 Photograph of the wall, showing the misuse of enhancement reage...
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12.1 Photograph depicting one of the areas inside of the vehicle cont...
FIGURE 12.2 Two photographs (a and b) of the passenger side rear‐view mirror...
FIGURE 12.3 A photograph showing the back and left shoulder area of the vict...
FIGURE 12.4 A photograph showing the back and left shoulder area of the vict...
FIGURE 12.5 An enhanced version of the previous photograph, showing one part...
FIGURE 12.6 Exemplar impression of the outsole pattern from the suspect's ri...
FIGURE 12.7 A photograph of the victim's back at autopsy, after the body had...
Chapter 13
FIGURE 13.1 For experiments involving blood trace deposits, a more realistic...
FIGURE 13.2 Blood‐soaked polyurethane foam is a very poor model for gunshot ...
FIGURE 13.3 Dialysis cartridge with a section of the plastic cover removed f...
FIGURE 13.4 Blood‐infused dialysis tubing post‐firearm discharge, in the exp...
FIGURE 13.5 Witness paper on the muzzle side of the firearm discharge to det...
FIGURE 13.6 Witness paper on the muzzle side of the firearm discharge to det...
FIGURE 13.7 Several gunshot wounds from a large bore shotgun from close rang...
FIGURE 13.8 Diffusion of a contact transfer on Broadcloth (65/35 cotton–poly...
FIGURE 13.9 Diffusion of a 45‐μl droplet that fell 50 cm onto satin (polyest...
FIGURE 13.10 Diffusion of a 45‐μl droplet that fell 10 cm onto satin (polyes...
FIGURE 13.11 Differential diffusion in polyester–cotton blend.
FIGURE 13.12 In the above illustration, it might be tempting to conclude tha...
FIGURE 13.13 Are these traces from two different objects? No. Both of these ...
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14.1 A graphic displaying the organization of NIST’s OSACs (as of Jun...
FIGURE 14.2 Questions posed to members of the OSAC on bloodstain pattern ana...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Epigraph
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Foreword
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Appendix 1 Fundamentals Revisited
Bibliography
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Blood Traces
Interpretation of Deposition and Distribution
PETER R. DE FOREST
City University of New York
New York, NY, USA
PETER A. PIZZOLA
Pace University
New York, NY, USA
BROOKE W. KAMMRATH
University of New Haven
West Haven, CT, USA
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The right of Peter R. De Forest, Peter A. Pizzola and Brooke W. Kammrath to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: De Forest, Peter R., author. | Pizzola, Peter A., author. | Kammrath, Brooke W., author.Title: Blood traces : interpretation of deposition and distribution / Peter R. De Forest, Peter A. Pizzola, Brooke W. Kammrath.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2021031543 (print) | LCCN 2021031544 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119764533 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119764700 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119764717 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Bloodstain pattern analysis. | Forensic hematology. | Crime scene searches. | Evidence, Criminal. | Forensic sciences–Methodology.Classification: LCC HV8077.5.B56 D45 2021 (print) | LCC HV8077.5.B56 (ebook) | DDC 363.25/62–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031543LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031544
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Courtesy of Jeffrey Buszka and Norman Marin
Dedication
We dedicate this book to our students and those scientists striving to improve the science of forensic science and its broader implementation in the service of justice.
For my late wife and life partner Carol, daughter Kimi, son‐in‐law Jon, son Robb, daughter‐in‐law Toni, and grandchildren Colby, Wesley, Helena, and Eleanor, who continue to inspire and amaze me.Peter R. De Forest
To Lori – my wife and best bud – for her support and patience. And for my children Anthony, Paul, Donna, Danielle, along with their spouses and my grandchildren – all of whom keep me on my toes.Peter A. Pizzola
To my husband Matt, it is a privilege to share this life with you. I love you more. To my children Riley and Grayson, you are my motivation and joy. I love you most.Brooke W. Kammrath
Epigraph
A poor physical evidence investigation risks punishing the victim, benefits the guilty, and may adversely impact the accused.
