Compendium-Canaries, Volume 3 E-Book

Norbert E.W. Schramm

• Herausgeber: Books on Demand
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Compendium - Canaries
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

The third volume of the book series describes in a compact form 59 posture canary breeds from all over the world in words and pictures. The special body shapes or plumage of these canaries are an expression of the breeder's will and fascinate many bird lovers worldwide. In the general part of the book, the ethical responsibility and animal welfare in bird breeding is explained, the special anato-my and inheritance mechanisms are described and general hints for breeding are given. In the special part, 59 posture canaries are presented. The history and development of each breed plays a special role, as some were created almost 200 years ago, others in more recent times. The description of the standard characteristics and peculiarities in breeding complete the individual breed descriptions. This volume is rounded off with a list of all technical terms used in the three volumes of this compendium.

Leseprobe

Preface and thanks

Many readers of the first two volumes of the Compendium - Canaries are eagerly awaiting the third volume of this series. It is dedicated exclusively to the posture canary breeds, as the third breeding direction of the popular canaries.

Breeders all over the world have always tried not only to cultivate the song or change the colour of the feathers, but also to reshape the outer shape and plumage of the birds according to their ideas.

Breeders from Great Britain have bred body shapes out of the slender land canary that are round and stocky, elongated, and upright or even with a special posture that catches the eye of the enthusiast. In addition, there is sometimes an imposing feathered crest.

In the countries around the Mediterranean, breeders mainly changed the plumage, which dissolved the original finch-like body outline in scarce or extremely luxuriant feather frills.

With the joy of experimentation and with the intention of creating something completely new, resourceful breeders combined these two fundamentally different breeds and a multitude of new breeds were created. These will be presented in this volume. It is certain that more breeds will be created in the future because the breeders' joy of experimentation is unbroken. Only nature sets the limits!

It is almost impossible to collect all knowledge about one or the other breed. Therefore, only the most important facts about the individual posture canary breeds have been recorded in this volume. A certain amount of space is given to the history of the breeds, as this – as far as it is known and has been handed down – documents the creative and creative will of breeders all over the world. As far as I have been able to find them, I have named the important creators and promoters of a breed and thus made it possible for them to have a lasting memory.

I have deliberately not used the current wording of the standard descriptions, as this can change over time. It seemed important to me to describe the respective breed as comprehensibly as possible. I can only recommend the interested show breeder to additionally read the published standard works.

I have only gone into more detail on keeping, feeding and breeding when there is something special to consider in the breed under consideration. Otherwise, keeping, feeding and breeding are not fundamentally different from what I described in the first volume of this compendium.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank all bird lovers in Germany and abroad who have contributed to the creation of this book with their knowledge, suggestions, and criticism. On behalf of all these breeders, I would like to thank David J. Benites, Huw Evans, Jürgen Fränzel , Kerwin Fulton, Heinrich Gerkens, Robert Isenberg, Peter Knoll, Joost Lammers, Jeff Leaney, Thomas Müller, Sergio Palma, Albert Peppler, Sven Pukat, João Sérgio Ramalho, Piet Renders, Francesco Rossini, Swen Vergien and Claus Wiemann.

Many thanks also to all national and international photo authors who were happy to provide their informative bird photos. I have listed their names in the captions. For some of the photos, I was only able to name the sources, but not the image authors. If you, as the owner of a picture, believe that your copyright has been infringed, please contact me ([email protected]).

I would like to thank Mrs. Silke Grieß and Mr. Friedhelm Messow for reviewing and correcting the German manuscript.

My very special thanks again to my British friends Geoff Walker and Donald Skinner-Reid, who spared no effort in checking the English translation of this third volume.

I would especially like to thank my dear Annegret, who again put up with my silent work at the computer for months with patience and understanding, and often helped me with advice.

Norbert E. W. Schramm

Dresden, autumn 2022

Contents

Preface and thanks

Ethics and morals in aviculture

Animal welfare in bird breeding

Special anatomy and genetics

The Skeleton

Causes and inheritance of feathered frills

Causes and inheritance of feather crest

Variegated canaries

Tips for keeping and breeding

Keeping outside the breeding season

Breeding cages

Diet of the posture canaries

General tips for breeding

Bird evaluations

Classification of posture canaries

Pattern Canaries

The Lizard Canary

The Vectis

The Ocelado Español

The Breckland Fancy

The Olomouc Canary

The London Fancy

Small smooth feathered type canaries

The Deutsche Haube

The Deutsche Rotschecke

The Criolitto Argentino

The Stafford Canary

The Gloster Fancy

The Warwick Canary

The Canário Brasileirinho

The Border Fancy

The Fife Fancy

The Ostdeutsche Positurkanarie

The Red Border Fancy

The Westfalicus

The Irish Fancy

The Raza Española

The Rheinländer

The Raza Capitolina

The Pivaro

Large smooth feathered type canaries

The Lancashire

The Continental Brasileiro

The Norwich

The Cinnamon

The Columbus Fancy

The Australian Plainhead

The Crested

The Yorkshire

The Berner

The Arlequim

The Llarguet Español

The Bayernpfeil

The Rasmi Boland

Smooth feathered figure canaries

The Bossu Belge

The Colonia

The Salentino

The Scots Fancy

The Japan Hoso

The Münchener

Frisé canaries

The origin of the frilled breeds

The Frisé du Nord

The Fiorino

The Frisé Parisien

The Frisé Milanese

The Mehringer

The Arricciato Gigante Italiano – AGI

The Rogetto

The Padovano

Frisé figure canaries

The Frisé du Sud

The Frisé Suisse

The TorZuino

The Makige – Japan-Frisé

The Melado Tinerfeño

The Gibber Italicus

The Benacus

The Giboso Español

The Giraldillo Sevillano

Appendix

Codex pro Avis

Glossary

Bibliography

Journals, periodicals

Picture 1: Pedigree of the Posture Canaries

Ethics and morals in aviculture

This book on the posture canaries describes a variety of canary breeds whose appearances no longer correspond to the well-rounded finch shape of the "common" canary. There are rounded and very elongated canaries, some wear a feathered crest on their head or frills on their body, and still others adopt a peculiar-looking posture. The layman does not find one or the other canary breed beautiful or even ugly. Then, unfortunately, this rejection is still far too often justified by personal ethical and moral values and the breeder of these breeds is denied any ethics and morals.

