Cities of Tomorrow E-Book

Peter Hall

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1374

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Peter Hall’s seminal Cities of Tomorrow remains an unrivalled account of the history of planning in theory and practice, as well as of the social and economic problems and opportunities that gave rise to it. Now comprehensively revised, the fourth edition offers a perceptive, critical, and global history of urban planning and design throughout the twentieth-century and beyond.

• A revised and updated edition of this classic text from one of the most notable figures in the field of urban planning and design
• Offers an incisive, insightful, and unrivalled critical history of planning in theory and practice, as well as of the underlying socio-economic challenges and opportunities
• Comprehensively revised to take account of abundant new research published over the last decade
• Reviews the development of the modern planning movement over the entire span of the twentieth-century and beyond
• Draws on global examples throughout, and weaves the author’s own fascinating experiences into the text to illustrate this authoritative story of urban growth

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

Cover

Praise for previous editions of Cities of Tomorrow

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Figures

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Preface to the Third Edition

Preface to the First Edition

1 Cities of Imagination

The Anarchist Roots of the Planning Movement

A Warning: Some Boulders in the Trail

A Guide through the Maze

2 The City of Dreadful Night

The Bitter Cry

The British Royal Commission of 1885

Depression, Violence, and the Threat of Insurrection

The Booth Survey: The Problem Quantified

The Slum City in Europe

New York: The Tumor in the Tenements

An International Problem

3 The City of By-Pass Variegated

The London County Council Starts to Build

The First Town-Planning Schemes

New York Discovers Zoning

London: The Tube Brings Suburban Sprawl

The Legacy of Tudor Walters

The Building of Suburbia

The Architects’ Revenge

4 The City in the Garden

The Sources of Howard’s Ideas

The Garden City and the Social City

Letchworth and Hampstead: Unwin and Parker

The Garden-City Movement between the Wars

The Garden City in Europe

Garden Cities in Far Places

Garden Cities for America

New Towns for Britain: The State Takes Over

5 The City in the Region

Geddes and the Anarchist Tradition

The Regional Planning Association of America

The RPAA versus the Regional Plan of New York

New Deal Planning

The TVA

The Vision Realized: London

6 The City of Monuments

Burnham and the City Beautiful Movement in America

The City Beautiful in the British Raj

Canberra: City Beautiful Exceptional

The City Beautiful and the Great Dictators

7 The City of Towers

The Corbusian Ideal City

The Planning of Chandigarh

Brasília: The Quasi-Corbusian City

The Corbusians Come to Britain

The Great Rebuild

Urban Renewal in America

Counter-Attack: Jacobs and Newman

The Dynamiting of Pruitt–Igoe

The Corbusian Legacy

8 The City of Sweat Equity

Geddes Goes to India

Arcadia for All at Peacehaven

Turner Goes to Peru

China Goes to the Mountains and the Country

Autonomy in the First World: Wright to Alexander

The Great War against Urban Renewal

The War Comes to Europe

Community Architecture Arrives in Britain

9 The City on the Highway

A Wellsian Prophecy is Fulfilled

Los Angeles Shows the Way

28

Frank Lloyd Wright and the Soviet Deurbanists

“The Suburbs Are Coming!”

Suburbia: The Great Debate

Controlling Suburban Growth in Europe

Squaring the Circle: Planning the European Metropolis

The Stockholm Alternative

189

Paris: Haussmann Revisited

The Great Freeway Revolt and After

10 The City of Theory

The Prehistory of Academic City Planning: 1930–1955

The Systems Revolution

The Search for a New Paradigm

The Marxist Ascendancy

The Continuing Divorce of Theory and Practice: Postmodern Theory Exits from the World as We Know It

95

The World Outside the Tower: Practice Retreats from Theory

11 The City of Enterprise:

The Rousification of America

The Great Enterprise Zone Debate

The Battle for Docklands

32

Regeneration in Action: Manchester and Rotterdam

The Enterprise Zone Goes Abroad

The Attack on Planning

12 The City of the Tarnished Belle Époque

The Global-Informational City: Symbolic Analysts and No-Hopers

The Digitalization of the World

Planning and Urban Policy: Codification versus Urban Entrepreneurship

Thames Gateway: The last 1980s Regeneration Project?

