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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
CELLULAR V2X FOR CONNECTED AUTOMATED DRIVING
A unique examination of cellular communication technologies for connected automated driving, combining expert insights from telecom and automotive industries as well as technical and scientific knowledge from industry and academia
Cellular vehicle-to-everything (C-V2X) technologies enable vehicles to communicate both with the network, with each other, and with other road users using reliable, responsive, secure, and high-capacity communication links. Cellular V2X for Connected Automated Driving provides an up-to-date view of the role of C-V2X technologies in connected automated driving (CAD) and connected road user (CRU) services, such as advanced driving support, improved road safety, infotainment, over-the-air software updates, remote driving, and traffic efficiency services enabling the future large-scale transition to self-driving vehicles. This timely book discusses where C-V2X technology is situated within the increasingly interconnected ecosystems of the mobile communications and automotive industries.
An expert contributor team from both industry and academia explore potential applications, business models, standardization, spectrum and channel modelling, network enhancements, security and privacy, and more. Broadly divided into two parts—introductory and advanced material—the text first introduces C-V2X technology and introduces a variety of use cases and opportunities, requiring no prerequisite technical knowledge. The second part of the book assumes a basic understanding of the field of telecommunications, presenting technical descriptions of the radio, system aspects, and network design for the previously discussed applications. This up-to-date resource:
- Provides technical details from the finding of the European Commission H2020 5G PPP 5GCAR project, a collaborative research initiative between the telecommunications and automotive industries and academic researchers
- Elaborates on use cases, business models, and a technology roadmap for those seeking to shape a start-up in the area of automated and autonomous driving
- Provides up to date descriptions of standard specifications, standardization and industry organizations and important regulatory aspects for connected vehicles
- Provides technical insights and solutions for the air interface, network architecture, positioning and security to support vehicles at different automation levels
- Includes detailed tables, plots, and equations to clarify concepts, accompanied by online tutorial slides for use in teaching and seminars
Thanks to its mix of introductory content and technical information, Cellular V2X for Connected Automated Driving is a must-have for industry and academic researchers, telecom and automotive industry practitioners, leaders, policymakers, and regulators, and university-level instructors and students.
Additional resources available at the following site: Cellular V2X for Connected Automated Driving – 5GCAR
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Foreword by Christian Micas
Foreword by Maxime Flament
Foreword by El Khamis Kadiri
Foreword by Magnus Eek
Preface
1. Target Audience and Reader's Guide
Note
List of Abbreviations
1 Introduction
1.1 Background and Motivation for C‐V2X
1.2 Toward a Joint Telecom and Automotive Roadmap for CAD
1.3 Communication Technologies for CAD
1.4 Structure of this Book
References
Notes
2 Business Models
2.1 Current Market Analysis
2.2 Services Definition for CAD and CRU
2.3 Technical Components
2.4 Practicalities
2.5 Business Market Opportunities for V2X
2.6 Business Model Analysis of 5G V2X Technical Components
2.7 Conclusions
References
3 Standardization and Regulation
3.1 Standardization Process Overview
3.2 Regulatory Aspects and Spectrum Allocation
3.3 Standardization of V2X Communication Technology Solutions
3.4 Application Aspects
3.5 Summary
References
Notes
4 Spectrum and Channel Modeling
4.1 Spectrum and Regulations for V2X Communications
4.2 Channel Modeling
References
5 V2X Radio Interface
5.1 Beamforming Techniques for V2X Communication in the mm‐Wave Spectrum
5.2 PHY and MAC Layer Extensions
5.3 Technology Features Enabled by Vehicular Sidelink
5.4 Summary
References
Notes
6 Network Enhancements
6.1 Network Slicing
6.2 Role of SDN and NFV in V2X
6.3 Cloudified Architecture
6.4 Local End‐to‐End Path
6.5 Multi‐Operator Support
6.6 Summary
References
Notes
7 Enhancements to Support V2X Application Adaptations
7.1 Background
7.2 Enhanced Application‐Network Interaction for Handling V2X Use Cases
7.3 Redundant Scheduler for Sidelink and Uu
7.4 Summary
References
8 Radio‐Based Positioning and Video‐Based Positioning
8.1 Radio‐Based Positioning
8.2 Video‐Based Positioning
8.3 Conclusions
References
9 Security and Privacy
9.1 V2N Security
9.2 V2V/V2I Security
9.3 Alternative Approaches
9.4 Conclusion
References
10 Status, Recommendations, and Outlook
10.1 Future Prospects of C‐V2X and the CAD Ecosystem
10.2 Recommendations to Stakeholders
10.3 Outlook
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Cost estimation of the pseudonym certificate policy in Europe.
Table 2.2 Positioning.
Table 2.3 Positioning and trajectory prediction.
Table 2.4 Predictor antenna.
Table 2.5 Beam‐forming.
Table 2.6 Efficiency.
Table 2.7 Reliability.
Table 2.8 Out‐of‐coverage sidelink.
Table 2.9 In‐coverage sidelink.
Table 2.10 Local standalone network procedure.
Table 2.11 Network service relationship enhancement.
Table 2.12 Multi‐operator solutions for V2X communications
.
Table 2.13 Network orchestration and management.
Table 2.14 End‐to‐end security.
Table 2.15 Edge computing enhancements.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 ETSI ITS specifications.
Table 3.2 SAE DSRC specifications.
Table 3.3 SAE C‐V2X specifications.
Table 3.4 C‐V2X standardization activities in China.
Table 3.5 TTA V2X specifications.
Table 3.6 C‐V2X related 3GPP activities and specifications.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 European 5.9 GHz ITS band.
Table 4.2 Frequency bands licensed to MNOs for 3GPP Uu communication in Europ...
Table 4.3 Spectrum needs for use cases in different geographical settings.
Table 4.4 Summary of bandwidth and cost by mobile network operator (MNO) in I...
Table 4.5 Summary of bandwidth and cost by MNO in Sweden.
Table 4.6 Auctions held and planned in Germany.
Table 4.7 Auction results for the 5G auction in Germany (August 2019).
Table 4.8 Final spectrum assignments for the 3.5 and 4 GHz bands in Japan [24...
Table 4.9 Final spectrum assignments for the 27 GHz band in Japan.
Table 4.10 Investment engaged for coverage deployment in Japan.
Table 4.11 Final spectrum assignments for the 3.5 GHz band in South Korea.
Table 4.12 Final spectrum assignments for the 28 GHz band in South Korea.
Table 4.13 V2X channel‐modeling aspects available in the existing literature.
Table 4.14 Shadow‐fading parameter σ for V2V communication.
Table 4.15 Shadow‐fading parameter σ for vehicle‐to‐roadside unit (V2RSU) com...
Table 4.16 Summary of channel‐modeling components to include in the framework...
Table 4.17 ABG model parameters for various scenarios with LOS and NLOSb.
Table 4.18 Additional path loss for NLOSv for various scenarios. Parameters f...