Foreword
From my early childhood memories, I can vividly remember how I became hooked on this black and white American TV series entitled The Fugitive that initially ran in the USA between 1963 and 1967 and that I discovered in a French‐dubbed version a few years later. In this show, a doctor wrongfully convicted of his wife's murder manages to escape and looks for the real killer. I am not sure how my parents could let a five‐year‐old watch such a show. However, it planted a seed! Many years later, in the mid‐eighties, as an undergraduate student at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland, working under Professor Pierre Margot, and while my passion for forensic science was rapidly growing, I learned that The Fugitive might have been loosely inspired by the case of the murder of Marilyn Sheppard in 1954. Like on the TV show (and in the 1993 movie with Harrison Ford), the victim's husband, Dr. Sam Sheppard, was a doctor and was convicted for the murder. However, unlike in the fiction, the husband was acquitted at a retrial in 1967.
Why am I telling you this? First, because blood traces played a significant role in this case, particularly in the reconstruction proposed by the defence, ultimately leading to a non‐guilty verdict the second time around. Further, the examination of these blood traces and the reconstruction of the events based on these observations were undertaken by one of the father figures of forensic science, Dr. Paul L. Kirk. At this point, it is worth mentioning that the authors of this book are a direct legacy of Dr. Kirk, particularly Dr. Peter R. De Forest who studied under him and subsequently worked with him for many years. With such a heritage, it is not surprising to discover such a fine book.
Peter De Forest, Brooke Kammrath and Peter Pizzola bring with them over 120 years of combined experience in forensic science, specifically focusing on crime scene reconstructions and blood traces examinations. It is difficult to identify a more authoritative team to cover such a complex and critical topic comprehensively.
In this day and age, forensic science is often criticised for its lack of scientific foundations, and crime laboratories increasingly operate in a mechanistic and self‐contained way following what some call a “pill factory paradigm.” It is refreshing to see a modern forensic science book calling for improving forensic science through first scientific principles and not mainly normative processes. The need to reframe the crime scene as a scientific problem that has to be addressed using a scientific approach applied by scientifically trained personnel is a prime example of where improvements can occur. A better understanding of fundamental forensic science principles is another area in need, and, unsurprisingly, the authors succeed in anchoring blood traces to these principles. For example, the book includes an enhanced debate about terminology (e.g., stain vs trace; pattern vs configuration) and a discussion about blood traces as a vector of information to develop and answer relevant questions.
I cannot recommend this book strongly enough. After a brief review of the history of blood traces, several key issues are identified in the introduction and ultimately dealt with in more detail later in the text. Basic principles of the interpretation and analysis of blood traces' configuration are well enunciated and then developed in subsequent chapters. Many concepts are illustrated using casework examples. With this book, the authors make a significant contribution to forensic science in general, and the scientific examination and interpretation of crime scene and blood traces in particular.
By reading this book, if you are a student or a trainee, you have the assurance to start your journey in forensic science on the right path. If you are a practitioner, scientist or lawyer, you can benefit from a fresh perspective having its roots in forensic science foundations; it is never too late to learn. If you are a researcher, you will be inspired and develop impactful and relevant research in the future. And honestly, merely finding a forensic science book about blood without focusing on DNA should encourage you to read it straight away…
Distinguished Professor Claude RouxDirector, Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, AustraliaPresident, International Association of Forensic Sciences
Acknowledgements
In addition to the patience, understanding and generosity of time by our families, we have been inspired by generations of past students. It is the role of an educator or mentor to teach critical thinking as well as subject‐specific information, but we recognize that students are often the greatest teachers. We have learned more from our students than we have imparted and recognize that one of the most valuable rewards of being an educator and mentor is the opportunity to work with numerous outstanding students.
Much of the early work of this book was based on the concepts of Ralph Ristenbatt, III who also formulated a preliminary outline which was the initial impetus for this project. Throughout the course of this work, he provided many of the references, i.e., textbooks, journal articles, scientific reports, dissertations and theses that we studied and incorporated. Our only regret is that he obstinately refused to become a co‐author!