The Mega-Project: An Eastern Asian Art Form?

The Campaign for Urban Quality

Sustainable Urbanism in Practice: The United Kingdom’s Urban Task Force and After

The Search for Sustainability

New Models for Planning Pilgrims

Planning Gain and Social Equity

Growth, Equity, and Environment

13 The City of the Permanent Underclass

Chicago Discovers the Underclass

The Sociologists Invade the Ghetto

The Impact of the Ghetto Riots

After the Riots

The Underclass in Britain

Fifteen Years Later: The Attack on Social Exclusion

Postscript: August 2011

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Little Collingwood Street, Bethnal Green, ca. 1900. The Victorian “respectable poor,” probably Booth’s Class C, in their cruel habitations.

Figure 2.2 The Royal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes in Session, 1884. Shaftesbury, center right, gives evidence on the lifestyles of the poor; the Prince of Wales, leaning forward center left, appears aghast.

Figure 2.3 Charles Booth. The shipowner-turned-socialist, presumably intent on the results of his survey; perhaps it was the young Beatrice Potter who was reporting.

Figure 2.4 Berlin Mietskasernen (tenements). In Berlin a model housing design brings congestion and misery.

Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6 New York Dumbbells (Old Law Tenements). As in Berlin, so in New York, another “improved” housing design perversely brings no light, no air, but instead monumental overcrowding.

Figure 2.7 Jane Addams. The face of compassion and do-goodism, ready to do battle for the bodies and souls of Chicago’s slum dwellers.

Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9 Chicago tenement life, ca. 1900. The immigrant mothers and their children await the reformer from Hull House.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 Old Oak Estate, built ca. 1913. The LCC Architect’s Department out-Unwins Unwin: Germanic vernacular, curves, and gable ends according to Sitte.

Figure 3.2 Norbury Estate, built ca. 1921. Another LCC exercise in Unwinesque vernacular, around a hillside courtyard.

Figure 3.3 Ealing Tenants’ Meeting, ca. 1906. Howard’s Freedom and Cooperation in full flight in one of the first garden suburbs, but the flavor is decidedly middle-class.

Figure 3.4 Charles Tyson Yerkes. “Not a safe man” by Chicago standards, but the builder of three of London’s tubes; he died before he could reap his speculative rewards, but his legacy lives on.

Figure 3.5 Frank Pick.

Figure 3.6 Albert Stanley, Lord Ashfield. Frank Pick and Albert Stanley, the greatest management team in the history of London Transport, and – through their creation of the interwar suburbs – the true creators of modern London.

Figure 3.7 Homes Fit for Heroes. The Lloyd George quotation that never was; the actual slogan, though less memorable, decided the Khaki Election of 1918.

Figure 3.8 Raymond Unwin. Heavily influenced by William Morris and John Ruskin; the creator, with Barry Parker, of the garden-city–garden-suburb architectural vernacular.

Figure 3.9 Nothing Gained by Overcrowding! Unwin’s enormously influential 1912 pamphlet dealt the death-blow to the by-law street and ushered in the age of the council estate and cottage home.

Figure 3.10 Cottage Homes for the People. Basic Unwin plans from the Ministry of Health Manual of 1920, following the Tudor Walters report; they would be repeated in their thousands across the face of England, but the garden-city purists felt betrayed.

Figure 3.11 By-Pass Variegated. Osbert Lancaster’s merciless rendering of the genre; complete with leaded windows, lace curtains, crazy paving, and the Wall’s Ice Cream Tricycle.

Figure 3.12 The Great West Road. 1930s By-Pass Variegated en masse from the air, clustered around Osterley tube station (foreground), one of Charles Holden’s brilliant designs for Frank Pick.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 Ebenezer Howard. The great man reduced to modest humility (or stupefaction) by an unknown orator. The audience seems to share his reaction. Probably photographed at Welwyn Garden City.