Table 4.19 Fast‐fading parameters for V2V sidelink.
Table 4.20 Estimated parameters for the NLOS model.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Average number of required iterations in different cases. Source: [...
Table 5.2 Simulation setup for beamformed broadcast/multicast design.
Table 5.3 List of system‐level simulation parameters.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Pros and cons of different functionality splits.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Joint roadmap for CAD as developed in the 5GCAR project.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Different perspectives on how connectivity and new services can c...
Figure 2.2 Main business setup for the network deployment analysis. The role...
Figure 2.3 Accumulated costs and revenues for different scenarios. Note 1: i...
Figure 2.4 Authorization token request procedure. The ITS communication can ...
Figure 2.5 Estimation of the annual volume of data in the next 10 years for ...
Figure 2.6 Mass market mobile price per gigabyte in the countries of Western...
Figure 2.7 Overall cost estimation in the next 10 years for over‐the‐air upd...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Relationships between SDOs and other stakeholders for 5G ITS. Sou...
Figure 3.2 5GAA C‐V2X roadmap.
Figure 3.3 Spectrum dedicated to ITS in different world regions.
Figure 3.4 ETSI ITS protocol architecture with the two options in the access...
Figure 3.5 SAE C‐V2Xprotocol architecture.
Figure 3.6 C‐V2X standardization evolution in 3GPP.
Figure 3.7 Release 14 V2X architecture.
Figure 3.8 EU security architecture.
Figure 3.9 US SCMS (simplified).
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Dedicated 5.9 GHz ITS spectrum in Europe.
Figure 4.2 New spectrum allocation plan for the 5.850 – 5.925 GHz band in th...
Figure 4.3 Amount of spectrum auctioned for selected countries.
Figure 4.4 Comparison of the price paid per hertz in different countries.
Figure 4.5 Bandwidth auctioned in European countries.
Figure 4.6 Comparison of the price paid per hertz in European countries.
Figure 4.7 Environments, link types, and specific considerations for V2X cha...
Figure 4.8 Main characteristics of V2V/V2P and V2I channels.
Figure 4.9 The channel coefficient generation process from [29].
Figure 4.10 The two‐ray ground‐reflection model.
Figure 4.11 Vehicles‐as‐obstacles path‐loss model.
Figure 4.12 Measurements of mmWave V2V channels at 60 GHz and the results of...
Figure 4.13 PDP for Position 6 normalized to the LOS component in scenario w...
Figure 4.14 Description of the channel gain model for a typical NLOS communi...
Figure 4.15 Histograms of the de‐correlation distances of all NLOS communica...
Figure 4.16 Estimated multilink shadowing correlation ρ between different li...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 GA‐based beam‐refinement algorithm.
Figure 5.2 Beam‐tracking network with proposed GA‐based scheme in a MU‐MIMO ...
Figure 5.3 (a) Beam‐refinement delay for a broad range of user speeds with t...
Figure 5.4 Illustration of the two options for 5GCAR PBMCH for initial trans...
Figure 5.5 Illustration of HARQ feedback and retransmission.
Figure 5.6 Performance comparison of different broadcast/multicast schemes v...
Figure 5.7 System model for studying mm‐wave beam‐based broadcasting for V2X...
Figure 5.8 Illustration of a basic frame structure for broadcast transmissio...
Figure 5.9 Illustration of different frame structure extensions, where
T
is ...
Figure 5.10 Performance of different beamformed broadcast schemes for V2X ap...
Figure 5.11 Performance of different frame structure designs for V2X applica...
Figure 5.12 Performance of different block error rates for V2X applications ...
Figure 5.13 Illustration of block and comb‐type pilot symbol allocations. Pi...
Figure 5.14 Performance of the proposed MU‐MIMO receiver (referred to as the...
Figure 5.15 Performance of the proposed MU‐MIMO receiver (referred to as the...
Figure 5.16 A realization of a DMRS and CSI‐RS design for V2V sidelink.
Figure 5.17 Link‐level evaluation of a DMRS design at different relative veh...
Figure 5.18 Cellular network with different types of synchronization sources...
Figure 5.19 Example for a two‐segment sequence. With
n
= 2, up to four diffe...
Figure 5.20 Implementation of a two‐step detection procedure at the receiver...
Figure 5.21 Probability of correct sequence detection vs. SNR.
Figure 5.22 Average number of connected UEs (
Z
) versus the number of timeslo...
Figure 5.23 V2X communication scenario: link to car A obstructed by a bypass...
Figure 5.24 Improvement of reliability by the cooperative transmission of ne...
Figure 5.25 Example protocol stack (dashed line: packet delivery path).
Figure 5.26 Example procedure for sidelink‐assisted reliable communication....
Figure 5.27 Performance of sidelink‐assisted reliable communication.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Possible example of network‐slicing configuration for V2X communi...
Figure 6.2 NFV and network slicing in a proposed V2X architecture.
Figure 6.3 SDN in V2X architecture.
Figure 6.4 NFV/SDN integrated architecture.
Figure 6.5 Fast V2V paths via a cellular interface.
Figure 6.6 Regional split of a highway between operator A (Op. A) and operat...
Figure 6.7 RRC state transitions with two PLMNs.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Flow diagram and information exchanged for C-V2X connectivity neg...
Figure 7.2 Multi‐link/RAT selection problem.
Figure 7.3 Example of joint use of C-V2X connectivity negotiation and locati...
Figure 7.4 Multicast V2V connectivity over PC5 and Uu routes concurrently.
Figure 7.5 Redundant scheduler applied at the facilities layer within the ET...
Figure 7.6 Typical ETSI ITS protocol stack over the PC5 interface.
Figure 7.7 Typical ETSI ITS protocol stack over the Uu interface.
Figure 7.8 Example of the ETSI ITS protocol stack supporting the Uu‐CSP over...
Figure 7.9 Multipath Transport protocol over the Uu and PC5 interfaces in IP...
Figure 7.10 Redundant scheduler applied at the UDP/TCP level within the ETSI...
Figure 7.11 Details of redundant scheduler applied at the UDP/TCP level with...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 In the
Lane Merge Coordination
use case, trajectory recommendatio...
Figure 8.2 NR DL PRS resource allocation with comb‐2, comb‐4, and comb‐6 pat...
Figure 8.3 PRS resource set with three PRS resources characterized by their ...
Figure 8.4 The 5G mmWave channel is characterized by few propagation paths, ...
Figure 8.5 Optimal precoders' beampatterns. Number of pilots is
M = 3
...
Figure 8.6 For a configuration with 32 antennas at transmitter and receiver,...
Figure 8.7 Scenario with the propagation environment (BS, VA, and SP) and tw...
Figure 8.8 MAE and RMSE bars of UE state estimates (location, clock bias, an...
Figure 8.9 Average GOSPA of the SP without map cooperation (a) and with map ...
Figure 8.10 Illustration of collision probability as the superposition of pd...
Figure 8.11 Lateral and longitudinal position error bound for the overtaking...
