Communications, Radar and Electronic Warfare E-Book

Adrian Graham

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 484

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

A practical guide to the principles of radio communications for both civilian and military applications

In this book, the author covers both the civilian and military uses of technology, focusing particularly on the applications of radio propagation and prediction. Divided into two parts, the author introduces the basic theory of radio prediction before providing a step-by-step explanation of how this theory can be translated into real-life applications. In addition, the book presents up-to-date systems and methods to illustrate how these applications work in practice. This includes systems working in the HF bands and SHF. Furthermore, the author examines the performance of these systems, and also the effects of noise, interference and deliberate jamming, as well as the performance of jamming, detection and intercept systems. Particular attention is paid to the problems caused by Radio Controlled Improvised Explosive Devices (RCIEDs).

Key Features:

• A practical handbook on the topic of radio communications and propagation
• Written by an expert in both the civilian and military applications of the technology
• Focuses on methods such as radio and radar jamming, and radio-controlled improvised explosive devices (IEDs)
• Contains problems and solutions to clarify key topics

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Glossary

Part One: Basic Theory

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 The Aim of this Book

1.2 Current Radio Technology

1.3 Factors Constraining Radio Communications

References and Further Reading

Chapter 2: Management of the Radio Spectrum

2.1 Spectrum Management Fundamentals

2.2 Civil Spectrum Management

2.3 Military Spectrum Management

2.4 Management of EW Activities

References and Further Reading

Chapter 3: The Radio Channel

3.1 Frequency Aspects of the Radio Channel

3.2 Narrowband Signals

3.3 Frequency Hopping Signals

3.4 Wideband Signals

3.5 The Effect of Movement on the Radio Channel

References and Further Reading

Chapter 4: Radio Links in the Presence of Noise

4.1 Sources of Radio Noise

4.2 Effects of Noise

4.3 The Radio Receiver

4.4 Radio Link Budgets in the Presence of Noise

References and Further Reading

Chapter 5: Radio Links in the Presence of Interference

5.1 Sources of Radio Interference

5.2 Interference in the Spectral Domain

5.3 Interference in the Time Domain

5.4 Interference Mitigation Techniques

References and Further Reading

Chapter 6: Radio Links and Deliberate Jamming

6.1 The Purpose of Jamming

6.2 How Jamming Works

6.3 Types of Communications Jammers

6.4 Jamming Mitigation Techniques

References and Further Reading

Chapter 7: Radar and Radar Jamming

7.1 Introduction to Radars

7.2 The Radar Equation

7.3 Types of Radar

7.4 Radar Jamming Techniques

7.5 Radar Jamming Mitigation Techniques

References and Further Reading

Chapter 8: Radio-Controlled Improvised Explosive Devices

8.1 The Poor Man's Weapon of Choice: IEDs

8.2 Radio Control for IEDs

8.3 Detection of IED Radio Control Systems

References and Further Reading

Part Two: Practical

Chapter 9: Predicting HF Radio

9.1 Propagation at HF

9.2 HF Skywave Link Budgets

9.3 Groundwave

References and Further Reading

Chapter 10: VHF to SHF Radio Prediction

10.1 Propagation above HF

10.2 Modelling Methods

10.3 Deterministic Models

10.4 Empirical Models

10.5 Combined Models

10.6 Link Budgets

References and Further Reading

Chapter 11: Data Requirements for Radio Prediction

11.1 Why Consider Modelling Requirements?

11.2 Communications System Parameters

11.3 ES Specific Parameters

11.4 EA Specific Parameters

11.5 Radar Specific Parameters

11.6 Third-Party Characteristics

11.7 General Antenna Characteristics

11.8 Antenna Environment Considerations

11.9 Terrain Data

11.10 Ground and Radio Clutter Data

11.11 Sunspots, Ionospheric and Atmospheric Data

References and Further Reading

Chapter 12: Planning and Optimising Radio Links

12.1 Path Profile Prediction

12.2 Optimising a Link

12.3 Re-Broadcast Links

12.4 Linked Networks

References and Further Reading

Chapter 13: Planning Radio Networks for Coverage

13.1 Coverage Predictions

13.2 Optimisation of Radio Networks

13.3 Limiting Coverage

References and Further Reading

Chapter 14: Interference Analysis

14.1 Introduction to Radio Interference Analysis

14.2 Fading Considerations

14.3 Interference from Other Channels

14.4 Different Ways of Representing Co-existing Signals

References and Further Reading

Chapter 15: Management Techniques for Interference

15.1 Preventing Interference

15.2 Managing Interference

15.3 Interference Reports

References and Further Reading

Chapter 16: Management of Interference at a Radio Site

16.1 Special Features of Radio Sites with Multiple Systems

16.2 Sources of Interference at a Radio Site

16.3 Methods of Managing Interference at Radio Sites

References and Further Reading

Chapter 17: Communications Electronic Warfare

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Detection and Intercept Networks