In everyday language, the terms ethics or ethical are used to describe what is morally good. An evaluative judgement of an action takes place, which brings us to morality.

Our moral concepts are laid down in traditional values, norms and virtues and are thus always culturally shaped by tradition, upbringing, and ideology. It is immoral when moral concepts are violated and amoral when moral concepts are completely absent or rejected. We speak of a double standard when different standards of evaluation are applied to the same or similar circumstances.

And then we have moralism as an exaggerated form of moral and moral sense. Moralists set themselves apart from others and are convinced that they alone are on the right – the "good" – side. Moralists place their radical moral convictions above the views of other people, making their morals appear inferior and immoral.

It is indisputable that every human being is taught from the beginning the moral culture of the community in which he or she lives. However, this also means that in other cultures other moral norms apply, which we must take note of and observe. Morality and morals are constantly evolving and changing over time. In recent decades, there has been a rapid change in values in the human-animal relationship, which will continue. The attitude that humans can do whatever they want with animals if it benefits humans is fading.

Today, it is no longer left to individual moral attitudes alone to decide how animals – and birds in particular – should be treated. In some countries, legislators have enacted a plethora of regulations to this end. The rules, laws and prohibitions are supposed to force us to adopt the actually or supposedly correct moral attitude towards the treatment of animals. Unfortunately, however, it is also a fact that the well-intentioned moral attitude towards animal husbandry, which has been cast into law, is only valid until economic interests come to the fore. Or how can it be explained that various vaccines against avian influenza ("bird flu") have been approved, but none is available on the market? So, thousands of chickens, geese and ducks continue to be culled when the virus is detected. Or it takes decades in Germany until the legislator decides to ban the shredding of male chicken chicks ... How is a person supposed to believe in the effectiveness of ethical precepts in this day and age when "meat production" is mentioned? Instead of massively fighting against this behaviour, it therefore seems much easier for some moralists to pick on the small group of pet bird keepers, to deny them love for animals and to label bird keepers as immoral or amoral people.

Some canaries adopt a posture that appears strange to outsiders. Connoisseurs of these Type and Figure canaries find this beautiful, but others find these birds repulsive. Some express their displeasure in drastic words such as "monstrosity", "morbid" or "the sight of them is unacceptable". This is an expression of the personal sense of beauty and is quite normal. Unfortunately, some people justify their negative opinion by claiming that these birds must be in pain and therefore suffer.

To support this opinion, clever people (mostly veterinarians and hardly zoologists, ethologists or anatomists and never competent breeders) can be found who want to prove scientifically that pathological changes of the physique are present in figure canaries and that these birds must therefore suffer. What is certain, however, is that all Figurine Canaries are lively, agile and fertile birds that are shown by the hundreds at exhibitions in their home countries and are sometimes considered national birds. Where is the tolerance and acceptance towards the difference and diversity of foreign breeds? All humans are well advised not to decide or determine – even in the case of bird breeds – what is worth living or breeding and what is not. This also has something to do with morals and ethics!

Animal welfare in bird breeding

All bird breeders are responsible for the birds they keep and breed. They must assume and realise a high moral and ethical responsibility. This includes animal welfare, which in some countries is regulated by laws, ordinances and regulations.

No one may inflict pain, suffering or harm on an animal! This is what the German Animal Welfare Act says. However, these very welcome requirements are restricted in the next sentence if there is a "reasonable cause". According to German law, such a reason can exist in the case of slaughter, castration, mutilation and animal experiments. All these "reasonable" reasons are not present in the breeding of pet birds!

The four terms welfare, pain, suffering and harm need to be defined from an animal welfare perspective. There is a whole series of scientific papers on this subject, which we will not go into here.12 One thing is certain: a bird that is obviously comfortable has no pain and does not suffer. The well-being of a bird is easily determined by its general health and normal, species-appropriate behaviour. There are enough physical signs that every bird keeper knows. However, the knowledge of this innate, species-appropriate behaviour is also part of the determination of animal-appropriate behaviour.

A responsible bird keeper and breeder will do everything in his power to offer his fosterlings the best possible keeping conditions and to spare them physical and mental pain and suffering. Only then will the owner be able to enjoy the birds and achieve breeding success!

The German Animal Welfare Act (TierSchG)3 regulates many other details of animal welfare. Section 11b (prohibition of the breeding of vertebrates in which pain, suffering or harm may occur – "torture breeding paragraph") is the subject of an expert opinion by several honourable gentlemen on certain forms of pet breeding.4 Animals that are used for "meat, milk and egg production" are obviously not bred for torture, because they are not mentioned in the expert opinion! But some canary breeds are listed and thus the breeders of these birds are accused of practising "torture breeding". A terrible word, because not a single canary breeder will knowingly inflict torture and suffering on his darlings!

The sources, some of which serve as the basis for the expert opinion, are not the current state of knowledge. Studies by race hygienists of the 1930s, popular literature on bird breeding and dissertations on certain topics are cited as sources. Knowledge and experience of canary breeders are obviously not included.