Figure 4.2 Garden Cities of To-morrow. Key diagrams from the first 1898 edition, entitled To-morrow, of Howard’s classic. The fourth, showing his vision of the polycentric Social City, was never afterwards reproduced in its complete form.

Figure 4.3 New Earswick. A classic Unwin–Parker design around an enclosed green space, intended to recapture the communal quality of the medieval quadrangle.

Figure 4.4 Letchworth. The medieval village green motif as interpreted by Parker and Unwin in the First Garden City.

Figure 4.5 Barry Parker. Unwin’s partner and co-designer at New Earswick, Letchworth, and Hampstead; later the sole author of the plan for Manchester’s Wythenshawe, truly England’s Third Garden City.

Figure 4.6 Ealing Garden Suburb. Construction in progress, Denison Road, ca. 1907.

Figure 4.7 Henrietta Barnett. The Dame takes charge: plan of Hampstead Garden Suburb in her hand, moral fervor and reforming zeal in her eyes.

Figure 4.8 Hampstead Garden Suburb. Old Nuremberg (or is it Rothenburg?) comes to the Finchley Road; the product, most likely, of Unwin’s last summer sketching holiday.

Figure 4.9 Sunday lunch in Welwyn Garden City. Howard’s ideal personified; the working man and his wife come into their patrimony.

Figure 4.10 The Mall, Welwyn Garden City. Louis de Soissons brings classical formality and Georgian good taste to the Second Garden City.

Figure 4.11 Frederic Osborn. First Howard’s lieutenant, then his successor as indefatigable campaigner-in-chief for garden cities; in his Welwyn garden, aged 80, the next polemic ready for the printer.

Figure 4.12 Margarethenhöhe. Georg Metzendorf’s brilliant exercise in the Sitte tradition, for the Krupp family, outside Essen: the essence of German industrial paternalism.

Figure 4.13 Römerstadt.

Figure 4.14 Siemensstadt.

Figure 4.15 Onkel-Toms-Hütte. The garden suburb reinterpreted by the masters of the modern movement, May in Frankfurt, Gropius and Taut in Berlin: functionalism, even in four-story apartments, can prove liveable too.

Figure 4.16 Clarence Stein. Campaigner for new towns in America, and builder of three brilliant designs; he gave the Radburn layout to the planner’s vocabulary.

Figure 4.17 and Figure 4.18 Forest Hills Gardens. The New York commuter garden suburb where Clarence Perry discovered the principle of the neighborhood unit.

Figure 4.19 Radburn.

Figure 4.20 Greenbelt. The first Radburn layouts applied to entire neighborhoods; in Greenbelt, as earlier in Weimar Germany, functional architecture is successfully married to garden-city–garden-suburb tradition.

Figure 4.21 Rexford Guy Tugwell. Creator of the experimental green-belt communities of the mid-1930s: bitterly attacked in Congress as socialistic, and indeed a model for Britain’s postwar government-funded new towns.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 Patrick Geddes. The indefatigable folder of paper and drawer of diagrams here conducts an incomprehensible experiment on himself.

Figure 5.2 Lewis Mumford. His only meeting with Geddes was a disaster, but at last the professor had found his scribe; the Regional Planning Association of America would bring the master’s message to the world.

Figure 5.3 The Outlook Tower. From its castellated top, complete with camera obscura, Geddes ranged the rooftops of Edinburgh and taught the lesson of Survey before Plan.

Figure 5.4 The Valley Section. The essence of Geddes’s regional scheme, from a paper of 1905: Folk–Work–Place in perfect harmony, the city in the center of things.

Figure 5.5 The Process of Conurbation, right and wrong. Diagram from Geddes’s Cities in Evolution (1915) showing urban sprawl and its remedy.

Figure 5.6 The RPAA Manifesto. Edited by Lewis Mumford, this collective issue was the definitive statement of the philosophy of the small New York group, which proved one of the most important documents of planning’s history.

