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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Building Sustainability in East Asia: Policy, Design and People illustrates the holistic approaches and individual strategies to building sustainability that have been implemented in construction projects in Asia. Top-down and bottom-up approaches (from formulating policy to constructing individual buildings) are effective in terms of the sustainable development of cities, and this book covers both, illustrated with a range of case study developments.
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Seitenzahl: 451
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
About the authors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgement
Section 1: On contexts
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 WHY SUSTAINABILITY MATTERS
1.2 WHY ASIA MATTERS
1.3 WHY BUILDINGS MATTER
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1.5 SUSTAINABILITY IN PRACTICE
1.6 ORGANISATION OF THE BOOK
Chapter 2: Rapid urbanisation
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ASIAN URBANISATION IN CONTEXT
2.3 DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES
2.4 ECONOMIC CHANGES
2.5 SOCIAL CHANGES
2.6 NEW GROWTH MODEL
2.7 SUMMARY
Chapter 3: Urban environmental challenges
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 URBAN CHALLENGES IN CONTEXT
3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE CHALLENGES
3.4 URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
3.5 LIVEABILITY DEGRADATION
3.6 SUMMARY
Chapter 4: Quest for solutions
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATIONS AND PARTNERSHIPS
4.3 C40 CITIES CLIMATE LEADERSHIP GROUP INITIATIVE
4.4 WEF PARTNERSHIP FOR FUTURE OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT
4.5 REGIONAL INTEGRATION
4.6 CHANGES FOR SOLUTIONS
4.7 PARADIGM SHIFT
Section 2: On policy
Chapter 5: Policy framework
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 POLICY FRAMEWORK
5.3 POLICY PRIORITIES
5.4 POLICY INSTRUMENTS
5.5 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
5.6 SUMMARY
Chapter 6: Policy implementation
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 GENERAL APPROACH
6.3 REVIEW OF THE REGULATIONS
6.4 MARKET SOLUTIONS
6.5 MARKET‐BASED APPROACH
6.6 PUBLIC‐PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (PPP)
6.7 COLLABORATION WITH PRIVATE SECTOR
6.8 CAPACITY BUILDING
6.9 SUMMARY
Section 3: On design
Chapter 7: Sustainability transformation
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 GREEN TRANSFORMATION OF BUILDING INDUSTRY
7.3 PRACTICE OF BUILDING SUSTAINABILITY
7.4 SUSTAINABLE BUILDING IN ACTION
7.5 BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING
7.6 SUMMARY
Chapter 8: Engineering solutions
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE BUILDING
8.3 ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESILIENT DESIGNS
8.4 HIGH‐PERFORMANCE BUILDINGS
8.5 DESIGN INNOVATIONS
8.6 SUMMARY
Chapter 9: De‐carbonisation
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 BUILDING ENERGY PERFORMANCE
9.3 LOW/ZERO CARBON DESIGN
9.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENTS AND BUILDINGS
9.5 DISTRICT‐WIDE DE‐CARBONISATION
9.6 TOWARDS A LOW‐CARBON AND SMART CITY
9.7 SUMMARY
Section 4: On people
Chapter 10: Space for people
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 URBAN CONTEXT OF ASIA CITY
10.3 THE QUEST FOR A QUALITY BUILT ENVIRONMENT
10.4 REDUCING THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND
10.5 STREET CANYON EFFECT – ROADSIDE AIR POLLUTION
10.6 RIGHT OF LIGHT
10.7 HEALTH AND WELL‐BEING
10.8 SUMMARY
Chapter 11: Community making
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY
11.3 COMMUNITY‐BASED DESIGN
11.4 NEIGHBOURHOOD ASSESSMENT
11.5 DEVELOPMENT OF BEAM PLUS NEIGHBOURHOOD IN HONG KONG
11.6 SUMMARY
Chapter 12: Low carbon living
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.2 CARBON FOOTPRINT OF URBAN LIVING
12.3 BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES
12.4 CHANGES IN DESIGN CULTURE
12.5 ECO‐EDUCATION
12.6 ZERO ENERGY LIVING EXPERIENCE
12.7 COMMUNITY CENTRE
12.8 URBAN FARMING
12.9 LIVING LOHAS
12.10 SUMMARY
Section 5: Way forward
Chapter 13: Conclusions
ON CONTEXTS …
ON POLICY …
ON DESIGN ….
ON PEOPLE ….
WAY FORWARD ….