All these "torture breeds" have sprung from the normal biological reproductive process, otherwise they would not exist. Some of the breeds criticised are many centuries old. This is a sign that the biological functions, such as courtship, copulation, nest-building and rearing of young, have been fully preserved and that these pets do not suffer any torture. All domestic animals – including breed canaries – were formed according to the will of man. However, since they do not serve the physical needs of man, but give him pleasure and relaxation, they are cultural creatures, born for a life in human care.

In all three volumes of this compendium there are hints and explanations on how to keep and breed birds that have certain genetic and physical characteristics. All these hints are known to the practitioners of canary breeding or are disseminated through specialist articles, reference books and on the internet. Therefore, the individual characteristics suspected of "torture breeding" will not be discussed in detail here. Should it be necessary, however, it will be pointed out in the relevant section.

Basically, the limit of what is feasible in breeding is where basic biological functions are disturbed, and damage is caused to the animal! This has so far only occurred in very few canary breeds! It is the responsibility of the breeders to reduce the over-typing of certain traits and the associated physical impairments through targeted selection or to prevent them from occurring. The breeders' associations help the breeders with their breed standards and monitor compliance with the specifications with their bird evaluations at bird shows and competitions.

The bird breeders of my home association, the "Sächsische Kanarien- und Vogelzüchter-Verband e.V." (Saxon Canary and Bird Breeders Association), have given themselves an ethical guideline which is adhered to by all responsible bird lovers.5

1 Definition of International Association for the Study of Pain.

At: https://www.iasp-pain.org/Education/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1698#Pain.

2 Lorz, Metzger: Tierschutzgesetz, Kommentar. München, 1999.

3https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/tierschg/BJNR012770972.html

4https://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/_Tiere/Tierschutz/Gutachten-Leitlinien/Qualzucht.html

5 See appendix or German version at: http://www.vogelzuechter-sachsen.de

Special anatomy and genetics

The Skeleton

We find a changed physique in all domestic breeds, which can no longer be compared to the wild form. The physique of many canary breeds has also changed, as nature made this possible. Man has gratefully accepted these gifts of nature and further developed them according to his will.

Picture 2: Skeletons in comparison. Left: Colour canary; right: Figure canary (photos: Norbert E. W. Schramm)

As can easily be seen from the pictures of the skeletons, the figure canaries have the same bone structure, only their position is different. In most carduelids, the cervical spine is curved in an s-shape when at rest, forming the relatively short neck. Figure canaries can stretch the cervical spine, which has no more vertebrae than "normal" canaries, forward.

The muscles and tendons involved make this possible. The same applies to the upper and lower legs as well as the tibiotarsus, which are at altered angles to each other.

In a comparative study, 33 Figure and Frisé canaries of the breeds Bossu Belge, Frisé du Sud and Gibber Italicus were examined. The research team found that the Gibber Italicus and Frisé du Sud had eight instead of seven pairs of ribs. The number of cervical vertebrae was unchanged, but the length of the vertebrae was slightly longer (± 0.03 mm) in the Frisé du Sud. The extent to which these changes could lead to health problems, especially as the birds age, requires further investigation.6 However, breeders of these breeds cannot detect any age-related problems.

Causes and inheritance of feathered frills

A feather consists of – very roughly – of the visible feather and the feather follicle located in the skin. The feather grows out of the skin at a very shallow angle in normally feathered birds. In feathers that form frills, this angle is greater. In addition, the feather follicles can form whirls in certain parts of the body.

Some authors assume that the outside of the feathers grows faster or has larger feather cells than the inside of the feathers. This would result in a curved and bent feather. Accordingly, feather frills are caused by a changed distribution of the horn substances.

Picture 3: Position of the feather exit in feathers of frills and in normal feathers (modified drawing by Rita Reiser; www.wissen.de/lexikon/feder-zoologie).

According to another theory, the shape of the feather exit hole determines whether the feather grows out in a curved shape or not. On the other hand, most body feathers in all birds are slightly curved. It is certain that muscles in the skin make the frills appear or not.

In cold temperatures, when birds are sleeping or even dead, this muscle work is restricted or no longer present. Frills are then no longer recognisable.

In 2009, researchers found that mutations of the TCHH gene in humans affect hair structure. This gene encodes the trichohyalin protein, which affects the inner hair root sheath cells of the hair follicles.7 It is possible that there is a similar connection in birds.

What is certain, however, is that the feathered frills are obviously due to one or more mutations and are accompanied by an elongation of the feathers. The feathering frills trait is inherited independently of sex and is incompletely dominant, with variable trait development.

The lengthening of the feathers also results in the claws also growing longer. Constantly changing growth directions then lead to twisted claws, the so-called "corkscrew claws". These cannot wear down sufficiently and so there is an increased risk of injury from getting caught in branches or nesting material. Frequent shortening of the claws is therefore urgently required!

Causes and inheritance of feather crest

The crest is a particularly characteristic headdress of the crested posture canary. "The crest is caused by the fact that the follicles of the crest feathers do not cover each other from the root of the beak like a roof tile but are arranged in a whirl around a point located on the crown."8

Starting from a central point, the feathers fall in all directions and cover the entire head plate. "The modified embedding of the follicles in the skin shows yet another recurring feature, by which it can already be recognised in the very young bird whether it will later carry a crest or not. The nape of the neck is featherless. In a fully feathered bird with a well-developed crest, this naked area is of course not visible because the extended crest feathers lie over it. But if you bend the bird's head forward, you can notice this bald spot on any crested bird. If the crest is poorly developed, the bald spot is more or less visible..."9

CHARLES BENEDICT DAVENPORT (1866 to 1944) already established that the crested trait is subject to an autosomal (non-sex-linked) and dominant inheritance.10 According to Mendel's rules of inheritance, which were already known at that time, the majority of young birds from a mating of crested bird with crested bird would have to wear a crest. However, this is not the case.