We are grateful to Det. John C. Perkins (retired Yonkers P.D.) who assisted with many of the high‐speed studies of blood droplet impacts and the study of backspatter as discussed in this book. He was part of the John Jay College group comprised of Lenore Kodet (retired forensic scientist), Stephen Roth (physicist), Pete Pizzola, and Peter R. De Forest. Stephen Kwechin, retired police officer and member of the Yonkers PD Crime Scene Unit, is thanked for the construction of the device for the controlled projection of blood droplets.
We are also indebted to Detective John Geiss of the Yonkers P.D. cold case unit for providing background information on some of the Yonkers cases discussed in the book and for acting as a liaison with the Department regarding permission to use certain photographs.
There are numerous other colleagues, past and present, who have made indelible impacts on our philosophy and understanding of forensic science. Although there are too many to mention all of them here, in particular, we gratefully acknowledge (in alphabetical order) Robert Adamo, Angie Ambers, David Barclay, Peter Barnett, Cliff Brant, Rebecca Bucht, JoAnn Buscaglia, Jeffrey Buszka, Patrick Buzzini, Brian Caddy, Timothy Carron, Donald Christopher, Vincent Crispino, Lisa Dadio, Donald Dahlberg, Josep De Alcaraz‐Fossoul, Peter Diaczuk, Fred Drummond, Anna Duggar, Bart Epstein, Charles Hirsch, Brian Gestring, Claire Glynn, Adam Hall, Jack Hietpas, Charles Kingston, Paul Kirk, Koby Kizzire, Thomas Kubic, Philip Langellotti, Pauline Leary, Henry Lee, John Lentini, Colleen Lockhart, Doug Lucas, Pierre Margot, Norman Marin, Kirby Martir, Michelle Miranda, Chuck Morton, Elaine Pagliaro, Chris Palenik, Skip Palenik, Ken Paras, Joseph Peterson, Nicholas D.K. Petraco, Nicholas Petraco (Sr.), Dale Purcell, Lawrence Quarino, Barbara Sampson, Tony Raymond, John Reffner, Katherine Roberts, Linda Rourke, Claude Roux, David San Pietro, George Sensabaugh, Robert Shaler, Francis Sheehan, Jacqueline Speir, Peter Valentin, and Sheila Willis.
Preface to Blood Traces: Interpretation of Deposition and Distribution
Why do we need another text on the interpretation of blood traces? Has not the subject of bloodstain pattern analysis been covered adequately in other books? We are of the opinion that there are many aspects of the interpretation of blood traces that are of concern and have not been treated with the thought or caution that should be afforded them. Most important, existing texts do not sufficiently emphasize the need for interpretations to be made by experienced scientists with strict adherence to the scientific method. At one point in the report issued by the National Research Council (NRC) of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward published in 2009, the question is raised as to whether or not there is a scientific basis behind opinions offered in court in what has been termed bloodstain pattern interpretation.
Although there is a professional society of bloodstain pattern analysts, the two organizations that have or recommend qualifications are the IAI and the Scientific Working Group on Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (SWGSTAIN). SWGSTAIN's suggested requirements for practicing bloodstain pattern analysis are outwardly impressive, as are IAI's 240 hours of course instruction. But the IAI has no educational requirements for certification in bloodstain pattern analysis. This emphasis on experience over scientific foundations seems misguided, given the importance of rigorous and objective hypothesis testing and the complex nature of fluid dynamics. In general, the opinions of bloodstain pattern analysts are more subjective than scientific.
(NAS Report 2009, page 178)
As of the writing of this book, there are still no science‐based higher education requirements for bloodstain pattern analysts, although efforts are underway in the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSACs) and the American Standards Board (ASB) of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS). What fails to be appreciated in current practice and publications is that situations involving the interpretation of blood trace configurations are often very complex and the difficulties faced in rendering conclusions in this area are among the most scientifically challenging of those in any area of forensic science.
After a brief survey of the history of the subject of blood traces, several key issues will be identified in the introduction and ultimately dealt with in more detail later in the text. At the end of this chapter, some basic principles of the interpretation and analysis of the configuration of blood traces will be enunciated. These will be discussed at greater length and reiterated in subsequent chapters.