Figure 5.7 Catherine Bauer. Educating herself in the Regional Planning Association of America, then disillusioned with them in general and with Mumford in particular, she brilliantly steered Congress to pass the first federal housing legislation.

Figure 5.8 Norris, Tennessee. Tracy Augur’s small gem for the Tennessee Valley Authority: one of the few manifestations of its original regional planning ideals, which it soon lost.

Figure 5.9 The New Town idea from Howard to Abercrombie. The notion of a host of satellite cities around a metropolis, from Howard (1898), through Purdom (1921) and Unwin (1929–33), to Abercrombie’s definitive Greater London Plan of 1944.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Daniel Burnham. The maker of no small plans, in a suitably large and magisterial pose.

Figure 6.2 The Chicago Plan of 1909. A complete scheme of classical civic order is laid down on the Illinois grid. And amazingly, spurred by civic boosterism, by 1925 much of it is complete.

Figure 6.3 Chicago Civic Center. Jules Guerin’s haunting pastel vision of a magnificently Haussmannized Chicago: formal, symmetrically ordered, but devoid of broader social objective or content. Ironically, this central element was the part that was never completed.

Figure 6.4 New Delhi. The Lutyens–Baker plan: symbolic of the awesome power of the Raj, and completely unrelated to the organic life of the indigenous city next door.

Figure 6.5 Planning New Delhi. Captain Stanley, Edward Lutyens, Herbert Baker, and an unidentified elephant wallah practice the Geddesian principle of Survey before Plan.

Figure 6.6 New Delhi: Lutyens’s “Bakerloo.” Obscuring the view of the Secretariat and the Viceroy’s palace, the kink in the great processional way caused a fatal rift between Lutyens and Baker and nearly shook the Empire. Lutyens–Baker plan of New Delhi.

Figure 6.7 Canberra. Walter Burley Griffin’s prizewinning plan of 1912; ignored, circumvented. Maybe – over a century afterwards – almost complete.

Figure 6.8 Walter Burley Griffin. The Chicago landscape architect who worked with Frank Lloyd Wright before winning the Canberra competition.

Figure 6.9 Speer’s Berlin. Speer’s monumental north–south way leads via the Triumphal Arch to the gigantic domed Kupferhalle: a city fit to be capital of the Thousand Year Reich, none of it even started.

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Le Corbusier and Unité. A machine for living in, as prescribed by the Supreme Architect.

Figure 7.2 Louis XIV commands the building of the Invalides. Le Corbusier’s favorite vision of the Master Architect at work: “We wish it.” Unfortunately he never found his Roi Soleil.

Figure 7.3 La Ville Radieuse. The total geometrical vision: massed machines for living and working in.

Figure 7.4 Chandigarh. The only realized Corbusian city design: here a residential quarter, functionalist boxes for Punjabi functionaries, from the pen of the master.

Figure 7.5 Chandigarh. The reality of the people’s city behind the facades; foreground, autonomous housing; left background, tent city.

Figure 7.6 Brasília. The vision of a modernized, sanitized capital city, sketched by Lúcio Costa on five index cards.

Figure 7.7 Taguatinga, Brasília. Started as a construction camp, the first of the popular settlements that represent the reality for most of the capital region’s people: impossible to suppress, eventually accepted but ignored.

Figure 7.8 Bombed London East End street. The frontispiece from Forshaw and Abercrombie’s 1943 County of London plan, which says it all.

Figure 7.9 The Great Rebuild in the East End. A 1965 picture with the job half-complete: the old two-story terraces on the left, LCC tower blocks and nondescript borough slabs on the right.

Figure 7.10 and Figure 7.11 Pruitt–Igoe. The world’s most notorious high-rise housing project as it was supposed to look – and actually did look for a short while at the start – and at the moment of its demolition in 1972.

Chapter 08

Figure 8.1 San Martín de Porres, Lima, 1962. “The notion that the barriada is a slum varies between a half-truth and an almost untruth” (John F. C. Turner).