Hans Duncker carried out a large number of different mating, evaluated them statistically and finally found that 25 % of the young birds from a crested x crested mating do not hatch or die shortly afterwards.

The allele H (crested) is inherited non-sex-linked and incomplete dominant opposite to H+ (non-cap - smooth head).

H HH H+H+ H+

There has been much speculation about the cause of this lethal effect in two-factor crested birds. Suspicions that serious cranial and brain changes occur could not be confirmed by scientific studies.11

Thus, crested breeding can only be carried out with single-factor crested birds, as two-factor crested birds do not reach breeding maturity. The mating of two single-factor crested birds produces approx. 25 % dead young birds, so that the number of born young birds is clearly reduced. Furthermore, the quality of the crests from such a mating does not improve, but rather deteriorates.

Picture 4: Position of the feather follicles in a young crested bird about 3 days old (photo: H. Duncker).

One should therefore always mate a crested bird with a smooth-headed partner. Whether the male or the female wears a crest is irrelevant. From such a mating – according to the inheritance rule – half of the offspring should wear a crest, the other half are crestless. However, Duncker already found out that this ratio is not exactly correct. He achieved only 47 % crested birds and 53 % smooth-headed. In my breeding the ratio of 40 : 60 was even more unfavourable with regard to the crested offspring.12 The mutated gene H must therefore also have a damaging effect on a very small proportion of the expected single-factor crested birds.

Smooth head

Crest (single factor)

Crest (double factor)

Smooth head

100 % smooth head

50 % crest (single factor) 50 % smooth head

100 % crest (single factor)

Crest (single factor)

50 % crest (single factor) 50 % smooth head

25 % smooth head 50 % crest (single factor) 25 % crest (double factor)

50 % crest (single factor) 50 % crest (double factor)

Crest (double factor)

100 % crest (single factor)

50% crest (single factor) 50% crest (double factor)

100 % crest (double factor)

This inheritance applies to all canaries with a crest!

Variegated canaries

One of the first mutations to occur in animals is piebalds. which is called "variegation" by bird breeders. This means that in some parts of the body hair or feathers have no melanin. This partial lightening of the coat or feathers has always interested animal breeders. Thus, there are many breeds of domestic animals that are very familiar to us as piebald animals, such as black-coloured cows, piebald horses, rabbits or cats. In the birds we breed, variegation has appeared as the first mutation, think of the Bengalese finch (Lonchura striata domestica), the Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora), the zebra finch (Taeniopygia castanotis), the budgie and many other species. The canary is also very popular as a piebald bird. It stands to reason that all piebald species are the same phenomenon. British breeders refer to pied canaries as "variegated canaries".

How does piebald develop?

Already in an early embryonic stage (neurula) the still colourless melanin cells (melanoblast) are formed. These melanoblasts will later produce melanin. They are then called melanin cells (melanocytes). During further embryonic development, these melanoblasts migrate from the neural crest to the body regions and organs to be coloured with melanin (skin, feather follicles, etc.).

Complete prevention of melanoblasts migration results in melanin-free birds with dark eyes, as some of the melanin cells always remain near the eye cup. This mutation is called leucism (colourlessness) in biology. Canary breeders call leucistic canaries "lipochrome birds" or "brightened birds".

Picture 5: Retreat centres of melanin pigmentation

Picture 6: Hans Julius Duncker aged 32 (AZ Archive)

Only partial migration of the melanoblasts – biologists speak of attenuated leucism or partial leucism – gives rise to the piebald or variegated birds. Regions of the body that are directly connected to the central nervous system are far less affected by variegation than parts of the body that are further away from it. The ornithologist, geneticist and racial hygienist doctor JULIUS HANS DUNCKER (1881 to 1961) called these body zones "retreat centres of pigmentation".13

Lightening usually occurs in the following order: centre of tail, outer hand feathers, throat, flanks, throat ring, belly, back (except its centre), remaining hand feathers, breast, remaining tail, arm feathers and centre of back (saddle). Lightening usually occurs in the following order: centre of tail, outer hand feathers, throat, flanks, throat ring, belly, back (except its centre), remaining hand feathers, breast, remaining tail, arm feathers and centre of back (saddle). Eyes, head region, neck, arm feathers, shoulders, back area along the spine, lower abdomen are areas where melanin is most likely to appear in lipochrome birds.

Lipochrome birds without melanin in the plumage are the result of selection breeding. The birds that have the smallest melanin spots are always mated with each other. Ultimately, brightened birds or "lipochrome" birds without melanin in the plumage are produced.

Since they are still basically variegated, these birds still can develop melanin. Unlike some other vertebrates, the mutation of leucism (colourless) in our piebald or variegated canaries is not associated with any physical disadvantages. There is still the possibility that fewer melanoblasts migrate, but they are evenly distributed over the body. Then the animal will be slightly lighter in colour but will retain its melanin markings.

Our "inos" (albino, lutino, rubino) are birds that optically have no melanin, but are the result of combinations of different melanin variants (e.g., Phaeo x Satinette, Opal x Satinette). These birds may well be genetically variegated birds.

Picture 7: Schematic representation of melanoblast migration. From left to right: complete colonisation of all body parts (wild-coloured); only partial migration of melanoblasts produces melanin-free zones; no migration, melanoblasts only in the eye produces brightened (leucistic) birds; in albinos, melanoblasts also migrate to the body regions, but cannot produce melanin – this causes red eyes.