What are blood traces? Why use this as the title for our book rather than the generally accepted term in the English language of “bloodstain patterns?” The early contributors to nascent forensic science, including Edmund Locard, Hans Gross, and Eduard Piotrowski, used the term traces (traces de sang in French) or in the case of the German‐speaking authors “Blutspuren” (Piotrowski 1895), the German expression meaning “traces of blood,” when referring to the analysis of the physical configurations of blood evidence discovered at the scene of a crime. In addition, not all blood deposits stain the substrate and thus are not truly “stains.” Examples would include dried deposits on hydrophobic surfaces, such as polymer coatings (e.g., paint and varnish), plastics, or treated glass, from which they can easily be dislodged. There is the potential for ambiguity with the term blood traces in that it could suggest biochemical genetic testing rather than an interpretation of the three‐dimensional geometry of the deposits at a scene. Ultimately, no expression is ideal. However, the authors feel that a return to this original terminology of blood traces more accurately represents all that is encompassed in the interpretation of the deposition and distribution of blood evidence at a crime scene and hope that it will inspire others to recognize that it is more than just pattern classification and analysis.
Why is the term “bloodstain pattern analysis” a poor term for this work? There are several reasons for an objection to this terminology. First, it is not individual patterns that are being analyzed, but rather the totality of the physical aspects of the blood traces. Various blood trace configurations are necessarily examined and contribute to the overall reconstruction. However, the so‐called patterns should not be the focus of the forensic examination. Assigning a name to the geometric features of a blood trace, i.e., classifying the pattern, does not necessarily advance the goal of reconstruction and trace interpretation of blood evidence. The interrelation of blood traces with respect to the scene or other objects bearing traces of blood is of much greater importance. Second, there is not a finite number of “bloodstain patterns,” thus a crime scene scientist will undoubtedly encounter important geometric configurations that do not fit into a neat classification scheme. For example, blood that has soaked through a fabric or some other porous structure that is no longer present at the time of the scene investigation may represent the vestige of an earlier and more complex configuration, such as blood through bedding that has been disturbed or removed. Third, in the physical evidence context, the term pattern connotes a comparison process, whereby a questioned pattern is compared to a known pattern directed toward source attribution. Although this is the goal when analyzing fingerprints, footwear outsole imprints, tire tread impressions, toolmarks, firearm‐produced marks on ammunition components, etc., this is not the central activity of the interpretation of blood traces. Fourth, the common usage of the term pattern indicates a repeating design (such as a textile, wallpaper, or floor pattern), which is certainly not the meaning for blood trace deposits. A recent focus on bloodstain pattern taxonomies in the OSAC Bloodstain Pattern Analysis subcommittee is misdirected, and instead the emphasis should be on providing an understanding of the interrelationship of the totality of blood trace deposits with the goal of reconstructing critical details of the event(s). Despite the expression “bloodstain pattern” having the previously identified weaknesses, we will sometime use this terminology in places in the text because the reader should be familiar with its existing and common usage.
Existing & Commonly Used Terminology
Introduced Terminology
Justification
Bloodstain
Blood traces or deposits
Not all evidence examples of this type are actually stains, thus use of the term bloodstain is inaccurate.
Pattern
Configuration
The word “pattern” is not as general as the term configuration. Configuration is a better term for blood deposits or traces in three‐dimensional space.
What are traces? When we are confining our discussing to material evidence, there are two distinct conceptualizations for the term trace in English (De Forest 2001). The first refers to size or amount, where a trace of material indicates a small amount or a low concentration of a component in a larger specimen. An example of the concentration connotation would be trace elemental analysis. Despite the narrower “amount” or “concentration” focus being common in American usage for the term trace, it is not the defining characteristic of the word as it was intended by pioneers Edmund Locard and Paul Kirk. Instead, the term trace in the context used here more appropriately represents evidence of a prior presence or a vestige remaining after a causal object has been removed, as in the phrase “he vanished without a trace.” This is consistent with one of the foundational philosophies of forensic science, Locard's exchange principle, which has been commonly, but somewhat inaccurately, reduced to the phrase “every contact leaves a trace.” In this context, the term trace refers to the exchange of material or production of a pattern as a result of an interaction from a prior presence or both.