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1.1 Key Milestones of Green Building Development in Asia
Chapter 03
Table 3.1 Urban Challenges
Chapter 05
Table 5.1 National Plans and Policy Priorities of Sustainable Development in Asian Countries
Table 5.2 Selected Economic Instruments for Sustainable Development in Asia
Chapter 07
Table E7.2.1 Objectives and Issues under CEPAS Sustainability Framework
Table 7.1 Key International Standards Related to Green Buildings
Table 7.2 Available Local Green Building Rating in East Asia
Table E7.4.1 Material List
Chapter 09
Table E9.1.1 Summary of Electricity Consumption Models
Table E9.2.1 Schedule of Accommodations for the CIC ZCB
Table 9.1 GSHP Operation under Typical Conditions
Table E9.7.1 Operational Data for GSHP in BMW Green 5S Showroom
Table E9.10.1 Carbon Saving for Recent Building Projects in Hong Kong
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Typical Velocity Ratio in Different Districts in Hong Kong
Table 10.2 Factors in UHI design
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Leading Sustainable Communities in East Asia
Table 11.2 Overview of Five Overseas Schemes
Table 11.3 Assessment Aspect or Criteria of Five Overseas Schemes
Table 11.4 Prerequisites Focus Area of Five Overseas Schemes
List of Illustrations
Chapter 02
Figure 2.1 Trends in the Global Population. © Arup
Figure 2.2 Trends in the Geographic Distribution of the Global Population. © Arup
Figure 2.3 Trends in the Urban Population. © Arup
Figure 2.4 Urbanisation Rates of Asian Countries. © Arup
Figure 2.5 Trends of GDP Growth in China and the US. © Arup
Figure 2.6 Trends of GDP per Capita of Asian Countries. © Arup
Figure E2.1.1 Trends in Car Ownership. © Arup
Figure 2.7 Mega‐Cities in Asia. © Arup
Figure 2.8 Market Sizes of the Top Construction Markets. © Arup
Figure 2.9 Construction Market in China. © Arup
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1 Projection of Sea‐level Change at Year 2060 by CSIRO MK3 Climate System Model under AR5 Scenarios RCP 2.6, 4.5, 6.0 and 8.5. © Arup
Figure 3.2 Projection of Change of Daily Maximum Wind Speed at Year 2060 by Beijing Climate Center Climate System Model under AR5 Scenarios RCP 2.6, 4.5, 6.0 and 8.5. © Arup
Figure 3.3 Build Up of Global Warming Pollutants. © Arup
Figure 3.4 World Carbon Emissions by Region, Reference Case, 1990–2030. © Arup
Figure E3.1.1 Carbon Emission From Buildings in Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure 3.5 Air Pollution Problems in China. © Arup
Figure 3.6 Citizens Wearing Masks in Beijing. © Hung Chung Chih / Shutterstock.com
Figure E3.2.1 Trend of Passenger Transport in China. © Arup
Figure 3.7 World Energy Consumption. © Arup
Figure 3.8 Trends of Energy Use. © Arup
Figure 3.9 Comparison of Waste Management Structure with Other Areas in Asia. © Arup
Figure 3.10 Ecological Footprint of Countries.
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 C40 Participating Cities and the Actions Taken by Their Mayors. © Arup
Figure 4.2 The FUD Approaches for Champion Cities.
Figure 4.3 Framework for Realising Sustainable Development. © Arup
Chapter 05
Figure 5.1 Policy Framework for Sustainable Development. © Arup
Figure E5.3.1 Eco‐city Proposals in China. © Arup
Figure E5.5.1 GHG Emissions Target of Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure 5.2 Policy Instruments and Government Involvement. © Arup
Figure 5.3 Regulations for Planning, Building Energy, and Energy Efficiency. © Arup
Figure E5.6.1 Institutional Arrangement within Government for Sustainable Development. © Arup
Figure E5.7.1 Institution Arrangements for Eco‐city Implementation in China. © Arup
Chapter 06
Figure 6.1 Options for Policy Implementation. © Arup
Figure E6.1.1 Performance‐based Requirements for Daylight Regulation.
Figure E6.3.1 Level of Risk Transfer for Different Procurement Arrangements. © Arup
Chapter 07
Figure E7.1.1 Stakeholders and Their Roles for a Green Building Project. © Arup
Figure E7.2.1 Sustainability Framework for CEPAS. © Arup
Figure E7.2.2 Sustainability Model of Building and Neighbourhood. © Arup
Figure E7.3.1 Evaluation of CASBEE Scheme. © Arup
Figure E7.3.2 CASBEE Family of Labelling Scheme. © Arup
Figure 7.1 Life‐Cycle Saving of Carbon Emission Opportunities. © Arup
Figure 7.2 Interventions to Achieve 2°C Temperature Rise Limit. © Arup
Figure 7.3 Closed‐Loop Design Process. © Arup
Figure 7.4 Stages of Building Life Cycle. © Arup
Figure 7.5 Localisation LCI Process Development. © Arup
Figure E7.4.1 LCA/LCC Modelling of a Building. © Arup
Figure E7.5.1 Energizing Kowloon East Office, Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure 7.6 Integrated Building Management System. © Arup
Chapter 08
Figure E8.1.1 Typhoon Satellite Image and Building and Wind Profile. © Arup
Figure E8.1.2 Comparison between Wind Tunnel Prediction and Field Identified PSD. © Arup
Figure E8.2.1 Hysan Place in Hong Kong. © Kenny Ip
Figure E8.3.1 Parkview Green in Beijing, China. © Parkview Green
Figure 8.1 General Process for Building Envelope Optimisation. © Arup
Figure 8.2 Example of Solar Responsive Shading Analysis. © Arup
Figure E8.4.1 Responsive Façade at Al Bahar Towers in Abu Dhabi. © Arup
Figure E8.5.1 BIQ House in Germany. © Colt/Arup/SCC
Figure E8.7.1 Vanke Centre in Shenzhen, China. © Hufton+Crow
Chapter 09
Figure 9.1 Carbon Emission Projection from Buildings in China and ASEAN. © Arup
Figure E9.1.1 Electricity Consumption Model of Private Housing (Left) and Office (Right). © Arup