Figure 8.12 Workflow of video‐based vehicle positioning. The camera system c...
Figure 8.13 Synchronized camera views of the three cameras with
f = 8 mm
...
Figure 8.14 The lane merge target region with two main lanes and one acceler...
Figure 8.15 Examples of vehicle detection with their detection probabilities...
Figure 8.16 Vehicle tracking based on feature point trajectories for each de...
Figure 8.17 Localization (a: x‐coordinate, b: y‐coordinate) of the vehicles ...
Figure 8.18 Distance of the GNSS RTK and camera‐based positions with respect...
Figure 8.19 Evaluation of the average localization precision (ALP) for 20 se...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Different views of a C‐V2X system.
Figure 9.2 Root causes of security challenges.
Figure 9.3 SDVN architecture.
Figure 9.4 European Union security architecture.
Figure 9.5 US security architecture (a.k.a. SCMS) (simplified).
Guide
Cover Page
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Cellular V2X for Connected Automated Driving
Edited by
Mikael FallgrenEricssonEricsson ResearchStockholm, Sweden
Markus DillingerHuawei TechnologiesHuawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Toktam MahmoodiKing’s College LondonDepartment of EngineeringLondon, UK
Tommy SvenssonChalmers University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical EngineeringGothenburg, Sweden
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The right of Mikael Fallgren, Markus Dillinger, Toktam Mahmoodi, and Tommy Svensson to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Fallgren, Mikael, editor. | Dillinger, Markus, editor. | Mahmoodi, Toktam, editor. | Svensson, Tommy, editor.
Title: Cellular V2X for connected automated driving / [edited by] Mikael Fallgren, Markus Dillinger, Toktam Mahmoodi, Tommy Svensson.
Description: Hoboken, NJ, USA : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020020433 (print) | LCCN 2020020434 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119692645 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119692638 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119692652 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Vehicular ad hoc networks (Computer networks)
Classification: LCC TE228.37 .C45 2021 (print) | LCC TE228.37 (ebook) | DDC 388.3/1240285--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020433
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020020434
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: © kalawin jongpo/Getty Images, © lushik/Getty Images, © FingerMedium/Getty Images, © darekm101/Getty Images, © olaser/Getty Images, © oonal/Getty Images, © Scharfsinn/Shutterstock
List of Contributors
Taimoor AbbasHuawei TechnologiesLund, Sweden
Jesus Alonso‐ZarateCentre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC/CERCA), M2M Communications DepartmentBarcelona, Spain
David ArmandOrange Labs Services, Department of SecurityChâtillon, France
Mate BobanHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Hellward BroszioVISCODA GmbHHannover, Germany
Jose Leon CalvoEricsson, Ericsson ResearchHerzogenrath, Germany
Hanwen CaoHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Massimo CondoluciEricsson, Ericsson ResearchStockholm, Sweden
Kai CordesVISCODA GmbHHannover, Germany
Markus DillingerHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Hieu DoEricsson, Ericsson ResearchStockholm, Sweden
Mikael FallgrenEricsson, Ericsson ResearchStockholm, Sweden
Antonio Eduardo Fernandez BarcielaPSA GroupVigo, Spain
Gabor FodorEricsson, Ericsson ResearchStockholm, Sweden
and
KTH Royal Institute of TechnologyStockholm, Sweden
Nil GarciaChalmers University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical EngineeringGothenburg, Sweden
Charalampos KalalasCentre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC/CERCA), M2M Communications DepartmentBarcelona, Spain
Efstathios KatranarasSequans CommunicationsParis, France
Hyowon KimHanyang UniversitySeoul, South Korea
Apostolos KousaridasHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Marc LacosteOrange Labs Services, Department of SecurityChâtillon, France
Andres LayaEricsson, Ericsson ResearchStockholm, Sweden
YunXi LiEricssonStockholm, Sweden
Zexian LiNokia Bell LabsEspoo, Finland
Per LindbergVolvo CarsGothenburg, Sweden
Jian LuoHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Maliheh MahloujiKing's College London, Department of EngineeringLondon, UK
Toktam MahmoodiKing's College London, Department of EngineeringLondon, UK
Konstantinos ManolakisHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Laurent MussotOrange Labs NetworksChâtillon, France
Keerthi Kumar NagalapurEricsson, Ericsson ResearchGothenburg, Sweden
Mikael NilssonVolvo CarsGothenburg, Sweden
Yvan RaffléOrange Labs Services, Department of SecurityCaen, France
Stephan SaurNokia Bell LabsStuttgart, Germany
Malte SchellmannHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Panagiotis SpapisHuawei Technologies, Huawei German Research CenterMunich, Germany
Erik StrömChalmers University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical EngineeringGothenburg, Sweden
Tommy SvenssonChalmers University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical EngineeringGothenburg, Sweden
Rémi TheillaudMarben ProductsSuresnes, France
Ricard VilaltaCentre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC/CERCA), Optical Networks and Systems DepartmentBarcelona, Spain
Fuxi WenChalmers University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical EngineeringGothenburg, Sweden
Henk WymeerschChalmers University of TechnologyDepartment of Electrical EngineeringGothenburg, Sweden
Yunpeng ZangEricsson, Ericsson ResearchHerzogenrath, Germany
Foreword by Christian Micas
In 2020, after nearly a decade of research and innovation efforts in cellular technologies applied to connected automated driving (CAD), the first commercial launches of cars equipped with cellular vehicle‐to‐everything (C‐V2X) were announced by vehicle manufacturers. These developments will establish 2020 as a landmark for the uptake of CAD on roads, paving the way to fully automated driving. C‐V2X‐enabled CAD has the potential to provide great societal and environmental benefits by significantly reducing the risk of road fatalities, lowering carbon emissions through enhanced traffic conditions, and overall decreasing the cost of transportation of people and goods.
5G is expected to be the power engine of this transformation, thanks to its unique features in terms of very high throughput, low latency, redundancy, and ultra‐high reliability. It will allow vehicles, road infrastructure, and pedestrians to exchange real‐time data supporting advanced use cases in the field of mobility and transport.
The European Commission contributed to the definition of the 5G vision as early as in 2013, with the launch of the 5G infrastructure Public Private Partnership (5G PPP) – a joint initiative in the field of research and innovation with the information and communication technologies (ICT) industry – to deliver technologies, architectures, solutions, and standards for the fifth generation of mobile communications. This European initiative has an overall budget of €700 million over the 2014–2020 period. It is funded under Horizon 2020, the European Union's R&I programme (2014–2020) and is matched by an industrial investment of at least three to five times that amount.
In September 2016, the Commission adopted the "connectivity package," an ambitious strategy for moving Europe into the gigabit connectivity era. It includes a reform of the telecom regulatory framework, with specific spectrum and investment‐friendly measures; it was adopted in December 2018, and a 5G Action Plan was developed to put in place the right framework conditions for the launch of 5G in Europe in 2020. These actions include a calendar for the assignment of 5G pioneering bands across the Member States, as well as the setting of targets for uninterrupted provision of 5G connectivity along major European transport paths by 2025.