Trace evidence investigations are concerned with the goal of shedding light on an event by taking advantage of the marks that were made and/or material that was transferred or deposited during its occurrence. Unfortunately, blood and other physiological fluids are not commonly considered to be a type of trace evidence, however conceptually it is useful to consider them as such. The reason for the separate consideration of blood traces from trace evidence is because in common practice there exists a self‐contained set of laboratory analytical techniques for such biological evidence. Despite this pigeonholing, blood evidence in the context of analysis of the deposition and distribution of blood traces is clearly a form of trace evidence.
Blood trace deposits, often present at scenes of violence, may arguably be one of the most important types of physical evidence in a scene investigation. Despite this, other complementary traces may be present and should be thoroughly considered in a holistic approach to scene investigation. The analysis of blood traces may provide the identification of its origin (species) and subsequent approach to individualization (DNA). Additionally, the analysis of blood may answer questions that extend beyond source attribution to reconstruction. In these cases, the determination of its manner of deposition may prove to be more valuable than the associative evidence aspect.
Historically, the formal introduction of science into criminal investigations has been achieved primarily by physicians and scientists. In the middle of the nineteenth century, physicians first recognized the significance of blood trace configuration evidence. John Swinburne, an American physician, was involved in the investigation of the case of the death of Reverend Henry Budge's wife in 1861. Swinburne testified in the inquest to his analysis of the victim's wounds, blood trace evidence on the body and at the scene, and his experiments performed to illustrate the type of bloodstain patterns expected but not observed around Mrs. Budge (Swinburne 1862). Eduard Piotrowski, a Polish physician, published a study in 1895 in which he bludgeoned and stabbed live rabbits and examined the resultant blood trace geometries (Piotrowski 1895). Balthazard, a French physician, and his colleagues published their research in 1939 involving projected blood droplets (Balthazard et al. 1939). Scientists, many of whom were criminalists including Kirk, MacDonell, and Pizzola, et al., have researched the formation and the configuration of blood traces (Kirk 1953, 1955; MacDonell 1971; Pizzola et al. 1986a, b).
During the last several decades, many groups have reported on various aspects of blood trace formation, blood droplet dynamics, issues involving chronology of two or more blood depositions, and other aspects of blood deposits and their configurations. Unfortunately, some of this work has ignored fundamental aspects of science. In addition, an understanding of the limitations and alternate hypotheses has been absent in the presentation and publication of some studies. In research, these problems usually do not directly affect the outcome of criminal or civil cases; however, when translated into casework, may yield potentially disastrous outcomes. Gross miscarriages of justice due to erroneous, recognizable, and avoidable factors are unacceptable. Put simply, lack of science, poor science, and pseudoscience cannot be tolerated in criminalistics where the goal of the endeavor is to provide objective evidence for the resolution of an issue that is typically critical. Some flawed and dangerously erroneous examples from cases will be discussed later in this volume.
Areas of Concern
There are several aspects of the practice of what is termed “bloodstain pattern analysis” that was the driving force for writing this book, three of which warrant specific discussion here: (i) determining the relevance of blood traces, (ii) the limitations of the value of a classification scheme, and (iii) a lack of appreciation of the complexity of blood trace interpretations and the necessity for a scientific approach, which often manifests itself as deficient educational requirements for those doing this work.
Determining Relevance
There has been inadequate attention directed toward the determination of the relevance of the components of the totality of the blood trace record with respect to the overarching and ultimate goal of reconstructing the event. Not all blood traces at a crime scene are relevant to the inquiry. For example, blood may continue to flow and spread after the event of interest, and post‐event activities may alter or eradicate important information. Determining the relevance of specific blood traces to an understanding of the details of the event in question is not a trivial problem, despite the fact that it is both underappreciated and overlooked. When the relevance of blood traces is not critically evaluated, the analysis can lead to both pernicious misinterpretations and mismanagement of resources. The determination of relevance is thus of the utmost importance at the beginning of an investigation to ensure a proper reconstruction as well as economy in the assignment of resources.