Figure 8.2 Lightmoor, Telford New Town. The people get down to work in the project that eventually won the accolade from Prince Charles. On the right, Tony Gibson, Lightmoor’s John Turner.

Chapter 09

Figure 9.1 Robert Moses and Jane Jacobs: New York’s all-conquering master-builder and the Greenwich Village housewife who finally brought him down.

Figure 9.2 Jones Beach. One of the great Moses projects of the 1920s: recreation for the motorized masses, but the bridges on the parkways are built deliberately too low for buses.

Figure 9.3 AVUS. The Automobil-Verkehrs- und Übungsstrasse, built through Berlin’s Grunewald and completed in 1921, can claim to be the world’s first true motorway.

Figure 9.4 Broadacre City. Frank Lloyd Wright’s “Usonian Vision” of the low-density marriage of suburb and countryside; every citizen simultaneously an urbanite and a farmer. Something perilously like it happened all over the US in the 1950s, but stripped of its social and economic message.

Figure 9.5 Kansas City, Country Club District. J. C. Nichols’s Country Club Plaza (1922), equally, can lay claim to be the first out-of-town shopping center.

Figure 9.6 Levittown, Long Island. The Levitts’ standard Cape Cod design, modified in a thousand different ways by its owners; pleasant enough but ultimately bland, an ersatz version of the great suburbs of the American past.

Figure 9.7 The Las Vegas Strip. The ultimate highway strip city; the signs are the true townscape; the buildings are reduced to decorated sheds surrounded by the vast spaces of the parking lots.

Figure 9.8 The first Holiday Inn. Memphis, Tennessee, 1952: the birth of the roadside chain. Three years later came the first standardized, franchised McDonalds outlet, in Des Plaines, Illinois.

Figure 9.9 and Figure 9.10 Vällingby and Farsta, Stockholm’s first two “B” level satellite town centers to be developed, with their inevitable standard features: pedestrian shopping mall, Tunnelbana (metro) station, high-density high-rise apartment blocks close by.

Figure 9.11 Marne-la-Vallée. The Stockholm model applied on a far larger spatial scale in the new towns for Paris under the 1965 plan. The express transit system, RER (Réseau Express Régional), runs directly under the town center deck.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Patrick Abercrombie. Photographed outside the Palace after receiving his knighthood in 1945, Abercrombie celebrates his two great plans for London and 30 years as a leader of British planning education.

Figure 10.2 Thomas Adams. The ultimate transatlantic planner, Adams worked at Letchworth and became the Town Planning Institute’s first president before moving to direct the New York Regional Plan, a job he combined with a flourishing regional planning practice in England.

Figure 10.3 T. J. Kent, Jr. Three waves of planning theory at the University of California, Berkeley. (1) Kent, the school’s founder, wrote the classic 1962 text on the urban general plan.

Figure 10.4 Melvin M. Webber. Three waves of Berkeley planning theory continued. (2) In the 1960s Webber developed radical ideas about the nonplace urban realm and argued that planning had failed to develop a distinctive methodology.

Figure 10.5 Manuel Castells. Three waves of Berkeley planning theory continued. (3) Castells came in 1979 from Paris, where his Urban Question, a Marxist analysis of planning’s role within the capitalist state, had become an instant international classic.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Liverpool. Giles Gilbert Scott’s massively dignified Anglican cathedral rises high over abandoned streets.

Figure 11.2 Boston, Quincy Market.

Figure 11.3 Baltimore, Inner Harbor. The two showpieces of American inner-city regeneration through public–private partnership, both through the Rouse Corporation: “Rousification” enters the planner’s vocabulary.

Figure 11.4 and Figure 11.5 London Docklands: before and after. The transformation of the London Docklands during the 1980s represented the biggest piece of urban revitalization in Europe, if not the world. For some, it was a shining example of how to do it; for others, of how not to.