The fascination of variegated canaries

Breeding attractively coloured birds has fascinated many breeders for a long time. Birds whose melanin spots are evenly distributed over the body and which the observer finds beautiful are particularly popular. The lightening should therefore be in balance with the remaining melanin. We find birds that are symmetrically spotted, i.e., on each side of the body the melanin areas are equally developed, particularly aesthetically pleasing.

We already find this ideal image of a variegated canary in historical drawings where posture canary breeds are depicted with dark wings, tail or crest, although symmetrical variegation was not required in these breeds.

Picture 8: top from left to right: bridled spotted, gnat, platelet; bottom from left to right: Saddleback, light swallow, dark swallow. Combinations are possible between all varieties (according to old AZ/DKB standard).

But the painters obviously found such birds more beautiful than completely clear, completely dark or even irregularly ticked birds. Whether Border, Norwich, Crest or Yorkshire, the early representations very often show symmetrical variegated. In this respect, they corresponded to the visual image of the legendary London Fancy.

Certainly, also due to these representations, breeders tried for many decades to breed symmetrically variegated birds in pure form. No matter if colour or posture canaries, symmetrical variegated birds were popular. A clear crested bird with a dark crest looks more beautiful than a bird with a "boring" light crest. The light and dark "swallows", "platelets" or "gnats" are also popular – people invented their own names for many different degrees of variegated.

The aim of the breeders of variegated birds is to obtain as often as possible an even and beautiful variegation on both sides of the body. Regardless of the euphoria, it had quickly become clear to the breeders that it is not easy to build up a breeding strain that produces the desired purebred patches or swallows in every generation. Yes, it seemed impossible and the few specimens that did appear were labelled as chance successes. Therefore, in the 60s of the last centuries, variegated colour canaries were banned from being shown.

In the Type canary breeds Rheinländer, Lancashire and clear Deutsche Haube, no melanin may be visible in the plumage. Only in the crest melanin is tolerated. Apart from the melanin-free cap in the Lizard Canary, this breed must not show any other brightening. In all other husbandry breeds, brightly spotted was and is a familiar sight.

Picture 9: Historical drawings of symmetrical variegated Border, Yorkshire, Crest and Norwich

In addition, in the last few years Type canary breeds have been developed in which variegated is explicitly required – the Arlequin and the Deutsche Rotschecke. The Arlequin should have a balanced ratio of melanin distribution and the Deutsche Rotschecke should show melanin on at least 1/3 to a maximum of 2/3 of the body surface. In the other posture canary breeds all conceivable degrees are permitted. Nevertheless, birds with a symmetrical variegation catch the eye of the observer. They are often perceived as more beautiful than irregularly variegated birds, although this should not be a criterion for evaluation.

Genetic causes

Melanoblasts migration is also controlled by genes. It would be simplest if melanoblasts migration were controlled by only one gene M. Then M+ M+ would be the clear melanin bird (self) M+ M the variegated bird and M M the clear bird. Unfortunately, with the help of this primitive hereditary formula we cannot calculate a degree of variegation.

Through research we know that variegation is caused by a whole complex of genes. So, there are several or even a lot of genes involved, each gene having a small effect, which add up to an overall appearance. In other words: these polygenic characteristics add up to a whole.

The same theoretical considerations were already made by HANS DUNCKER in the 1930s. Duncker assumed that at least three freely inheriting (non-sex-linked) genes determine the degree of variegation. He simply called them A, B, C and set up a table of the degrees of variegation with the corresponding hereditary formulae. According to Duncker, all three factors should have an effect in the same direction, with C having the strongest effect and A never being completely absent.

All factors would inherit intermediate to each other and would have a greater effect in double quantity than in single quantity. Thus, AA BB CC would have more melanin than Aa BB CC and this in turn more than Aa Bb CC.

With the help of the punnet square, anyone can calculate the offspring of the various mating. This was done by Duncker in 1922 and 1923 and practically checked with corresponding mating. The evaluation of the total of 517 young birds reared essentially confirmed his theoretical considerations.

Thus, the mating of two lipochrome birds (6 with 6) resulted in 39 clears, 18 variegated and 3 swallows. In today's colour canaries, the number of lipochrome birds should be much higher and no swallows should be produced, as the degree of selection is much higher today than 100 years ago. A high degree of selection significantly reduces heritable variance. In keeping canaries, which are not usually selected in one direction, Duncker's results apply even more clearly.

According to today's experience, only variegated is produced from pure melanin birds (0) mated with lipochrome birds (6). Most of the offspring are classified in levels 2 to 4. At Duncker's, neither leucistic nor melanin-coloured birds were present and only a few of the variegation and heavily variegated birds were represented.

0,0 wild-coloured or self AA BB CC

0,5 green lightly pattern (foul) Aa BB CC

1,0 green pattern AA Bb CC; Aa Bb CC; AA bb CC

1,5 green very variegated Aa bb CC

2,0 very variegated AA BB Cc; Aa BB Cc

2,5 very variegated swallow AA Bb Cc

3,0 swallow Aa Bb Cc

3,5 half swallow AA bb Cc; AA BB cc

4,0 half swallow Aa bb Cc

4,5 very pattern Aa BB cc

5,0 pattern AA Bb cc

5,5 lightly pattern AA bb cc

6,0 lipochrome or clear Aa Bb cc; Aa bb cc

Table 1: Representation of the different variegation grades, designations and inheritance formulas according to Duncker (modified)

The interested breeder can calculate the other possibilities and check the correctness based on his studbook records of many years. However, the hereditary variance of his breeding strain must be considered. If only completely lipochrome birds (6) are mated over many generations, the variance of the hereditary factors decreases more and more. In such thoroughly bred strains, only very few birds occur which show a – mostly very small – tick mark(s). The same applies to melanin birds (0). If birds of both breeding strains are mated with each other (6 with 0), the genetic variance is suddenly immense again.