Figure E9.1.2 Retrofitting and EUI Reduction Targets for Different Types of Buildings in 2030. © Arup
Figure 9.2 Definition for Zero Carbon Building. © Arup
Figure 9.3 The “Golden Hierarchy” of Zero/Low Carbon Design. © Arup
Figure 9.4 Passive Design. © Arup
Figure 9.5 Active Design. © Arup
Figure 9.6 Example of a Step‐By‐Step Zero Carbon/Energy Design Approach. © Arup
Figure E9.2.1 CIC ZCB in Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure E9.2.2 Annual Energy Balance of Energy Consumption and Renewable Generation. © Arup
Figure E9.4.1 Hanwha Headquarters in Seoul, South Korea. © UNStudio
Figure E9.5.1 In‐building Hydro Turbine Installed in Olympian City 2, Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure E9.6.1 Micro Marine Turbine Prototype Demonstration in Hong Kong Gold Coast. © Sino
Figure E9.7.1 GSHP System Installed in BMW Green 5S Showroom. © Arup
Figure 9.7 MEG Concept. © Arup
Figure E9.8.1 Zoning for K‐MEG in Hansung City. © Arup
Figure E9.9.1 Phased Implementation of the KTD DCS. © Arup
Figure E9.9.2 North Plant and Chiller Installation. © Arup
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 CLC Liveability Matrix. © Arup
Figure 10.2 A Tale of Two “Compact and Vertical” Cities – Hong Kong and Singapore. Left: © Arup; Right: © TrongNguyen/Shutterstock.com
Figure 10.3 Urban Environment of Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure 10.4 Planning Process for a Good Wind Environment. © Arup
Figure 10.5 The Focus of Urban Climatic Map Study: Reducing Ground Coverage and Increasing Greenery. © Arup
Figure 10.6 Urban Climatic Map of Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure E10.1.1 CFD Study of Air Ventilation in Urban Development. © Arup
Figure E10.1.2 Study on the Urban Wind Environment. © Arup
Figure E10.2.1 Methodology for Microclimate Design. © Arup
Figure E10.3.1 South Beach Development, Singapore. © Arup
Figure E10.3.2 Building Environmental Modelling of the Project, Singapore. © Arup
Figure 10.7 Effect of Greenery on Reducing UHI. © Arup
Figure 10.8 UHI Design in Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure E10.4.1 City Air Purification System Testing at a Busy Roadside at Wan Chai, Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure 10.9 Sky Component of Typical Development in Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure 10.10 Well‐Being Components of Healthy Building Design. © Arup
Figure 10.11 Cross‐Ventilation Design in Residential Buildings. © Arup
Figure 10.12 Distribution of Daylight in a Typical Residential Unit. © Arup
Figure 10.13 Daylight Factor Calculation Methodology for High‐Rise Buildings. © Arup
Figure 10.14 Energy Saving Extent against Daylight Control Zone Depth (m) for Typical Office in Hong Kong. © Arup
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Culture Diversity in Asian cities. Upper Left: © echoblue/Shutterstock.com; Upper Right: © Arup; Lower Left: © Tze Ming/Shutterstock.com; Lower Right: © Arup
Figure E11.1.1 Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate Redevelopment, Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure E11.1.2 Sustainable Community Framework of Upper Ngau Tau Kok Estate, Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure E11.2.1 Masterplan for Bidadari Estate, Singapore. © Housing & Development Board Singapore
Figure 11.2 Difference between Communities and Neighbourhood. © Arup
Figure E11.3.1 LEED‐ND for Yongqing District, Wuhan, China. © Shui On
Figure 11.3 Concept Development for BEAM Plus Neighbourhood. © Arup
Figure 11.4 Distribution of Pre‐Consultation Questionnaire Respondents. © Arup
Figure 11.5 Public Consultation Meetings in Process Developing Scheme. © Arup
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Carbon Footprint per Capital for Selected Countries in 2011. © Arup
Figure 12.2 Behaviour Model of IEA Annex 66: Definition and Simulation of Occupant Behaviour in Buildings. © Arup
Figure 12.3 Embedding Behavioural Changes in Life and Work. © Arup
Figure E12.1.1 Rendering for Eco‐Home, Hong Kong. Photo source: Zero Carbon Building
Figure E12.1.2 Monitoring and Educational Display at Eco‐Home, Hong Kong. Photo source: Zero Carbon Building
Figure E12.1.3 Cycling Concept at Eco‐Home, Hong Kong. Photo source: Zero Carbon Building
Figure E12.1.4 Ventilation Design at Eco‐Home, Hong Kong. Photo source: Zero Carbon Building
Figure E12.2.1 Green Tomorrow in South Korea. © Samoo Architects & Engineers/Samsung C&T
Figure E12.2.2 Features in Green Tomorrow, South Korea. © Samoo Architects & Engineers/Samsung C&T
Figure E12.3.1 The Green Atrium at Park Signature, Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure E12.3.2 AIU Application at The Green Atrium, Hong Kong. © Arup
Figure 12.4 Concept of Landscape‐Integrated Aquaponics System. © Arup
Figure E12.4.1 Huilanwan Sunrise Village. © Taiwan Innovation Development Corporation \BIG
Figure E12.4.2 Organic Farm and Foods Support a Healthy Lifestyle. © Taiwan Innovation Development Corporation \BIG
Figure E12.4.3 Coffee Alley. © Taiwan Innovation Development Corporation \BIG
Figure E12.4.4 Jogging Path Winds Between and Around Buildings. © Taiwan Innovation Development Corporation \BIG
Figure E12.4.5 Computer Simulations. © Arup
Figure E12.4.6 Indoor Space is Filled with Daylight. © Taiwan Innovation Development Corporation \BIG
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Building Sustainability in East Asia
Policy, Design, and People
Vincent S ChengJimmy C Tong
This edition first published 2017© 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom.