17.3 Direction Finding Networks

17.4 Communications Jammers

17.5 The Role of Unmanned Airborne Vehicles

17.6 Countering Enemy Communications Electronic Warfare

References and Further Reading

Chapter 18: Non-Communications Electronic Warfare

18.1 Non-Communications EW

18.2 Radar Jamming Techniques

18.3 Platform Self Protection Methods

18.4 Parametric Information Collection Methods

References and Further Reading

Chapter 19: Countering Radio-Controlled IEDs

19.1 Introduction to IEDs

19.2 Radio Controlled IED

19.3 Basic IED Counter Methods

Chapter 20: Summary and Conclusions

Appendix A: Working with Decibels

Appendix B: Common Conversion Formulae and Reference Tables

Free Space Loss

Reflection Coefficient for a Two-Ray Model

Index

This edition first published 2011

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Graham, Adrian W.

Communications, radar, and electronic warfare / Adrian William Graham.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-68871-7 (hardback)

1. Radio wave propagation. 2. Radio frequency. 3. Wireless communication systems. I. Title.

TK6553.G697 2011

621.384–dc22

2010035687

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 9780470688717 (H/B)

ePDF ISBN: 9780470977163

oBook ISBN: 9780470977170

ePub ISBN: 9780470977149

Preface

I have been fortunate during my career to work with a wide range of designers, managers and operators in the communications, radars and electronic warfare fields. During that time, I have had the opportunity to provide a technical input into their activities via providing consultancy, design of new systems and techniques and training courses at a range of levels. One of my main tasks has been to develop methods suitable for operators based on highly technical materials. This is not always an easy task; it can be difficult to present complex material in a form that does not require the operators to be experts themselves. This is not to denigrate in any way the abilities of operators. They have to perform excellently in their roles, often in very difficult circumstances, and they simply do not have the time to commit to working out how to convert theory into practice in the field. Thus, much of my time has been spent working out ways to simplify practical methods of applying theory for the widest possible range of circumstances. I have tried to adopt the same approach in the preparation of this book. It is also my own personal opinion that there are two types of information available about these subjects. One is highly theoretical and beyond the needs of most workers in the field. The other is slightly too simplified, omitting vital information without which it is impossible to really understand the subject. In this book, I have tried to bridge the gap between these two opposing approaches. I hope I have succeeded.

During my time working with operators, engineers and managers, I have identified a number of specific areas where I believe understanding is limited throughout the industry. These are the areas I have tried to emphasise in this book, and the ones I spend most time on when I design and run training courses. I have also tried to bridge the terminology gap between workers in the three areas covered by this book. Often, there is misunderstanding between these people when they meet, simply based on terminological and learned approaches when they are in fact talking about the same things. I have deliberately used a mix of terminology to blur these lines. I have in some cases also opted not to use terminology used by one group that may not be understood by others. This is often service or allegiance based, and again they can act to cause confusion where the terminology is not shared by others; this book is, after all, aimed at a worldwide market.

I have provided some references and further reading after most of the chapters. I have tried to choose reading material that is not too theoretical such as academic papers where possible. Where no references are provided, the material is based on my own experience.

As the reader can imagine, I could not have created this book without the input of a vast array of input from other people over the years. There are a few in particular I would like to thank. Since they are still working in the field, particularly in EW, most would rather not be identified. However, both they and I know who they are.

I would also like to thank my long-suffering project editor at John Wiley & Sons, who has had to wait far too long for this manuscript. The support given to me by my equally long-suffering special friend Leanne, my brother Jim and my mother Brenda has also been invaluable. Finally, I would like to thank Alan Smith, the best friend anyone could hope for, who has supported me in many ways during the writing of this book and who, when times have been tough, has comforted me with cider.