As part of 5G PPP Phase II, 2017–2019, vertical experiments, trials, and demos have contributed significantly to the definition and validation of use cases for CAD, in particular thanks to the 5GCAR project. This two‐year Horizon 2020‐funded project proved the validity of C‐V2X for advanced CAD use cases and made significant contributions to the standardization of C‐V2X technical specifications and the definition of business models that will enable it.
Phase II of the 5G PPP initiative has been followed by a third and last phase of large‐scale trials and pre‐deployment projects, launched in November 2018 and September 2020. During this phase, experiments are examining use cases for CAD over motorways, rail, inland waterways, and maritime paths, with a focus on cross‐border sections of the so‐called 5G corridors. This extended pan‐European footprint of large‐scale trials will test 5G connectivity solutions for CAD and related business models in a wide variety of geographic situations and road conditions, including multi‐modal mobility and transport use cases; this is all thanks to the versatile nature of 5G technology, which offers multipurpose, multi‐service network platform features.
These large‐scale trials are gathering a broad range of stakeholders from different industries, in particular mobile network operators, telecom vendors, tower companies, public and private road operators, vehicle manufacturers, and their OEMs. In addition to testing, demos, and validation of 5G solutions for CAD, they will also define and assess the various business models required for the provision of dedicated 5G connectivity services for CAD and contribute to the definition of innovative 5G ecosystems in the field of mobility and transport. The outcome of these 5G cross‐border corridor trials will contribute to a pipeline of projects toward the large‐scale deployment of 5G corridors in the European Union, with the financial support of the proposed Connecting Europe Facility 2 (CEF2) Digital, with a budget of €1.8 billion over 2021–2027 and additional funding possibilities under the Recovery and Resilience Facility.
For the next multi‐annual financial framework covering the 2021–2027 period, building on the 5G PPP, the Commission has proposed launching a new partnership covering beyond 5G research as well as deployment activities with an enlarged scope. The target is addressing a complete value chain covering connectivity, device aspects in an IoT context, and service aspects in the context of distributed computing moving to the network edge. Several technologies, such as THz and LiFi communication in ultra‐dense networks, are moving toward cloud‐native architectures; edge computing and networking have been identified as future R&I topics, including artificial intelligence and blockchain supporting both network management and user applications. The European partnership is also expected to play a strategic role in coordinating the CEF2 Digital deployment program, in particular 5G corridors. Combined, they will have the capacity to contribute to the development of the next generation of CAD in the present and next decade. Moreover, energy efficiency, cybersecurity, and trust will receive particular attention.
This book addresses in a remarkable way the different dimensions of CAD and the complex set of related technical and business challenges; it provides, in a very intelligible and clear manner, a comprehensive picture of the various aspects of C‐V2X technologies for CAD, ranging from potential applications and business models to technical descriptions of radio, systems, and network design. As a reference book on C‐V2X, it benefits from key findings of the two‐year EC Horizon 2020 5GCAR project, in which its editors and authors have played key roles.
Christian MicasSenior Policy Officer, Future Connectivity SystemsUnit, DG CNECT, European Commission
Foreword by Maxime Flament
Beyond the age of the internet, when each and every new thing is interconnected, there are still dramatic connectivity gaps in our daily lives, especially when talking about mobility: in our cars, trains, and planes. Electronics have invaded our vehicles to make them safer, but those vehicles are still oddly isolated from the rest of the world. By design, vehicles gather information from a plethora of sensors. They intelligently fuse data to create a high‐definition, real‐time, self‐conscious image of themselves and their surroundings. This is done carefully, in a fail‐safe manner, to avoid any possible catastrophic malfunction. Today, even lower‐end vehicles have their share of radar, cameras, and other sensors that enable life‐saving features such as emergency braking. All this to say that sensor‐based advanced driver‐assistance systems (ADAS) is finally a success story.
When it comes to connectivity, today's reality is that 130 million vehicles are connected to the internet via mobile networks, i.e. vehicle‐to‐network (V2N); not all of them gather useful data for intelligent transport system and services, but this is a pretty good basis. The trend can only increase, as most vehicle manufacturers have announced their intention to connect their entire fleets to cloud or backend services. At the same time, the arrival of 5G opens the prospects of guaranteed quality of service together with, when required, very low latency. Past the hype, and with some market consolidation, this will bring huge added value to the operation of vehicles during their lifetime: mobility, insurance, comfort, traffic, logistics, maintenance, software updates, product improvements, and entertainment. 5G connectivity is, in the process, decoupling from delivered services to become truly multipurpose and respond to varying requirements.
Right now, the 5G Automotive Association (5GAA) is making sure all players are pushing in the same direction: faster and timely commercial deployment of 3GPP standards, starting with LTE‐V2X including both mobile networks and short‐range communications. Then, with the addition of 5G mobile networks, new radio (NR) and 5G NR short range, the industry will have new tools to seriously complement ADAS and automated driving. Once vehicle actuation is involved, the complexity reaches another order of magnitude in the domain of functional safety. At the moment, it is highly unlikely that manufacturers, owners, users, insurance companies, and society will accept that automated vehicles depend on data or computing performed outside the vehicles. A change of paradigm is needed. Further work on edge computing and ultra‐reliable low‐latency communication will provide more insights into the operation of automated vehicles relying on external data and computing. Until the reliability of the network connection and the availability of edge computing can be guaranteed, long debates will continue about which communication channel should be used for automated driving use cases. There is a difficult balance between the computing needed in the vehicle and computing that can be outsourced. For the time being, services running outside the vehicle will be able to support and improve automation and safety but will not be used alone to make decisions.
This being said, there are also substantial non‐technical challenges. The first is organizational: who does what to deploy life‐saving features based on commercial mobile networks? Second is user acceptance: how to achieve consumer trust for new services dealing with private data. This does not stop at cybersecurity but also requires user‐centric design and direct perceived value. In addition, connectivity comes with new kinds of liabilities: the more the manufacturer and owner‐user know about the vehicle, the more they have the duty to fix it. This may be one of the most challenging issues for manufacturers: their responsibility vis‐à‐vis defects, which may be detected faster with sufficient analysis of the collected data, and how quickly actions are launched to mitigate potential safety risks.
5G, including C‐V2X, is a new door to create a real internet of vehicles. It comes with great opportunities but also with many challenges. The 5GCAR project began a new wave of European‐funded activities, including cooperative work where communication researchers innovate together with vehicle electronics engineers: an exchange resulting in concrete connected car deployment ambitions built on the use of multi‐billion‐dollar mobile network investment. This is the kind of cooperation that makes European industries stronger.
I am happy to be linked to the important results outlined in this book and hope there will be even more progress in the future. Most important, we need more win‐win cooperation between key market players in the connected vehicles business: the automotive and telecommunication sectors working together to unlock new services and open new market opportunities. Stay tuned!