Editorial Offices9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom.The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom.
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Cheng, Vincent S., author. | Tong, Jimmy C., author.Title: Building sustainability in East Asia : policy, design, and people / Vincent S. Cheng, Jimmy C. Tong.Description: Chichester, West Sussex : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016051176 (print) | LCCN 2017010814 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119277002 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119276982 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119277026 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable construction–East Asia. | Sustainable buildings–East Asia. | Sustainable urban development–East Asia.Classification: LCC TH880 .C464 2017 (print) | LCC TH880 (ebook) | DDC 338.95/07–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016051176
Cover image: Andy Yeung PhotographyCover design by Wiley
About the authors
Dr. Vincent S Cheng is the Director of Building Sustainability Group of Arup at East Asia. He has professional experience in building energy efficiency and sustainable building environment design and government consultation studies, including Taiwan EPA’s Low Zero Carbon Pilot Project, CEPAS of Buildings Department, Life Cycle Assessment Tool and Air Ventilation Assessment. Dr. Cheng also specializes in sustainable master planning, low/zero carbon design, and LEED & BEAM Plus certification. He is a director of Hong Kong Green Building Council and also a member in the advisory committee of School of Energy and Environment, the City University of Hong Kong.
Dr. Jimmy C Tong is East Asia Energy Skill Leader and an Associate at Arup at East Asia focusing on Building Sustainability. A recognised industry leader within the energy business, Dr. Tong has applied his expertise in energy systems in various sectors, including wind and renewable energy, infrastructure and building services, and product and system development in the manufacturing of electronics, ventilation equipment, and filtration equipment. He obtained a PhD specialising in computational fluid flow and heat transfer from the University of Minnesota. He is also a guest lecturer at several universities in Hong Kong on the subject of energy and sustainability and co‐authored book publication and book chapters and publications in archival, refereed journals.
Foreword
The current pace and scale of urbanisation is unprecedented in human history, presenting critical environmental and resource constraint challenges. This demands urgent solutions and actions that lead to a low carbon and sustainable outcome.
We need to make cities better in the developed economies, by retrofitting buildings and infrastructure, and we need to make better new cities in the developing economies. Many cities in East Asia have been undergoing rapid development in recent years whilst trying to meet the challenges. The experience plays an important role in global urban transformation as, if done right, sustainable Asian cities can serve as models for other emerging cities around the world.
The authors have for many years been researching the issues involved, developing tools and solutions, and designing many projects of different scales at different locations. In this book, they combine their practice of advanced engineering techniques with their passion to shape a greener and better Asia, offering a holistic approach of urban sustainability that is also reality‐tested. From green buildings to smart city development, this book provides strategies on how different aspects and parameters of urban sustainability are linked and interact with each other. It is not only the procedural practice from the government and industry that are important for change, but also the focus on bringing people together to find common solutions that can effectively drive urban transformation. The authors spell out the importance for governments around Asia to provide leadership for sustainable growth, as well as the need for design solutions from individual buildings to district level integration to a smart city as a system. Lastly, the people‐focused approach envisions sustainable communities and individual comfort that can be achieved by behavioural change, driven by trends toward low‐carbon living.
It is therefore my pleasure to recommend this book to policymakers, built‐environment industry practitioners, community‐building professionals, and more generally, those who want to see green and liveable cities. It is my greatest wish that the sustainability practices outlined in this book can accelerate mindset changes and enable the green culture to become second nature, so that cities in Asia become more desirable places in which to live and work.
Andrew Chan Ka‐chingPresident, Hong Kong Academy of Engineering SciencesPast President, The Hong Kong Institution of EngineersFounding Chairman, Hong Kong Green Building CouncilChairman, Trustees Board, Arup Group
Preface
With the historical agreement of 195 countries at the twenty‐first annual Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris in December 2015, climate change has been acknowledged as an urgent matter for everyone around the world. Climate change has come to the forefront of the global agenda, and is a challenge that has to be combated collectively by all countries. Since the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, developed countries have put the agenda on the national level and are trying to formulate supporting policies to implement their respective commitments. Some positive action has already been taken – endorsing emission limits and conducting studies on the associated economic and social implications in an attempt to deliver the anticipated environmental benefits. The building and infrastructure market has been informed about the potential benefits of green businesses. Driven by the global sustainable development movement, the construction industry has responded with developing all kinds of new technologies aimed at reducing the direct emissions produced from power plants to vehicles, and at reducing indirect emissions by enhancing energy efficiency and green building products. The green movement has also spread to Asia and has been fuelled by regional economic integration. In a short space of time, the market created the hope that the target of creating a sustainable future could be realised.
However, two decades have passed and little tangible progress has been observed concerning the curbing of carbon emissions, let alone reducing the absolute emission level to below the 1995 level as committed to by many of the nations that ratified the Kyoto Protocol. Some countries have even gone so far as to pull out of the Protocol entirely. With the disappointment of COP15 in Copenhagen in 2009, the green movement combating climate change has lost some of its momentum. The talks on vulnerability and resilience to extreme climates and disasters are muted, and people and the market are reverting back to old habits and business as usual, wrongly assuming that the problem is over. This roller‐coaster ride through these decades is hoped to be changed as the agreements signed at COP21 showed the commitments for both financial and carbon reduction targets from the countries.