Limitations and Pitfalls of a Classification Scheme
Historically and more recently, various individuals and committees of bloodstain pattern analysts have placed considerable emphasis on developing classification schemes (taxonomies and typologies). This focus is misdirected and less important than perceived. One should not expect there to be a finite number of bloodstain patterns. There are in fact an infinite number of possible blood trace configurations. Consequently, no classification scheme of bloodstain patterns can be devised to encompass all possible configurations that can be encountered. Reliance on a classification scheme provides a false sense of confidence for examiners who feel compelled to assign a blood trace configuration to a specific category. Essentially, they may risk trying “to force a square peg into a round hole,” which can lead to serious errors. This risk has been demonstrated in research studies and will be discussed further in Chapter 5. When the details of the blood trace geometry are sparse or ambiguous, some analysts may not recognize the uncertainty in identifying its origin and mechanism of deposition. This naïve and forced conformity can contribute to the failure to recognize alternative hypotheses or explanations for the mechanism of deposition of a blood trace configuration and lead to a false interpretation of the overall event.
On many occasions, blood trace configurations are simply too ambiguous for one to have confidence in determining their production mechanism. This issue is an extremely important one as it continues to influence the outcome of some noteworthy cases. A recent and well‐publicized example of this is the David Camm triple homicide (Chapter 10). The Camm case was recently adjudicated with a not guilty verdict after the third trial following reversals of the two earlier convictions. The defense and prosecution employed ten different bloodspatter “experts,” yet the manner of deposition of the blood traces on Camm's shirt and on the roll bar shroud of the vehicle was the subject of extensive disagreement. Reliance on an oversimplified classification scheme by the initial “expert” propelled the inquiry down a false path. This, combined with inadequate passive and non‐existent active photographic documentation, led to a flawed and misdirected investigation resulting in a scientifically unsupported reconstruction.
It is often counterproductive and wasteful to focus on classifying all the blood trace configurations present at an event scene before one has developed insight into their relevance to the entirety of the event and questions raised. The actions of a criminalist when faced with the problem of reconstructing an event at a crime scene do not follow a strictly linear process, whereby one begins with passive documentation followed by classification and lastly interpretation. It should be a recursive process, which is informed by the scientific method involving the development and testing of hypotheses (Chapter 1). Overreliance on a classification scheme can thwart the iterative process that is the hallmark of the scientific method.
The Complexity of Blood Trace Interpretations and the Necessity for a Scientific Approach
The need for a rigorous scientific approach to the physical analysis of blood traces, and thus the necessity of a scientific education as well as specialized training and in‐depth experience for crime scene reconstructionists, is discussed throughout this book. The oversimplification of blood trace geometric analysis is a formidable problem in that the complexities of blood trace interpretations are often underappreciated. This is often compounded by the overreliance on classification schemes and simplistic training simulations that do not adequately demonstrate real‐world blood trace production and how it can create complex blood trace configurations. By not appropriately challenging trainees, they can develop overconfidence in their abilities and adopt an oversimplified view of this type of analysis. Not understanding the complexities of blood trace deposition interpretations has considerable negative implications that run the risk of inventing flawed and misleading reconstructions.
Cautionary Principles of the Analysis and Interpretation of Blood Trace Configurations
We propose eight fundamental principles that must be remembered and practiced for a comprehensive analysis and interpretation of blood trace configurations at a crime scene. These stem from over a 120 years of combined experience by the authors in the field of forensic science, specifically with a focus in crime scene reconstructions. These will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7.
Principle #1: ‐ Properly recognized and understood, blood traces may reveal a great deal of useful information during a crime scene investigation.
Principle #2: ‐ There will be cases where extensive blood traces are present but where a clear understanding of them does not address relevant issues in the case at hand.