Dr. Maxime FlamentCTO, 5G Automotive Association (5GAA)
Foreword by El Khamis Kadiri
Since April 2018, the connected vehicle has become a must, given the eCall regulatory framework. At PSA, the eCall service has already been available for many years. But there is no doubt that in recent years the connected vehicle has both been enhanced technically and seen a boost in the market.
Connectivity is an enabler for three main pillars in automotive use cases: infotainment, original equipment manufacturer (OEM) use cases, and cooperative intelligent transport system (ITS). The infotainment giants of the digital era are squarely on board; and mirroring solutions, voice recognition engines, and personal assistants are now widely available. This convergence is also apparent in the adoption of operating systems: a relevant part of the industry is migrating from a Linux OS to an Android OS. This is also affecting onboard capabilities, which are evolving from connectivity provided by the customer to built‐in connectivity. Embedded SIM cards (eSIMs) and split billing are crucial enablers. And the final pending element is an evolution of the business approach as mobile network operators (MNOs) migrate from cost per volume to another business model.
OEM use cases are based on an extended‐vehicle paradigm. Thanks to connectivity, the car is linked to the OEM cloud and can exchange data in both directions for software updates, maintenance, onboard sensors, and so on. The OEM cloud provides computational power for managing data and acts as a hub for defining connected services to the market, such as remote operations, fleet management, etc.
Finally, cooperative ITS is a field where connectivity can improve the capabilities of advanced driver‐assistance systems (ADAS). The benefits of connectivity enable a new sensor to complement the limitations of onboard sensors (lidar, camera, and radar), thus improving ADAS possibilities at all levels of autonomous driving.
5G is the first mobile generation for which the verticals have been taken into account from the beginning. This is the case for the automotive sector: at PSA, we have mobilized significant resources to participate in defining this new technology. The company's 5G program is addressing multiple vectors; R&D activities for several projects have been launched based on open innovation and with 5GCAR playing a major role. PSA is teaming up with MNOs, telco vendors, and technology providers to build technical components adapted to automotive needs, while paying attention to onboard limitations and the industry's cost sensitivity. And this process is not over – it will continue in the coming years with new 3GPP releases.
Another relevant vector is participation in international forums where 5GAA has played a major role in coordinating OEM voices in the connectivity‐standardization bodies where, historically, the automotive sector was not relevant. A vital fact during the lifetime of 5GCAR has been the European Commission's rejection of the Delegated Act. The adoption of 5G in the automotive sector is not an easy path. The higher cost of the onboard modem must be justified from both technical and business perspectives: the infrastructure roll‐out is a must to boost adoption, but it has encountered significant difficulties in terms of cost and delays. Sidelink is a promising approach that can fill some of the infrastructure gaps, but the Delegated Act proposed a technology that would have moved in the opposite direction of successful 5G deployment. Fortunately, due to the act's rejection, Europe will stay competitive compared to other regions like North America and China with respect to 5G connected vehicles.
5G opens a complete new era for connectivity in the automotive sector. It will no longer be a commodity but an enabler for new driving functions and OEM use cases. There are still many challenges to be faced like the arrival of the sidelink New Radio technology, the deployment and adoption of the millimetre waves and a new paradigm in terms of the relationship between the devices and the infrastructure. Some of these topics evoke what is already called Beyond 5G. This book gives the perfect base to understand the new role of the connectivity in the mobility sector covering use cases, radio interfaces and the core architecture evolution and with a vision of the business challenges and impacts.
El Khamis KadiriHead of Innovation Connected VehiclePSA Group, France
Foreword by Magnus Eek
Volvo Cars has had a focus on safety since the company was founded in 1927 by Gustaf Larsson and Assar Gabrielsson. In 1958, Nils Bohlin became Volvo Cars' first dedicated safety engineer; a year later, he designed the three‐point safety belt. A few years after that, the Swedish company waived its patent rights to enable all automakers to use the safety belt. It has been estimated that this single act may have saved over a million lives globally.
Ninety years down the road, we Volvo employees are still constantly challenging ourselves to follow our safety vision; it's in our DNA. Today's vehicles are equipped with various safety sensors that have outstanding capabilities for detecting objects, following objects, and detecting dangerous scenarios in line‐of‐sight (LOS) using cameras, radar, and lidar (light detection and ranging). In addition, Volvo Cars has offered a Connected Safety program since 2001, starting with eCall (which sends SOS information about accidents, the vehicle's position, etc. to alarm central). Connected Safety features launched in 2016 inform other vehicles about hazards and slippery conditions ahead on the road. Since 2020, Volvo on Call (convenience services) has been offered on all vehicle models.
As an addition to today's safety technologies, research into V2X (vehicle‐to‐everything) wireless technologies is ongoing to evaluate how to further improve safety, traffic efficiency, and driving comfort on our roads. The V2X sensor is a candidate for use as a complementary sensor to cover both LOS (more than ≈400 meters) and non‐line‐of‐sight (NLOS) scenarios and enables collaboration between V2X sensors. To make full use of V2X technology, an ecosystem must be deployed that provides a worldwide/regional/market infrastructure. As an original equipment manufacturer (OEM), Volvo Cars requires system reliability, interoperability, high performance, and security; and vehicles must be equipped with V2X sensors to gain the advantage of vehicle‐to‐vehicle (V2V) and vehicle‐to‐infrastructure (V2I) communication.
For over a decade, the European Union has been contributing substantial funding to enable research and deployment of cooperative intelligent transport system (C‐ITS). Through groups such as the CAR 2 CAR Communication Consortium (C2C‐CC), contributions to harmonize C‐ITS services have been delivered. In Europe, services have been defined in Day 1 C‐ITS and Day 1.5 C‐ITS services lists that cover hazardous location notifications and signage applications.
In recent years, developments have enabled multiple V2X access layers on the market: IEEE 802.11p, 3GPP LTE‐V, and latest 3GPP 5G NR‐V2X. In Europe, debates are ongoing about which technology to use, and investigations are under way to see if they can co‐exist at the same dedicated wireless frequency spectrum.
As an OEM, one key advantage we see with 5G NR‐V2X technology is that it enables a combination of 5G short‐range communication between wireless sensors, meanwhile supporting traditional uplinks/downlinks with the same hardware. Additionally, 5G NR‐V2X offers edge computing to reduce latency and secure bandwidth, which are some of the key performance indicators (KPIs) we require for C‐ITS and connected services.
In the current decade, our vehicles will transform from stand‐alone products to objects in a system of systems: C-ITS. 5G features like mobile edge computing (MEC) and network slicing may be key enablers of C-ITS.
On the commercial side, market challenges exist: for example, we need to understand the commercial landscape and new supply chains, such as who will implement MEC and how network slicing will affect business models. Customers on the network need a seamless approach to network subscription, independent of where they drive (reliable, safe, and at a low cost). Vehicles drive across mobile network operator (MNO) networks, regions (urban and rural areas), and countries. To utilize the full benefits of 5G, vehicles expect full service at any position and at all times. Worldwide harmonization of the wireless spectrum to enable V2X technologies would be beneficial to simplify and keep component cost lower.