Adrian Graham

Glossary

AAM

Air to Air Missile

AGA

Air-Ground-Air, usually relating to communications

AGC

Automatic Gain Control

ARM

Anti-Radiation Missile

AM

Amplitude Modulation

ASM

Air to Surface Missile

AOR

Area of Responsibility; area within which a military force element works

APOD

Air Point of Departure

AWGN

Average White Gaussian Noise (a flat response over the band of interest)

Antenna

Device to convert electrical energy to RF energy and the converse

Backhaul

Network used to trunk traffic from a mobile system

Battlespace

Term used to define the battle area, which extends beyond physical bounds (the battlefield)

BER

Bit Error Rate

BSM

Battlespace Spectrum Management (plan); military spectrum plan

Burn-through

Overcoming jamming by the robustness of the target link

CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access

CEW

Communications Electronic Warfare

C/I

Carrier-to-Interference ratio (dB)

CIWS

Close In Weapons System

CME

Coronal Mass Ejection; an eruption on the surface of the sun

COMINT

COMmunications INTelligence

CONUS

Continental United States (of America)

CNR

Combat Net Radio

Combiner

Device to combine more than one radio signal into a single antenna

Connector

Physical electrical connector for RF cables and systems

COTS

Commercial Off The Shelf; standard systems available to buy

CW

Continuous wave; as opposed to periodic pulsed transmissions

Diplexer

Passive device to combine radio signals into a single antenna without loss

dBd

Loss or gain reference an ideal dipole antenna

dBi

Loss or gain reference an ideal isotropic antenna

DEM

Digital Elevation Model

DF

Direction Finder/Finding

DME

Distance Measuring Equipment (aeronautical)

Downlink

(1) Link from a terrestrial fixed radio station to an associated mobile station(2) In satellite systems, from satellite to Earth station

DRDF

Digitally Resolved Direction Finding

DTM

Digital Terrain Model

DVOR

Digital VHF Omni-directional Radio ranging (aeronautical)

EA

Electronic Attack (EW)

ECCM

Electronic Counter-Counter Measures

EIRP

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, versus a perfect isotropic antenna

EHF

Extra High Frequency (30–300 GHz)

ELF

Extra Low Frequency (0.3–30 kHz)

EMCON

EMission CONtrol; controlling RF emissions to avoid exploitation by the enemy

EM

Electro-Magnetic

EMC

Electro-Magnetic Compatibility

EMI

Electro-Magnetic Interference

EMP

Electro-Magnetic Pulse; damaging RF energy from a nuclear weapon or EMP weapon

EOD

Explosive Ordnance Demolition

EORBAT

Electronic Order of BATtle

EP

Electronic Protection (EW)

ERP

Effective Radiated Power, normally versus a dipole antenna

ES

Electronic support (EW)

EW

Electronic Warfare (EW)

EW

Early Warning (alternative meaning, depending on context)

FAA

Federal Aviation Authority

FDD

Frequency Division Duplex

FDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access

FEBA

Forward Edge of Battle Area

Feeder

RF cable used to connect RF components together

FFZ

First Fresnel Zone

FH

Frequency Hopping

Filter

Device to condition an electrical signal in the spectral domain

FM

Frequency Modulation

Force Element

Military assets assigned to a specific task

FSL

Free Space Loss; spreading loss only (dB)

GCHQ

Government Communications HeadQuarters (UK)

GCI

Ground Controlled Intercept

GIS

Geographic Information System

GPS

Global Positioning System

GSM

Global System for Mobile Communications

Hardkill

Physical destruction of assets

HF

High Frequency (3–30 MHz)

HME

Home Made Explosive

HND

Host Nation Declaration; response to an SSR

HUMINT

HUMan INTelligence; informants

ICAO

International Civil Aviation Organisation

ICD

Improvised Chemical Device

IED

Improvised explosive device

IF

Intermediate Frequency

IFF

Identification Friend or Foe

IID

Improvised Incendiary Device

ILS

Instrumented Landing Systems

IMINT

Image INTelligence

IND

Improvised Nuclear Device

IMP

Inter-Modulation Product

IRD

Improvised Radiological Device

IRF

Interference Rejection Factor

ITU

International Telecommunications Union

JRFL

Joint Restricted Frequency List

J/S

Jamming to Signal ratio

JSIR

Joint Spectrum Interference Resolution (process) – US interference resolution method

JSR

Alternative form of Jammer to Signal Ratio

LIDAR

LIght Detection And Ranging; high resolution terrain data capture method

LF

Low Frequency (30–300 kHz)