There are many reasons for the loss of focus addressing climate change. Although many actions and initiatives have been undertaken worldwide, many of them are only on the policy level. Little effort has been made targeting and engaging people or transforming the industry itself. One fundamental question has not been addressed – how can the ordinary person, the individual, help? Without support from the public, practitioners, and the market, no policy action can be sustained. The gap between vision and reality is due to the misalignment of the priority of policies and actions. To engage the people, the right policy that addresses basic needs is required. The process of urbanisation has changed our lives and living environment more profoundly than at any other period in human history. In particular, the pace of urbanisation across Asia in recent years is unprecedented.
Nowadays, most people who live in high emission countries (the US, the EU, Japan, etc., except China which is still in the process of becoming one) live in cities. A city provides all the modern necessities such as education, jobs, public health, security, and so on. To sustain the operation of a city, a great deal of natural resources need to be consumed and in many cases wasted, such as fossil fuels for energy, forests cut down and replaced by farmland, and water for drinking as well as industry. Cities have created many environmental impacts and increased the load on the natural habitat. Air pollution, water pollution, and soil contamination from waste by the developments are amongst the most common. The living environments of cities have also changed significantly. In cities like Hong Kong, people live in a congested environment and buildings have gotten taller to cater to the density requirement. The basic elements for sustaining a healthy life such as good ventilation and adequate daylight have been jeopardised; improving buildings and the built environment is the crux of the solution for city dwellers and the environment.
To rectify the problem, we need sustainable development, and that requires the concerted efforts of all stakeholders. This is not a simple task, as the sustainability of buildings is a multi‐faceted problem. We need collaboration and strong leadership to reboot the green movement at the national level, in the government and the private sector alike. But most importantly, we need the continuous support and action from the stakeholders on developing the right policies, as well as more innovation concerning our practices, and fundamental behavioural changes to our consumption for the betterment of the environment. Specifically:
On policy
– we need to set priorities for our policies on sustainable development; we also need to lay out the roadmap and the action plan for long‐term strategies; and the institutional arrangements to enable implementation of policies and strategies;
On design
– the practices of our building industry need to be redefined, in particular applying new design strategies for green transformation;
On people
– the mindset of ordinary people needs to be changed and must allow for their behaviour to change to a more sustainable living style, both at work and at home.
The following chapters have been written from the perspective of the people and building sectors of Asian countries to provide some answers that address these aforementioned issues; and to a lesser extent, some climate change challenges as well. Examples of Asian countries addressing the sustainability of buildings and the built environment were provided. They illustrate the valuable know‐how of building design and the strategies of implementing policies. In particular, the Chinese examples (as a model) are of great importance globally, partly due to the scale of their carbon emissions and partly because of their impact on emerging economies.
It is envisaged that solutions for green transformation will ultimately come from changes to people’s behaviour and the practices of our building industry in the green movement. The means must be a combination of appropriate polices aimed at facilitating the market forces working in conjunction with breakthroughs in technology that make green solutions viable and lasting.
Acknowledgement
First and foremost, we want to express our gratitude to Arup for the opportunity to dedicate time and effort to the topic of urban sustainability. Arup has provided an innovative and supportive environment and access to an extensive global network, so that more creative ideas can be generated and tested before the actual implementation. We are thankful to the company founder, Sir Ove Arup, and the management team in creating such a culture, which encourages us to make a broader social impact in what we do.
Next, we would like to thank our clients in trusting us to serve in their projects. We are glad that we have often had opportunities to go the extra distance in coming up with workable solutions that brought broader benefits to the projects and community. Project teams from different disciplines often worked together, and we are thankful for the friendships we have built.
In our own Building Sustainability Group in East Asia, we are glad to be able to partner with colleagues who share the same passion about sustainability. In particular, we would like to thank our team (Dr. Tony NT Lam, Dr. Camby Se, Jimmy Yam, Wai‐Ho Leung, Dr. Kevin Wan, Mark Cameron, Derek Chan, Henry Au, Teri Tan, Eriko Tamura, and Tao Li) in providing valuable ideas for this book. Also, we thank our administrative staff (Mona Kwok, Melinda Chan, Thera So, and Raymond Chan) for their countless efforts and help.
At John Wiley & Sons, we want to thank our publisher, Dr. Paul Sayer, for seeing the value of this book and providing feedback on enhancing the content, and his colleagues, Viktoria Hartl‐Vida and Monicka Simon, for following through the process to the book’s completion.
Vincent Cheng would like to thank his wife and his two sons.
Jimmy Tong would like to express appreciation to Janet, Jocelyn, Josiah, and his parents, Shiu Hon and Mei Mei, for their love and support. In addition, Jimmy would like to thank Professor Ephraim Sparrow for his friendship and inspiration for professional excellence.
Hong KongJune 2016
Section 1On contexts
Chapter 1Introduction
1.1 WHY SUSTAINABILITY MATTERS
The world has witnessed a rapid and unprecedented change in human activity over the past two centuries. The industrial revolution changed the way we live, work, and interact with the nature. The process of urbanisation as a result of this revolution has not only changed the global economic context but also created an environmental crisis, which was not recognised until recently. Climate change resulting from human activity is a known fact that is beyond question. The challenge confronting us now is how to resolve the problem.
Early discussions concerning the issues surrounding global warming have primarily centred on the perspective of the Western developed countries, in an attempt to clean up the mess that they created. Yet the world has failed to observe that answers should really be coming from the East, where more people live and where more countries are undergoing rapid urbanisation at a pace much faster than their Western counterparts underwent decades ago. The world should be treating the urbanisation process in Asia as an opportunity to develop a new model aimed at reversing the unsustainable processes of the past, and to devise solutions for future sustainable urbanisation.