Positioning is a challenge for many C‐ITS services that use global positioning system (GPS) as a reference, since the current accuracy of positioning needs to be further improved. In C‐V2X in‐coverage modes, the 5G NR network can provide complementary positioning information (for relevant V2X sensors within a zone) and notifications about potentially dangerous scenarios. In the absence of infrastructure (in C‐V2X out‐of‐coverage modes), how do we handle scenarios that require precision in positioning when only GPS is available (assuming bad GPS accuracy)?
For use cases where a vehicle needs to transfer (upload or download) a large amount of data in a very short time, or as a complementary technology for positioning, 5G mmWave with a higher‐frequency band may be more suitable for urban areas than rural areas, due to limitations on communication range. For both areas, challenges remain in the time it takes to deploy infrastructure and the technical challenge of the communication distance between the NG‐RAN (next generation of radio access network) and the 5G user equipment (e.g. vehicles implementing 3GPP Release 15 or later).
Magnus EekProduct Owner – Wired and Wireless Communication TechnologiesVolvo Cars, Sweden
Preface
The mobile communications industry is on a path to using wireless connectivity to connect all kinds of vehicles and road users. The automotive industry and various transportation systems are part of this journey, with vehicles becoming increasingly aware of their immediate surrounding from various types of integrated onboard and external sensors. The knowledge acquired by vehicles can be shared locally by different types of short‐range communication enablers, while long‐range communication solutions can provide additional information with added value. With relevant information from both nearby and further away, a vehicle can adapt its behavior based on what lies ahead and thereby make more informed decisions.
Connected vehicles are among the primary enablers of safe, efficient automated driving both during the early stages of automation and in more advanced automation stages. There is, hence, a strong technology trend in which the mobile communications industry and the automotive industry are becoming interwoven to enable new functionalities and capabilities for future automated driving. In addition, there is strong, steady, increasing need for high‐capacity mobile broadband to provide automotive cloud connectivity for onboard users. However, this transformation in the two industries needs to take place in tandem with other stakeholders and academic research to enable advanced solutions for traffic safety and increased driving comfort.
Globally, and for many years, stakeholders such as the telecom industry, vehicle manufacturers, traffic authorities, smart cities, and others related to transportation have recognized the value of cooperation through communication to increase safety and traffic efficiency and reduce energy consumption and pollution. In the coming decade, cellular vehicle‐to‐everything (C‐V2X) is seen as an essential enabler of progress toward these societal and economic targets. In addition, various industry associations and standard‐settings organizations are working jointly to facilitate fifth generation (5G) mobile network assisted driving and automation.
The 5G Communication Automotive Research and innovation (5GCAR) project, running from June 2017 to July 2019, played a pioneering role in bringing these two industry sectors together with substantial contributions to drive the joint vision forward. Discussions about working on a book mainly based on the 5GCAR project began at the launch of the project. We felt it was time to collect all the good work we were planning to do and disseminate it in a coherent and accessible way, while also reaching out to a broader audience than those who typically read our project deliverables and scientific publications. At that time, we also discussed the idea of potential publishers, but it wasn't until 2018 that we started more hands‐on planning for the book. During IEEE Globecom 2018, we began to talk with Sandra Grayson at Wiley, and we felt that we had the same vision for a book on connected and automated driving.
You may also be interested to hear how the 5GCAR project got started, since there has been a lot of work behind it. It goes back to the early days of European‐funded research toward 5G, initiated by European CommissionFramework Program 7 (FP7) with the Mobile and Wireless Communications Enablers for the Twenty‐Twenty Information Society (METIS) project, which started in November 2012. Six months later, METIS use cases like traffic efficiency and safety, traffic jams, blind spots, and real‐time remote computing for mobile terminals were released. Back then, the telecom industry realized both the need for continued growth in the telecom sector and the potential for connecting various kind of machines for advanced information and communications technologies (ICT) solutions toward a smarter society. At this stage, several areas were identified as particularly promising, such as industrial production systems (Industry 4.0), smart grids, smart cities, safer and more efficient transportation systems, agriculture, and the use of ICT for health (eHealth). Thus, mobile communications were seen as having significant potential to act as key enablers for sustainability in the broad sense via digitalization. Some of these ideas and early requirements for 5G were summarized in four white papers by the 5G infrastructure Public Private Partnership (5G PPP) and one paper by the Next‐Generation Mobile Network (NGMN) alliance in early 2015, and since then many 5G publications are now available.1 Back then, connected vehicles, smart grids, and smart manufacturing systems were identified as the most promising areas for early uptake. eHealth and smart grids have not yet taken off in a broad sense. Both intelligent transportation systems (ITS) to enable safe and efficient transport, and Industry 4.0 for more efficient and agile manufacturing, had good momentum. The strongest interest in 5G at this point turns out to come from the manufacturing and automotive industries. For these reasons, work planning within the 5G PPP took off to coordinate proposals to work closely with identified vertical key industries. In collaboration with the automotive sector, the identified key areas are cooperative ITS (C‐ITS), connected automated driving (CAD), and connected road user (CRU) services. For instance, mobile networks and broadband‐connected vehicles are already in many cars on the market. As a result, and in parallel, the 5G Automotive Association (5GAA) was launched in September 2016. The 5GAA has played an important role in the convergence of the telecom and automotive industries, and the establishment of the 5GCAR project was one of the early successful outcomes.
Through this engagement, the automotive industry came to realize that huge challenges lie ahead when it comes to digitalizing cars and relying on external industry partners for offloading of on‐board processing. Connectivity and data storage and processing seem to be promising way forward. We believe the 5GCAR project has played an important role in the convergence of the telecom and automotive sectors to find common solutions, by creating a research environment in which telecom and automotive researchers and engineers have worked closely. We sincerely believe that such co‐creation is the way for true transformation to happen by bringing people togther to solve problems. El Khamis Kadiri from the PSA Group concludes that “5GCAR has been a success story of how different sectors can work together to build new solutions and face the enormous challenges in the mobility domain to be faced in the coming years. Connectivity and 5G will be crucial tools”; and Magnus Eek at Volvo Cars adds that “The H2020 5GCAR final demonstration showed the benefit of sharing V2X sensor data between the 5G network system and connected vehicles to help to predict various dangerous scenarios and avoid them.”
The material in this book originates primarily from such close collaborations in 5GCAR. The book's content is provided by researchers from partner institutions in the project. Hence, authors are from the telecom industry (Ericsson, Huawei, Nokia, and Orange), the automotive industry (PSA Group and Volvo Cars), an industrial equipment provider (Bosch), academia (King's College London and Chalmers University of Technology), research institutes (CTTC and CTAG), and small to medium‐size enterprises (Sequans, Marben, and VISCODA). In June 2019, this team of researchers, in the form of the 5GCAR consortium, demonstrated cooperative maneuvers to enable and achieve a coordinated vehicle lane merge on a highway, cooperative perception in terms of see‐through and long‐range sensor sharing, as well as protection of vulnerable road users through cooperative safety. We have posted a few videos of these demos on the book's web page at Wiley. There you can also download background and supplementary material for this book, in the form of 5GCAR project deliverables, publications, tutorials, and presentations. Please have a look.