Principle #3: ‐ The extent of the blood traces observed at the time of a crime scene investigation is commonly greater than that produced at the time of the initial wounding. This may seem like an obvious statement, but errors are made when this is not given proper consideration. Of course, the time of the initial wounding is often of the most interest in crime scene reconstruction.
This principle has several corollaries. Some of these are principles in their own right.
Principle #4: ‐ The initial wounding may not produce any immediate or useful blood trace configurations.
Principle #5: ‐ Blood traces produced in the course of the initial wounding may be altered or totally obscured by the flow of additional blood from the wound.
Principle #6: ‐ Blood shed by the wound or wounds may be transferred by post‐event activities that may alter or obscure the blood trace geometry associated with the initial wounding event.
Principle #7: ‐ Configurations of blood traces consisting of a collection of airborne droplet deposits can be informative with respect to providing an understanding of events that have taken place at a crime scene. Although schemes for assigning such patterns to specific causes or production mechanisms can be helpful, they are often oversimplified. It is naïve to think that patterns encountered in a crime scene can always be assigned to one of a finite number of mechanisms as defined by a typological or taxonomical systems.
Principle #8: ‐ A collection of a few seemingly related dried blood droplets is not necessarily a pattern. It should never be treated as one. The number or extent of blood traces may be inadequate to allow a meaningful interpretation.
References
Balthazard, V., Piédelièvre, R., Desoille, H., and Dérobert, L. (1939). Étude des gouttes de sang projeté.
Congrès de Médecine Légale
19: 265–323.
De Forest, P.R. (2001). What is trace evidence? In:
Forensic Examination of Glass and Paint: Analysis and Interpretation
(ed. B. Caddy), 1–25. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
Kirk, P.L. (1953).
Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory
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Kirk, P.L. (1955).
Affidavit of Paul Leland Kirk
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MacDonell, H.L. (1971).
Flight Characteristics and Stain Patterns of Human Blood
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Piotrowski, E. (1895).
Ueber entstehung, form, richtung, und ausbreitung der blutspuren nach hiebwunden des kopfes
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CHAPTER 1Physical Evidence Record
1.1 Generation of Physical Evidence Record
1.1.1 Scene as a Recording Medium
Events leave physical traces which form a physical evidence record of the event. Traces are the elements of the record. Humans may be concerned about such physical evidence records extending over extremely vast timescales. Depending on the timescale, some past events may be the subject of investigations by cosmologists, astrophysicists, geophysicists, geologists, paleontologists, or archeologists (Figure 1.1). The record is created by processes that are subject to physical laws. Carol Cleland has characterized these investigative endeavors as “historical science” (Cleland 2002). All these scientific fields are centered on developing a scientific understanding of the traces that comprise the physical evidence record. Myriad physical evidence records are being created continuously. Some are the result of human activity. The vast majority of more recent events may be inconsequential with respect to a given inquiry. However, some small fraction of much more recent events can be of great concern in accident or criminal investigations.
The physical world is constantly changing. Past changes can best be understood from scientific studies of the physical record that is produced as the result of the processes that create these changes. A scientific understanding of this record in the case of the planet Earth has developed only relatively recently. For example, the acceptance of tectonic plate theory is only about 100 years old. Yet, without the powerful synthesis the tectonic plate theory provides, we would not have valid explanations for myriad observations for the interrelated phenomena of mountain building, earthquakes, sea floor spreading, volcanoes, fossils of marine species in mountainous regions, and fossils of tropical species in Antarctica, to name a few. Focusing on fossils for the moment, these form a record of the development and evolution of life on earth including the emergence of humans. In addition to the fossil record, human activities during the last few hundred thousand years, such as tool making, have left artifacts that have added an important part to the record that archeologists study.
FIGURE 1.1 A timeline of historical sciences that reconstruct the past based on the physical evidence record. This is an illustration of the ideas of Carol Cleland that has been extended by the authors to include crime scene and accident investigation. The arrow refers to how far back in time, or the degree of recentness, an event occurs in which these scientific fields study, i.e., flowing from the ancient past to more recent events.