Pictures 10: Normal distribution of the expected variegated offspring from mating of two birds with different degrees of variegation.

The variance of the quantitative traits under consideration can be calculated and represented in a curve. Based on this normal distribution curve, the probability of the expected degree of variegation of the offspring can be read off. The difficulty is to assign the parent birds as accurately as possible to the respective degree of variegation and to consider the hereditary variance due to many years of selection. In addition, the highest possible number of young birds from the respective mating must be obtained to obtain sufficient data for statistical evaluation.

With the inheritance of variegation, we are moving into the field of quantitative genetics. This deals with the hereditary components of traits that are determined by the interaction of many genes and that can be measured on a scale. Quantitative traits are all those traits that can be continuously influenced in one direction or another by ongoing selection. These are, for example, body size, body weight, body shape, feather length, feather texture, the number of eggs laid, and the degree of variegation. In addition, these traits can be influenced by external environmental and nutritional conditions. In the case of melanin variegation, however, environmental influences have no effect.

With all these considerations, calculations, our own experience and intuition, we can influence the degree of variegation of our birds to be bred and steer it into certain probable paths – neglecting the two extremes that arise at the ends of the curve – but there is one thing we cannot do: breed symmetrical variegated specifically!

6 Krautwald-Junghans, M.-E., Emmelmann, S., Pees, M., Bartels, T.: Vergleichende Untersuchungen am Bewegungsapparat von gebogenen Positur- und Farbkanarienvögeln. Vet. Med. Austria / Wien. Tierärztl. Mschr.90 (2003), 211-219. At: https://center.ssi.at/smart_users/uni/user94/explorer/43/WTM/Archiv/2003/WTM_8-2003/WTM_08-2003_Artikel_2.pdf [22.03.2021]

7 Medland, S. E.; Nyholt, D. R.; Painter, J. N. et al.: Common Variants in the Trichohyalin Gene Are Associated with Straight Hair in Europeans. In: American Journal of Human Genetics, 2009, 85(5), S. 750–755, At: https://www.cell.com/ajhg/fulltext/S0002-9297(09)00464-9 [02.09.2021]

8 Duncker, H.: Kurzgefaßte Vererbungslehre für Kleinvogelzüchter unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kanarienvögel und Wellensittiche. Verlag Dr. F. Poppe, Leipzig C 1, 1929.

9 ibid.

10 Davenport C. B.: Inheritance in Canaries. Washington D. C., 1908.

11 Schulze, D.: Untersuchung zur Vererbung, zur Phänomenologie und zur Tierschutzrelevanz der Haubenbildung bei Kanarien. Dissertation Veterinary University Hanover, 1985.

12 Schramm, N.: Statistische Auswertung von Zuchtergebnissen. Der Vogelfreund 6/2008.

See also: http://www.farbenkanarien.homepage.t-online.de/index_htm_files/statistik.pdf.

13 Duncker, H.: Kurzgefaßte Vererbungslehre für Kleinvogelzüchter unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kanarienvögel und Wellensittiche. Verlag Dr. F. Poppe, Leipzig C 1, 1929.

Tips for keeping and breeding

Keeping outside the breeding season

The keeping of the posture canaries does not differ significantly from the colour canaries. This is discussed in detail in the first volume of this compendium. The furnishing of the indoor and outdoor aviaries, flight and breeding cages corresponds in all respects to the rules of general bird keeping.

Although all posture canaries – just like colour and song canaries – are descended from the Atlantic Canary (Serinus canaria), almost every posture breed has its own character. There are lively (Raza Español), trusting and bold (Fife Fancy), sedate and sluggish (Norwich) and sensitive and nervous breeds (Gibber Italicus). These breed-typical characteristics amaze many a breeder when he turns to another posture breed. It is essential to take these different characters into account when caring for and breeding.

All posture canaries, as peculiar as one or the other breed may seem, should be kept in aviaries or at least in large flying cages outside the breeding season. It is very beneficial for physical development if the muscles of the bird's body are strengthened by sufficient exercise and by flying. Even though the birds seem phlegmatic can be observed in large and heavy breeds, they should be offered space for movement.

The aviaries and flight cages should be equipped with natural branches that are only attached at one end. Then they can give way resiliently and demand muscle work from the birds. Thick ropes and swinging branches or perches are also suitable. In addition to these "communication perch", the birds also need quiet places to retreat. With sufficient resting places, mutual plucking can be effectively prevented. The commercially available single perch or partitioned roosts are very suitable.

For roosting and resting, birds seek out the highest perches. Partitioned roosts should therefore only be placed in a row and as high up as possible, always a few more than there are birds in the aviary. In this way, you minimise the birds' fighting over the coveted highest resting places. However, the single perches are only suitable for posture breeds that do not hold their tail feathers vertically. In canaries with a vertical tail position, the end of the tail bumps against the sloping surface soiled with excrement and the tail becomes soiled. The cleaning effort is considerable with these perch but can be reduced by covering the sloping surfaces with adhesive tape, which can then be quickly removed with the faeces.

Picture 11: Single perch for wall mounting with excrement trap; partitioned roosts for ceiling mounting.

Better suited are the partitioned roots, which are fixed under the ceiling of the room or aviary. The excrements then fall onto the aviary floor and the plumage is not soiled.

Most canary breeds are very robust and will stay in the outdoor aviary even in cool and damp weather; even very frosty temperatures will not stop the birds. However, they must be able to go to a frost-free room at any time. Housing in outdoor aviaries with a shelter is therefore possible and recommended for all posture canaries, at least temporarily. Light, air and sun are the best conditions for a healthy bird population. At least partial shading of the outdoor aviary should be planned to counteract very high summer temperatures.