MASINT

Measurement And Signature INTelligence

MBITR

Multi-Band Inter/Intra Team Radio

MCFA

Most Constrained First Assigned; frequency assignment approach

MF

Medium Frequency (300 kHz–3 MHz)

MGRS

Military Grid Reference System

MLS

Microwave Landing System (aeronautical)

MOTS

Mostly Off The Shelf; standard systems that are partially modified

MSR

Main Supply Routes

NDB

Non-Directional Beacon (aeronautical)

NFD

Net Filter Discrimination

NSA

National Security Agency (USA)

OP

Observation Post

OPTEMPO

Level of operational intensity; OPerational TEMPO

ORBAT

ORder of BATtle

OTHT

Over The Horizon Targeting

PIRA

Provisional Irish Republican Army

PM

Pulse Modulation

POD(1)

Probability of Detection

POD(2)

Point of Departure; air (also known as APOD) or port used in military operation

POI

Probability of Intercept

POJ

Probability of Jamming

PRF

Pulse Repetition Frequency

PRI

Pulse Repetition Interval

PSK

Phase Shift Keying

PSO

Probability of Successful Operation; the likelihood that a given link will work

QAM

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

QPSK

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

Radio System

Any system that uses RF channels in order to function, including communications, navigation, radars, jammers etc

RCIED

Radio Controlled Improvised Explosive Device

RF

Radio Frequency, as in radio frequency device

SAG

Surface Action Group; naval force element

SAM

Surface to Air Missile

SAR

Synthetic Aperture Radar

SHF

Super High Frequency (3000–30 000 MHz)

SHORAD

Short Range Air Defence system

Short sector

A region where the nominal signal level will not change, but within which the instantaneous level changes due to fast fading

SINAD

Signal In Noise and Distortion

SMM

Simplified Multiplication Method; method of assessing interference from multiple interferers

SNR

Signal to Noise Ratio

Softkill

Disruption or destruction by non-lethal means

SOP

Standard Operating Procedure

Spoofing

A radiating system pretending to be a different system to fool enemies

SSM

Surface to Surface Missile

SSN (1)

Sun-Spot Number (HF)

SSN (2)

Nuclear Submarine (force element)

SSR

Spectrum Supportability Request; request to a host nation for spectrum

TAPS

TETRA Advanced Packet Service

TEL

Transporter, Erector, Launcher – a missile launch platform, usually a large vehicle holding a tactical land or coastal surface-attack missile

TETRA

TErrestrial Trunked RAdio

UGS

Unattended Ground Sensor

UHF

Ultra High Frequency (300–3000 MHz)

UN

United Nations

Uplink

(1) Link from a mobile station to a fixed terrestrial radio station

(2) In satellite, from Earth station to satellite

UTM

Universal Transverse Mercator; a data projection

VHF

Very High Frequency (30–300 MHz)

VLF

Very Low Frequency (3–30 kHz)

VOIED

Victim Operated Improved Explosive Device

WGS84

World Geodetic System 1984; geographic datum used by GPS

Part One

Basic Theory

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 The Aim of this Book

This book looks at the subjects of radio communications, radar and electronic warfare. The aim is to provide the reader with a mixture of theory and practical illustrations to explain the way in which these systems are used in practice. The book is aimed at operators, designers and managers operating in these areas. It is designed to provide a detailed overview at a level suitable for this audience. This means that the intention has been to provide explanation of complex theory in as simple manner as possible, and to link the theory to real life as far as possible. One of the main reasons for writing the book is that there is a large body of very in-depth, complex works that are beyond the grasp of the average reader. There are also works that provide simple overviews but without introducing the necessary background theory. Hopefully, this book provides a middle way between these two extremes.

The book has been split into two main sections; theory and practice. The idea is to lay the necessary theoretical groundwork, and then to spend more time in the main, practical part of the book identifying the operational effects of the theory when applied. In this way, the book is designed to bridge the gap of theory to application in a way that makes sense to communications and electronics operators, system designers and managers.

One aim in writing the book has been to provide as compact knowledge as possible in each section. Thus rather than having to find an earlier reference, in some cases the theory has been re-introduced, and some diagrams replicated, in some of the practical sections where they are explicitly required. The reader can therefore easily dip into to individual sections and get most of the information without having to go back to the theoretical sections. Thus, those whose interest is primarily for radar for example, the book has been split up in such a ways as to collate the relevant information into readily located sections. , , .