As a last note, we wish to thank all of the 5GCAR project partners who ensured the successful completion of the project. A special thanks to all of you who contributed as authors or editors to this book. We have enjoyed working with all of you in the 5GCAR project and toward this book!
1. Target Audience and Reader's Guide
The objective of this book is to promote recent joint telecom‐automotive research on C‐V2X communications solutions, to support their standardization, and to accelerate their commercial availability and global market penetration. The vision is to address society's connected mobility and road‐safety needs with regard to applications such as assisted and autonomous driving, ubiquitous access to services, and integration into intelligent transportation. This book is designed to offer both introductory and in‐depth knowledge of how mobile connectivity can pave the way to automated vehicles. Toward this end, it addresses – in addition to academia from the telecommunication and automotive sectors – experts and managers in industry, spectrum regulators, and road traffic authorities. We believe that mobile network operators, telecommunication suppliers, automakers and their suppliers, and, in general, all vehicle manufacturers, including the motorcycle and bicycle industries, will adopt advanced 5G connected automated driving solutions for the new decade. Thus, we expect a large market penetration of cellular‐supported road use by the end of this decade. We hope that this book will attract a large audience and inspire engineers who wish to develop joint innovation and development projects leading to integrated solutions, interoperability testing, large‐scale pilots, and trial deployments in coming years.
The book covers both nontechnical and in‐depth technical topics ranging from business models and spectrum considerations to radio, networking, and security and privacy considerations for C‐V2X. The book summarizes the current status of the field, gives some recommendations for further activities, and concludes with a future outlook. If you would like to read just specific parts of the book, here are our suggested reading orders based on your perspective:
Engineers, researchers, and students
:
Chapter 1
,
4
–
9
,
2
,
3
, and
10
Policymakers, marketing, business, and management
:
Chapters 1
,
2
,
3
,
10
,
4
–
9
.
Finally, please consider visiting the book's web page at Wiley for background and supplementary material.
We hope you will enjoy reading this book as much as we have enjoyed writing it!
Mikael Fallgren, Markus Dillinger, Toktam Mahmoodi, and Tommy Svensson
Note
1
For references and additional material, please visit the book's web page at Wiley.
List of Abbreviations
1G
first generation
2D
two‐dimensional
2G
second generation
3D
three‐dimensional
3G
third generation
3GP‐DASH
3GPP defined the progressive download and dynamic adaptive streaming over hypertext transfer protocol
3GPP
3
rd
Generation Partnership Project
4G
fourth generation
5G
fifth generation
5G PPP
5G infrastructure Public Private Partnership
5GAA
5G Automotive Association
5GCAR
5G Communication Automotive Research and innovation
5GMF
Fifth Generation Mobile Communication Promotion Forum
6G
sixth generation
AA
authorization authority
AAA
authentication, authorization, and accounting
ABG
alpha‐beta‐gamma
ACC
adaptive cruise control
ACEA
European Automobile Manufacturers Association
ACI
adjacent channel interference
ACIR
ACI ratio
ACK
acknowledgment
ACMA
Australian Communications and Media Authority
AD
autonomous drive
ADAS
advanced driver‐assistance systems
ADC
analog to digital converter
AF
application function
AGC
automatic gain control
AI
artificial intelligence
ALP
average localization precision
AMF
access and mobility management function
AOA
angle of arrival
AOD
angle of departure
API
application programming interface
APT
Asia‐Pacific Telecommunity
AR
augmented reality
ARCEP
Autorité de Régulation des Communications Electroniques et de la Postes (i.e. French Telecommunications Regulatory Authority)
ARIB
Association of Radio Industries and Businesses
ARQ
automatic repeat request
AS
automotive supplier
ASIL
automotive safety integrity level
AT
authorization ticket
ATIS
Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions
AUSF
authentication server function
AV
autonomous vehicles
AWGN
additive white Gaussian noise
BAM
broadcast announce message
BEREC
Body of European Regulators and Electronic Communications
BLER
block error rate
BM
beamformed multicast
BOF
beginning of frame
BOS
beginning of symbol
bpcu
bit‐per‐channel‐use
BS
base station
BSM
basic safety message
BSS
business support systems
BTP
bidirectional transport protocol
C‐ITS
cooperative ITS
C‐V2X
cellular V2X
CA
certificate authority
CACC
cooperative ACC adaptive cruise control
CAD
connected automated driving
CAFÉ
clean air for Europe
CAM
cooperative awareness message
CAN
controller area network
CAPEX
capital expenditures
CAV
connected and autonomous vehicles
CBTC
communication‐based train control
CCAM
cooperative, connected, and automated mobility
CCI
co‐channel interference
CCSA
China Communications Standards Association
CD
code‐division
CDD
cyclic delay diversity
CDF
cumulative distribution function
CE
control element
CEN
European Committee for Standardization
CEPT
European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
CES
Consumer Electronics Show
CHF
charging function
CNMC
Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (i.e. National Commission of Markets and Competition)
COTS
commercial off the shelf
CP
control‐plane
CPE
common phase error
CPM
collective perception message
CRB
Cramér‐Rao bound
CRL
certification revocation list
CRS
cell‐specific reference signal
CRU
connected road user
CS
conservative scenario
CSI
channel state information
CSI‐RS
CSI reference signal
CSIR
CSI at the receiver
CSIT
CSI at the transmitter
CSMA
carrier sense multiple access
CSMA/CA
carrier sensing multiple access with collision avoidance
CSP
communication service provider
CT
core network and terminals TSG of 3GPP
CTL
certificate trust list
CTS
clear to send
CU
cooperative user
D2D
device‐to‐device
DANE
DASH‐aware network element
DCC
decentralized congestion control
DEB
direction error bound
DENM
decentralized environmental notification message
DL
downlink
DMRS
demodulation reference signal
DOA
difference of arrival
DS
delay spread
DSM
digital single market
DSRC
dedicated short‐range communications
DTT
digital terrestrial television
E
evolution
E‐UTRA
evolved UTRA
E2E
end‐to‐end
EA
enrollment authority
EATA
European Automotive Telecom Alliance
EC
enrollment certificate
ECA
enrollment certificate authority
eCall
emergency call
ECC
Electronic Communications Committee
ECDSA
elliptic curve digital signature algorithm
ECIES
elliptic curve integrated encryption scheme
ECU
electric control unit