The Frisé canary breeds almost all originate from the warm and sunny Mediterranean region. They react immediately to the prevailing temperature and humidity. Cool and damp weather is visibly unpleasant for them. They then spend only a short time in the outdoor aviary, and you will hardly be able to see anything of their frills. The birds look completely different in warm and dry weather; then their abundance of feathers literally explodes. The conscientious and attentive breeder of these breeds will therefore guarantee the temperature and humidity preferred by the birds (60 to 70 % relative humidity), at least in the shelter.

The very thinly feathered and frilled breeds (e.g., Gibber Italicus, Giboso Español) must be able to visit a pleasantly tempered shelter at any time (at least 15 °C). In cool and damp weather, these breeds must not be allowed to stay in outdoor aviaries.

Posture canaries, which have no or only very little melanin in their plumage, react very sensitively to sudden changes in light duration and light intensity. They can then spontaneously go into a moult. This can happen, for example, when the birds are moved from the aviary to the breeding cages in spring. Then care must be taken that the light intensity in the illuminated cage is not suddenly significantly higher than before in the aviary. If the light intensity cannot be changed, it is advisable to reduce the light intensity of the luminaires with attached cardboard or similar during the first few days. It is better to use the technology available today to control the light intensity and lighting duration.

Even exhibition birds that are exposed to other light conditions in the exhibition can enter a spontaneous moult at home.

Breeding cages

As a breeding cage, the box cage – closed except for the front – is usually used. In this cage, the breeding animals have the greatest possible peace and feel safe. The breeding cages must be adapted to the size and the mobility of the respective breed. The minimum size of a breeding cage for a pair of the small posture canaries should be about 50 cm long, 40 cm deep and 40 cm high. The larger breeds must also have larger breeding cages; minimum dimensions of 60 cm length, 40 cm depth and 40 to 50 cm height are required. When buying a new cage, you should generally choose larger cages. Then it will be possible to breed larger canary breeds and other bird species in them later.

It is important that the perches are not placed too close to the cage ceiling. Otherwise, the male has too little space when copulating with the female. If this is not observed, unfertilised eggs may result.

Diet of the posture canaries

The diet of the posture canaries does not differ much from the colour canaries. This is discussed in detail in the first volume of this compendium.

Small posture canary breeds with short plumage can be fed with commercially available grain mixtures. Often, however, the proportion of carbohydrate-rich seeds is increased in these breeds by adding more canary seed to the mixture.

If one visits international shows, one can notice that posture canaries from southern European countries have feeds with a very high proportion of carbohydrate-rich gloss in the feed bowl. The feed of birds from more northern countries, however, has a greater proportion of fat-containing seeds.

Some breeders in our latitudes have noticed that large breeds (e.g., Frisé Parisien, Lancashire) that are fed food with a high proportion of canary seed are physically very weak. The birds are thin, the breastbone is clearly felt, and you have "nothing in your hand". In Mediterranean countries, these breeds on a high-carbohydrate diet seem to have no disadvantage. Possibly the climate prevailing there plays a certain role.

So, in our more northern latitudes we will feed the large, long feathered and Frisé breeds (Norwich, Crest, Lancashire, Frisé Parisien etc.) a grain diet with a higher protein content.

Only in this way can they develop their full body size and the often long and luxuriant plumage. In addition to a higher proportion of niger seed, the grain feed mixture should also contain oats, hulled sunflower seeds, perilla, chia and quinoa seeds.

The rearing feed can be enhanced with hard-boiled hen's egg, chopped peas or maize (frozen and thawed or canned) or frozen fly larvae. However, the total protein content of the feed should not exceed 20 %, otherwise health problems may occur.

The fact that minerals (feed lime, cuttlefish bone, etc.) and stomach stones (coarse sand, bird grit) must be available for free intake all year round should be emphasised here once again!

Some yellow-ground posture canary breeds may be coloured to orange birds with colour-supporting feed. In the past, paprika powder without the pungent ingredients was used for this purpose, which is why the birds were called "Pepperbirds". Today, the specialised trade provides a variety of products. Mostly it is a mixture of canthaxanthin and other carotenoids that produces an orange feather colour. Too high a proportion of the red canthaxanthin causes the feather to "burn", leaving a straw-like impression of the plumage. When feeding the dye, it is important to keep the dosage even throughout the moulting period. Only then can the dye be deposited evenly in all parts of the plumage. An unevenly coloured bird will receive significant points deductions in an evaluation. Then it would have been better not to give any red food at all, because the orange feather colour is not mandatory in almost any posture breed.

In the meantime, there are also colour-supporting feed additives for the optimal colouring of yellow lipochromes. In many cases, however, the birds supplied with these feeds are uneven in their colouration. Alternatively, yellow and yellow-ground birds can be fed with carotene-rich plants.

General tips for breeding

Sex determination in canaries

With some posture canaries it is difficult to determine the sex. This is especially the case when the birds are still young or not yet ready to breed in spring. If at least three of the following characteristics apply, the probability of having identified the correct sex is high.

the cloacal opening is closer to the blunt end of the abdomen in females, but more on the abdomen in males. This difference is very obvious in birds that are ready to breed.

the eyes of males are situated on or immediately above an elongated imaginary line of the beak slit, in females clearly above.