In recent years, many Asian countries have proactively taken action to address the issues of climate change. These issues are multi‐faceted and therefore the solutions are multi‐dimensional. Sustainable development has been widely accepted as the solution to address the environmental pressure that results from rapid urbanisation. The building sector has been unanimously identified as the key area of focus in Asian countries, because more and more new buildings will need to be constructed in order to meet the growing housing demands and to support the economic activities of the increasing number of mega‐cities that will be built over the coming years. There are huge disparities in the economic development of various countries in Asia. More developed countries have formulated strategies on sustainable development, whereas less developed countries are still at a “soul searching” stage. These more developed countries have treated the issues of sustainability as an opportunity to enhance environmental performance and to address the demand for social equity. Externally, these countries have taken the green transformation as opportunity to enhance their competitive advantages on an international level as well as in the global market. Japan, Korea, and Singapore are perfect examples in this regard.
To sustain the green movement, it is important to put ideas into practice. Experiences in Asian countries have demonstrated the importance of multi‐dimensional solutions. Effective policies that activate market forces are being formulated. Encouraging stakeholders to develop technical solutions is also critical to policy implementation. Strategically, Asian countries are undergoing a process that builds the capacity of their green power and takes advantage of economic improvement to lead sustainable development on the global front.
1.2 WHY ASIA MATTERS
With a population of 60% of the world’s total, Asia plays a pivotal role in global sustainable development. Though many Asian countries are still at relative low level of development,1 their rapid urbanisation in recent years has created a great deal of uncertainty regarding whether or not the world as whole can be successful in tackling the climate change issue.
The recent economic development of Asia is one of the greatest success stories in human history, with hundreds of millions of people working their way out of poverty. In particular, the East Asia economies of Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, with the exception of Singapore, and of course China have grown at a faster rate and for a longer period of time than the world has ever seen.2 This is exemplified by the four‐dragon miracle in the 1980s. In every aspect, many Asian cities have become well‐developed, yet their economic success has come at a great environmental price. The development model in Asia is mainly resource‐intensive in order to drive the growth of the economy as quantified by the gross domestic product (GDP). The main points of focus are on economic development and infrastructure investment so as to facilitate further development. China followed suit in the late 1990s but on a much larger scale, and in the process caused a great many environmental disasters in the region. According to the U.S. Embassy, Beijing’s air quality is really bad. As of 2015, when this book was written, choking pollution regularly smothers the capital, and since 2010, China has been the world’s largest carbon‐emitting nation.
To satisfy the rising consumption of products due to the success of economic development in Asia, there is a growing demand for the resources used in sustaining industrial activity. In addition, to support the process of urbanisation, construction activity in Asia is the highest in the world in terms of volume and speed. This is in order to meet the never‐ending demand for space for housing and work.3 According to information from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), China alone accounted for more than half the total of global construction activity in recent years. It is envisaged that this trend will continue to grow with more and more countries in the region following in the footsteps of China in their process of urbanisation.
The economic, social, and environmental sustainability of Asia is crucial if the world wants to see a continuous improvement in the quality of life for billions of people and for those city‐dwellers whose hopes of a better future are not endangered by pollution or a poor infrastructure. The ultimate question is how best to provide room for the Asian urban population to live, work, and play as Asia gets richer and more populous, whereas at the same time energy, clean air and water, and living space are becoming ever scarcer.
Resource depletion and environmental factors are not new problems to many countries in the course of their industrialisation process. However, the discussion surrounding sustainability in Asia was intensified with the signing of Kyoto Protocol in 1992. More developed regional economies such as Japan have since begun to formulate policies to tackle the issue of climate change by setting emission targets in a similar manner to that of Western countries. Thereafter, policies have looked into the broader perspective of sustainability instead of simply focusing on energy security or tackling immediate environmental problems such as air and water pollution. Since 1992, initiatives dealing with fostering sustainable development have propagated throughout the region and other East Asia economies, such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea, and most recently, China have since followed suit with this green movement. For many of them, the sustainable development model provides an alternative for improving not only social assets but also economic development. The boom of green technologies enhances competitive advantages in the advanced technology market. Korea has been advocating this “low‐carbon green transformation” initiative with a view to taking the lead in the global arena.
For those urbanising countries, new infrastructure and more new buildings are being built as more and more people are migrating to the cities. China, as the leader of these emerging economies, has taking advantage of the booming properties market to promote “green” buildings. Various control mechanisms were introduced over the past decades to regulate the design of buildings with regard to their energy performance. A new market of green building has also been established, where market forces capitalise on green designs. The building industry has begun practicing sustainable development by incentivising more green building technologies. This growth of the photovoltaic (PV) industry is a result of such favourable market conditions.
With more demands for green products (buildings and non‐buildings alike) and for effective policies to facilitate market transformation, Asia has the potential to emerge as the leader of low carbon development in the coming years. Regional economic integration provides Asia with the opportunity to work in collaboration on reducing the barriers for green practices of production and trading, and enable agreement on cross‐border carbon tax and carbon trading.