eD2D
enhanced D2D
EDCA
enhanced distributed channel access
EE
end entity
EIRP
effective isotropic radiated power
EM
element manager
EN
European Norm
eMBB
enhanced mobile broadband
eNB
evolved node B
eSIM
embedded SIM
eUICC
enhanced UICC
ETC
electronic toll collection
ETSI
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
eURLLC
enhanced URLLC
EV
electric vehicles
eV2X
enhanced V2X
FAD
fully automated drive
FCC
Federal Communications Commission
FD
frequency‐division
FDD
frequency‐division duplex
feD2D
further enhanced D2D
FF
fast fading
FoV
field of view
FR
frequency range
FSPL
free space path‐loss
FSS
fixed satellite service
GA
genetic algorithm
GBR
guaranteed bit rate
GBS
geometry‐based stochastic
GDOP
geometric dilution of precision
GDPR
General Data Protection Regulation
GFBR
guaranteed flow bit rate
GI
guard interval
GN6ASL
geonetworking to IPv6 adaptation sub‐layer
gNB
next generation node B
GNSS
global navigation satellite system
GOSPA
generalized optimal sub‐pattern assignment
GP
guard period
GPRS
general packet radio services
GPS
global positioning system
GPU
graphics processing unit
GSA
General Services Administration
GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications
GSMA
GSM Association
GTP
GPRS tunneling protocol
HAD
highly automated driving
HARQ
hybrid automatic repeat request
HD
high definition
HPBW
half power beamwidth
HPLMN
home public land mobile network
HSM
hardware security module
IA
initial access
ICI
inter‐carrier interference
ICT
information and communication technology
ICV
intelligent and connected vehicle
ID
identity document
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEEE‐SA
IEEE Standards Association
IMT
International Mobile Telecommunications
IoT
Internet‐of‐Things
IP
Internet Protocol
IPR
intellectual property rights
ISG
Industry Specification Group
ISM
Industrial, Scientific and Medical
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
ITS
intelligent transport system
ITS‐AP
ITS application provider
ITS‐S
ITS station
ITU
International Telecommunication Union
ITU‐R
ITU Radiocommunication Sector
ITU‐T
ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector
iUICC
integrated UICC
KPI
key performance indicator
L
level
LCCF
local certificate chain file
LDPC
low‐density parity check
LEDBAT
low extra delay background transport
LEK
Electronic Communications Act
LMF
location management function
LNA
low‐noise amplifier
LOS
line‐of‐sight
LPF
local policy file
LS
least square
LSF
large‐scale fading
LTCA
long‐term certificate authority
LTE
long term evolution
LTE‐V
LTE‐vehicular (the V2X part of LTE in 3GPP)
M‐MIMO
massive MIMO
MU‐MIMO
multi‐user MIMO
MA
misbehavior authority
MAC
medium access control
MAE
mean absolute error
MANO
NFV management and orchestration
MAP
map data
MBMS
multimedia broadcast multicast service
MC
multi‐cell
MCD
multimedia content dissemination
MCS
modulation and coding scheme
MEC
multi‐access edge computing (formerly mobile edge computing)
MIC
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
MIIT
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
MIMO
multiple input multiple output
MMSE
minimum MSE
mMTC
massive machine type communication
MNO
mobile network operator
MP
message passing
MPC
multi‐path component
MSE
mean squared error
MSP
mobility service provider
multi‐RAT
multiple RAT
NACK
negative‐acknowledgment
NAS
non‐access stratum
NB‐IoT
narrowband IoT
NCU
non‐cooperative user
NCS
non‐conservative scenario
NEF
network exposure function
NF
network function
NFV
network function virtualization
NFV‐I
NFV infrastructure
NFV‐I‐PoP
NFV‐I points of presence
NFV‐O
NFV orchestrator
NG‐RAN
new generation RAN
NGMN
next generation mobile networks
NGV
next‐generation V2X
NLOS
non‐line‐of‐sight
NLOS‐V
vehicular‐NLOS
NR
new radio
NRF
network function repository function
NSSF
network slice selection function
NTP
network time protocol
OBU
on‐board unit
OCC
orthogonal cover code
OEB
orientation error bound
OEM
original equipment manufacturer
OFDM
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
OFDMA
orthogonal frequency division multiple access
OLOS
obstructed LOS
OPEX
operation expenditures
ORAN
open RAN
OS
OFDM symbols
OSI
open systems interconnection
OSS
operations support systems
OTA
over‐the‐air
OTDOA
observed TDOA
OTT
over‐the‐top
P2PCD
peer‐to‐peer certificate distribution
PBCH
physical broadcast channel
PBMCH
physical broadcast multicast channel
PC5
shortrange cellular communication (ProSe direct communication interface 5)
PCA
pseudonym certificate authority
PCF
policy control function
PDB
packet delay budget
PDCCH
physical downlink control channel
PDCP
packet data convergence protocol
probability distribution function
PDP
power delay profile
PDU
protocol data unit
PER
packet error rate
PHD
probability hypotheses density
PHY
physical
PKI
public key infrastructure
PL
path‐loss
PLMN
public land mobile network
PMR
professional mobile radio
PNF
physical network function
ProSe
proximity service
PRS
positioning reference signal
PS
public safety
PSBCH
physical sidelink broadcast channel
PSID
provider service identifier
PSM
personal safety message
PT‐RS
phase‐tracking reference signal
PTS
Swedish Post and Telecom Authority
QAM
quadrature amplitude modulation
QoS
quality of service
QUIC
quick UDP internet connections
R
revolution
R&D
research and development
RA
registration authority
RAN
radio access network
RAT
radio access technology
RB
resource block
RE
resource element
REL
release
RF
radio frequency
RLAN
radio local area network
RLC
radio link control
RMa
rural macro
RMSE
root mean square error
RRC
radio resource control
RRM
radio resource management
RS
reference signal
RSC
Radio Spectrum Committee
RSPG
Radio Spectrum Policy Group
RSRP
reference signal received power
RSTD
relative signal time difference
RSU
road‐side unit
RTK
real time kinematics
RTOA
relative time of arrival
RTS
request to send
RTT
round trip time
RTTT
road transport and traffic telematics
rtx
retransmission
RV
remote vehicle
Rx
receiver
Rx UE
receiving UE
S‐PSS
sidelink primary synchronization signal
S‐SSS
sidelink secondary synchronization signal
SA
system architecture
SAE
Society of Automotive Engineers
SAE‐C
SAE for China
SC‐FDMA
single‐carrier frequency division multiple access
SCMS
Security Credential Management System
SDA
strategic deployment agenda
SDL
supplemental downlink
SDN
software‐defined network
SDO
standards developing organization
SDU
service data unit
SDVN
software‐defined vehicular networking
SF
shadow fading
SFN
single‐frequency network
SGX
software guards extensions
SI
study item
SIC
self‐interference cancelation
SIG
special interest group
SIM
subscriber identity module
SINR
signal‐to‐interference‐plus‐noise ratio
SL
sidelink
SL_RNTI
sidelink radio network temporary identifier
SLA
service level agreement
SLAM
simultaneous localization and mapping
SLS