When you hold a bird vertically in your hand, males stretch the tail slightly forward. Females hold the tail vertically or bend it slightly backwards.

the song is the surest sign that it is a male. Females can also sing, but never as long, loud, and fiery as males. Shortly after the young birds are weaned, young males begin to study their song. These young males can be easily identified by the coloured identification rings attached beforehand. When observing the birds, one must bear in mind that there are also males that do not sing just when the keeper is watching them. These non-singing birds are quickly classified as females.

males are often slimmer and present themselves more proudly and upright than females. Females often have a rounder body and sit more crouched on the perch.

males often have a more intense lipochrome colour on the beak root and forehead, on the wrists and on the rump than females.

in "green birds" (black-yellow) or "slate birds" (black-white), or variegated in these melanin colours, the females often have a higher proportion of brown in the plumage and the males have more radiance of plumage colour.

in a mating of brown males with black females, all brown offspring are females (see under sex-linked colour inheritance in Volume 2 of this Compendium).

Pictures 12, 13 and 14: Sexual characteristics.

The safest way is a DNA sex determination. There are several providers who carry out such an examination at a reasonable price. Two freshly plucked medium-sized wing feathers are needed for this. If there is blood on a quill, a single feather is sufficient. Further instructions can be obtained from the analysis provider.

Composition of breeding pairs

Posture canaries are mainly bred in breeding pairs. With lively small breeds (e.g., Raza Española, Fife Fancy) an alternate breeding can also be operated. The males of such breeds mate with all females willing to mate and – at least in the first brood – do not form a very close bond with the assigned female.

This is different with the large and heavy breeds. Here the pair bond is usually very close. It can happen that pairs are already found in the aviaries during hibernation. If these pairs fit into the breeding concept, these birds should remain together, as good breeding success is then very likely. Otherwise, it has proven advantageous to put the intended pairs together very early. They then have enough time to get used to each other and form a close pair bond. If a male is to be joined to other females after pair bonding, this often fails. The male looks for his previous mate and the new female is at least ignored or even fought. However, one can try to put a male and two females in a flight cage at the beginning of the breeding period in the hope that the male will mate with both females. Often, however, he chooses his favourite and pays no attention to the other female. There may also be a quarrel between the two females – or they may agree and lay their eggs in a common nest.

When composing the breeding pairs, some principles must be observed:

A bird with gross faults must never be incorporated into the breeding pair!

Two birds with the same faults should never be mated. Both partners must possess all the merits of their breed together! For example, if one partner has minor defects in form, the other partner must have excellent body; if one partner is too large, the other partner must be as small as possible, etc.

A blanket principle is to mate only intensive birds with non-intensive birds! This rule is good but must be considered in a differentiated way.

In some posture breeds intensive birds are rarely present and one must resort to mating two non-intensive birds. The constant use of non-intensive birds carries the risk that the offspring will grow too large and/or get too loose, drooping plumage or even lumps.

The mating of two intensive birds with each other allegedly leads to the death of 25 % of the offspring already in the egg or shortly after hatching. This is said to be due to a lethal factor like that of crested birds. I am convinced that this is not true!

If you mate two normally intensive birds with each other, 25 % of the young birds will have very little frosting (half-intensive), 50 % will be intensive and 25 % will be "high-intensive" birds. These high-intensity birds are quite viable, have absolutely no frosting coating but very narrow, short and hard feathers that do not cover all skin area.

If high-intensity birds are continually mated, their offspring will have even shorter feathers, be in poor condition and therefore have a short life expectancy. However, this has nothing to do with a lethal factor, but with the wrong choice of plumage texture of the breeding partners.

For the breeding of certain breeds (Gibber Italicus, Giboso Español), birds with short and hard feathers are preferred, regardless of whether they have intensive or non-intensive feathers.

A frequent mating of two non-intensive birds or of two intensive birds will sooner or later lead to disadvantages. Regardless of whether they are intensive or non-intensive, you should take a close look at the feathers of your birds. Are the feathers broad and soft or pointed and hard or do they lie between these two extremes? All shapes have their place in breeding. A bird with a short, narrow and hard feather will have to get a partner with a broader, longer and softer feather. So, one should always mate in a balancing way and thus keep and improve the desired plumage quality.

With the skilful selection of breeding partners according to their plumage texture, one can influence both the length of the feathers and thus also the body and form of the offspring! It is therefore important to pay close attention to the feather texture of both partners!

Brown posture canaries ("Cinnamon") often have a finer, silkier feather texture, especially if sufficient phaeomelanin is stored in the feather. Such birds can contribute positively to the improvement of feather texture.

In the case of clear white and white-ground posture canaries, it must be checked whether the basic colour is recessive white or dominant white. Recessive whites have a violet skin and very pale horn parts. Dominant whites have a normal skin colour and should show yellow to red lipochrome colour in the outer plumes of the hand feathers.

Most white/white-ground posture canaries have the dominant white ground colour. One should not mate dominant white-ground posture birds with each other, as otherwise a lethal factor becomes effective in 25 % of the offspring. Therefore, dominant white-ground birds should always be mated with a yellow-ground partner, taking into account the feather texture.

In all crested canary breeds, crested birds are mated with smooth-headed partners! It does not matter whether the male or the female wears a crest. Birds with crest defects, such as parting crest, split crest, off-centre midpoint, etc., should not be used for breeding, as these defects can become entrenched in the breeding stock. These faults are difficult to correct by breeding (cf. in the section "

Causes and inheritance of the feather crest"

).

Some posture breeds have lost their ability to breed due to continuous selection for certain traits. This often creates a fatal cycle: More and more breeders turn away from breeding this breed; thus, the genetic variability of the remaining birds decreases, which in turn leads to low breeding success. The only way out of the dilemma is consistent selection not only for shape and colour, but above all for parental traits. Therefore, foster rearing is prohibited and intensifies the problems in the long term.

Breeding process