1.3 WHY BUILDINGS MATTER
Years of global discussion since the release on the Brandtlant Report in 1987 have come to the conclusion that implementing the principles of sustainable development is the only viable solution for addressing climate change. Rapid urbanisation has fundamentally changed the context of our living environment. High‐rises and the compact city urban design approach are prevalent in Asian urbanism. Addressing the urban challenges of our built environment and exploring the opportunities for changes to how we build and use our buildings is imperative for green urbanism.4
1.3.1 Root causes and solutions to the problem
The building sector is an important component of sustainable development because it consumes more resources, in particular, energy, than any other sector. The building sector in the US consumed 75% of all electricity and 40% of all energy products.5 It also consumed 40% of the raw materials and generated 30% of the waste for 2009. In the same year, the U.S. building sector generated 46.7% of all greenhouse gas emissions, far more than transportation or industry produced.6 As many Asian countries are beginning to become urbanised, buildings will need to be designed and operated in a similar manner to that of the US if no new green standards are put in place. If not, the same types of problems can be expected in Asia in the near future.
Because of its massive size, the building sector offers significant opportunities in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and in providing the required solutions. Many studies worldwide have demonstrated that so far, green buildings are the low‐cost option in obtaining a significant reduction in carbon emissions, that is, they are the “low‐hanging fruit”. For example, energy efficiency measures aimed at reducing building energy demand would be much more effective than the installation of increased power plant capacity designed to provide the “saved demand”. Sustainable development is particularly imperative for Asia as more and more buildings are going to be built. In other words, fewer power plants using fossil fuels will be needed by the conventional practice of building sector. For example in China, with about 40% of its 2030 building stock yet to be built, implementing building codes for energy efficiency will yield substantial results. China is among the first non‐OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) country to introduce a mandatory energy code.7 Most developing Asian countries now have their own energy codes to safeguard the energy efficiency of building design, a practice that has been implemented for years in Japan and other developed Asian countries.
1.3.2 Eco‐city principles
The impact of buildings on sustainable development goes beyond the construction and operation of the buildings themselves. It also involves the use of land, the planning of infrastructures, and the provision of a quality urban living environment for people, for example, improved liveability. Eco‐cities or green urbanism, with a focus more on environmental sustainability, is currently being promoted across Asia. The region is in need more than ever of green urbanism as it has more densely populated cities than anywhere else in the world. Currently, there are more than 200 mega‐cities that have a population of more than 1 million. In particular, China’s development has provided an example for many developing countries on what to prioritise and the possible solutions for a more sustainable future. Over the last 30 years, China has experienced unprecedented economic development, with an annual growth averaging over 10%. Accompanying this growth, modern buildings, transport, and public service infrastructures are fast being built across the country. Rapid urbanisation is accompanied by a significant pressure to provide jobs and economic opportunities, housing, public services, and an improved quality of life. Given that cities contribute to more than 70% of energy‐related carbon emissions, addressing cities’ emission levels is a crucial part of reducing the economy’s carbon intensity of China by 40%‐50% by 2020, compared to 2005, the baseline year for comparison. The concept of eco‐cities is becoming synonymous with the sustainable cities of the future.8 China has begun to apply low‐carbon city development concepts, becoming part of a global trend where different cities take a leading role in incorporating ecological and low‐carbon development considerations into account with their urban planning and management models. The Ministry of Housing and Urban‐Rural Development (MOHURD), has attempted to guide cities towards greater sustainability, including developing various eco‐city standards and policies. A model for a high‐rise and high‐density eco‐city is being formed. Moreover, eco‐cities are currently evolving into smart cities that adopt digital technologies and Internet of Things (IoT) to make cities themselves more energy efficient. For example, the collection and analysis of large amounts of data (so called “big data”) can help cities better understand building energy use and traffic patterns, and therefore distribute energy more efficiently.
1.3.3 Liveable spaces
The priority of issues concerning sustainable buildings varies amongst Asian cities because of the various disparities in their stages of development. In less developed countries such as China and India, resource efficiency is the top priority, followed by the basic provisions for addressing environmental problems, whereas in more developed countries such as Japan, Korea, and Singapore, liveability defined by a more pleasant, healthier, and comfortable environment for work and living is the core concern, higher in priority than resource use and the movement of people.9 In Singapore, the provision of a liveable home is one of the principal objectives of its sustainability blueprint.
There is no universally accepted definition of liveability. A liveable space has to fit into the local social and cultural context and the expectation of the people. The physical environment as defined by the arrangement of buildings and public spaces can also improve the perceptions of people and allow them to be content with living conditions.10 Specifically, high‐rise and high‐density compact city environments affect the liveability of many Asian cities. Improving the living environment is important to ease the overcrowded feeling of urban living. Quality, comfortable, and secure open spaces are also helpful in improving the sense of belonging in the community. The emergence of smart buildings with sensors designed to monitor and manage energy usage in public spaces and in homes can help save energy.
When it comes to the design of indoor spaces, health and well‐being are the primary concerns across all cities in Asia. People who live in a city spend over 70% of their time indoors, either at home or at work. Healthy and comfortable environments improve the well‐being of the occupants, and therefore, the productivity of employees. Recent pandemics in the region, such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2003 raised government alert levels of the importance of hygiene, in particular at the community level. These are becoming more and more important criteria for corporations in the region when selecting premises for their offices or homes. Most of the green building standards have now incorporated these criteria in the assessment of building performance. New standards are incorporated into urban design to provide a healthy living environment. Air ventilation and micro‐climate design are prevalent in the densely packed urban context of Hong Kong and Singapore. It is important that practitioners of the building sector can standardise urban design and take advantage of the benefits of good micro‐climate design.