Figure 11.6 Paul Reichmann. The Toronto developer with Canary Wharf: the summit of his ambition, lost and then regained.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Thames Gateway. The United Kingdom’s attempt to outdo the French in mega-strategic-planning, a 50-mile development corridor down the river, based on the new Channel Tunnel high-speed rail link; here, a computer simulation of the proposed development – so far awaiting implementation – around the Ebbsfleet train station.

Figure 12.2 Pudong. Shanghai’s amazing new central business district, created on former rice fields in an astonishingly short time.

Figure 12.3 La Défense. The ultimate French grand projet, 40 years in the making; the total integration of everything, all aligned on the historic grand axe of Paris, looking back at the Arc de Triomphe.

Figure 12.4 Sustainable development. Two concepts from 1993, one British (Michael Breheny and Ralph Rookwood, for the Town and Country Planning Association), one American (Peter Calthorpe): independently conceived, almost identical in form.

Figure 12.5 Jaime Lerner. The legendary Brazilian architect-planner, Mayor of Curitiba and then Governor of the state of Paraná, photographed against one of his iconic bus shelters.

Figure 12.6 Wulf Daseking. Freiburg’s legendary city planner over a quarter-century, whose team created the “Freiburg model” of “the city of short distances.”

Figure 12.7 Rieselfeld. Interior of a residential area in a Freiburg urban extension, with natural drainage for ecological conservation and children’s playspace.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Chicago slum, ca. 1900. An unidentified alley at the time of the Chicago Tenement House Survey: for hundreds of thousands of immigrants from Europe home in America meant this.

Figure 13.2 Dr Robert E. Park. Founder of the Chicago school of sociology, whose studies in the 1920s first pinpointed the roots of social disintegration in the city’s slums.

Figure 13.3 Chicago’s “Little Hell,” 1902. One of the city’s Italian enclaves, which became notorious as a seat of vice and crime.

Figure 13.4 Murder in Chicago race riot, 1919. Unlike later riots in American cities, this was a true interracial conflict, prompted by white resentment at black invasions of the city’s housing and job markets.

Figure 13.5 Dr E. Franklin Frazier. The great black sociologist of the Chicago school, whose work in the 1920s and 1930s meticulously detailed the breakdown of black family structures in the northern cities.

Figure 13.6 Broadwater Farm riot, Tottenham, London, 1985. The police restore uneasy order to the indefensible spaces of the concrete jungle: a final comment on the failure of 1960s-style urban renewal.

Figure 13.7 Riot in Tottenham High Road, London, 2011. Not far from Broadwater Farm, like the equivalent riots of the 1960s in American cities, this was a “commodity riot” triggered by tensions between young blacks and police.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Praise for previous editions of Cities of Tomorrow

“This is nothing less than a history of the ideology and practice of urban planning through the century. … It’s all in this most readable tour de force, which makes a whole series of fascinating connections.” The Architectural Review

“This is the one book you have to read.” American Planning Association Journal

“Peter Hall is renowned for his critical texts on planning and urban studies, and this updated edition of Cities of Tomorrow is no exception. Writing with such enthusiasm and flair, Hall takes the reader on an enthralling journey through the history of city planning.” The Geographical Journal

“This classic history of modern urban planning has now been updated for the new century with a third edition. Cities of Tomorrow is an excellent guide to the urban development of the 20th century, and a good platform from which to view the evolution of the 21st.” Urban Land

Peter Hall

Cities of Tomorrow

An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design Since 1880

Fourth Edition

This fourth edition first published 2014© 2014 Peter Hall

Edition history: Basil Blackwell Ltd (1e, 1988), Blackwell Publishers Ltd (2e, 1996); Blackwell Publishing Ltd (3e, 2002)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hall, Peter, 1932–Cities of tomorrow: an intellectual history of urban planning and design since 1880 / Peter Hall. – Fourth edition.pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-118-45647-7 (paperback)1. City planning – History – 20th century. I. Title.HT166.H349 2014307.1′2160904–dc232013047879

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Rundhaus at Römerstadt, Frankfurt, Germany by Ernst May, 1926–8.Photo © Photography Eduardo PerezCover design by Simon Levy