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Implementing sustainable development in cities is a complicated process and requires changes in practice in many areas. To address the multi‐faceted issues of social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors, an over‐arching policy and regulatory framework is required. Strong leadership from the government is a prerequisite, and this also requires support from other stakeholders such as business leaders, industrial practitioners, and the public. Collaboration, at both the local and international level, and partnerships amongst the stakeholders are the keys to success. To sustain such a green movement, the continuous engagement of the public and incentivising the operation of the market is also important. Finally, green business requires the standardisation of market practices by building the capacity of the key players.
1.4.1 Policy support
Governments play an important role in formulating the appropriate policies that will support the implementation of sustainable development initiatives across Asia. With a relatively short history and market of green practices being in their formative stages, it is particularly pivotal for success to have the correct policy instruments. In most East Asia countries, governments have their own high‐level national plans concerning the objectives and issues of sustainability. Some countries like China and Korea have set five‐year plan targets. These policies help to direct the market in green business or to change the behaviour of industry or individuals in reducing their environmental impact.
“Command and control” are the widely used policy instruments when implementing the policies. Law, regulations, and standards are all in place for consistent enforcement within the industry. Experience in East Asian countries has shown that the regulatory approach is effective only in the early stages. It is very expensive to execute orders and evaluate performance. Some countries have little resources with which to update their codes or standards. How to work in collaboration with industry has become the priority of certain governments when implementing green measures.
1.4.2 Green market and consumption
The idea of green building has been around for decades. In the early 1980s, one of the pioneers, Amory Lovins, an American physicist and environmental scientist, built a demonstration house at a 7,100‐foot elevation in the Colorado Rockies. However, it has not been until recent years when sustainable development has become a key agenda worldwide that houses like his have appeared in the mainstream market. Green buildings only gained popularity in the property market when non‐profit making organisations, such as the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), began promoting green certification which helped to spread the message of the benefits of green building and building green.11 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), administered by USGBC, is by far the most successful certification and labelling tool in the world operated purely by market forces. It has created a demand for green buildings in the market and encouraged developers to build more green buildings. It has also provided the market standard for the design and construction of green buildings.
The development of green buildings in certain Asian countries has a long history. The first green building assessment code, Hong Kong Building Environmental Assessment Method (HK‐BEAM) was implemented in 1996 in Hong Kong, well before the commencement of LEED in 1998. Other green building assessment schemes such as such as Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE) in Japan were implemented in 2005, the Green Mark in Singapore in 2005, and the Ecology/Energy Saving/Waste Reduction/Health (EEWH) in Taiwan in 1999. The areas of focus for most of these assessment schemes are similar. Unique to context of Asia, some schemes such as Green Mark and BEAM Plus (an updated version of HK‐BEAM) are not just market tools. They are supported by the governments through various forms of incentives, such as gross floor area (GFA) concessions or direct financial subsidies. The Green Mark is becoming mandatory for all new construction projects, and the Singapore government has set a target of having 80% of all the buildings to be certified by 2030.
As for green consumption, widespread adoption of sustainable construction requires momentum from businesses for more products and a standardisation of practices. Initiating sustainability because “it is right thing to do” is a nice idea, but typically it will not last, nor can regulations be sustainable. We need to build more business cases. In Asia, a number of businesses that provide green products are taking innovative measures in response to the environmental challenges they face.12,13 Private firms are using technology, money, and above all, employee ingenuity to begin solving Asia’s environmental challenges. These activities are not “greenwashing”, philanthropy, or “corporate social responsibility”, but hard‐headed business responses to opportunities born out of crisis. It is happening because there are business opportunities. Companies in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore have all used their technical and engineering expertise to take advantage of Asia’s need to support more people at a higher standard of living while using fewer resources. Studies have been conducted recently in Hong Kong and Singapore to identify the reasons why businesses should start building green.14 It was found that “lower operational costs” and “higher building values” were the key reasons for building green, whereas the “perceived higher upfront cost” was an undeniable stumbling block that deterred building designers.
In some countries such as China and Korea, there is policy support from the government to enhance green business through research and development (R&D) and international collaboration. These activities were intended to increase market share and leadership in the cutting edge green technology market, both regionally and internationally.
1.4.3 Technology push
Technology has helped the green transformation of our building industry. More high‐performance buildings were built in the past few years than ever before in response to the global green movement. The concept of Zero Carbon Building (ZCB) or Positive Energy Building (PEB) is now prevalent in Asia. Many low carbon or zero carbon buildings were built as demonstrations, first in Japan in 2008, then in Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong. ZCB has proved to be technically feasible in certain types of buildings. Efforts have been made by many leading corporations in the region to commercialise their adoption in the wider market. In parallel, industrial practitioners are also working on buildings that are adaptive to climate change. Buildings are now more resilient to extreme weather conditions, such as hurricanes, floods, fire, and earthquakes.
Technology also helps to change the behaviour of individuals and corporations in regard to wasteful consumption of limited resources, in particular energy and water. In fact, the root causes of many environmental problems are due to irresponsible human behaviour. The current consumption habit of urban living is not a sustainable one. It requires more resources than planet earth has available to support the current lifestyle of Western developed countries. The developing Asian countries provide an opportunity to devise a model for a new sustainable lifestyle of green consumption for us to follow, so that the future generations might still be able to enjoy a quality living environment.
1.5 SUSTAINABILITY IN PRACTICE
The green transformation of the building sector requires the building industry to practice sustainability. Standardisation (i.e., transforming the current situation) of building practices requires the involvement of the professionals in the building industry as well as engagement with the public. This means firm collaboration and partnership between the private and public sectors on resolving issues such as regulations and standards, the design and construction of buildings, as well as public consumption behaviour.
