Conventional and Alternative Power Generation E-Book

Neil Packer

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 369

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

A much-needed, up-to-date guide on conventional and alternative power generation 

This book goes beyond the traditional methods of power generation. It introduces the many recent innovations on the production of electricity and the way they play a major role in combating global warming and improving the efficiency of generation. It contains a strong analytical approach to underpin the theory of power plants—for those using conventional fuels, as well as those using renewable fuels—and looks at the problems from a unique environmental engineering perspective. The book also includes numerous worked examples and case studies to demonstrate the working principles of these systems.

Conventional and Alternative Power Generation: Thermodynamics, Mitigation and Sustainability is divided into 8 chapters that comprehensively cover: thermodynamic systems; vapor power cycles, gas power cycles, combustion; control of particulates; carbon capture and storage; air pollution dispersal; and renewable energy and power plants.

• Features an abundance of worked examples and tutorials
• Examines the problems of generating power from an environmental engineering perspective
• Includes all of the latest information, technology, theories, and principles on power generation

Conventional and Alternative Power Generation: Thermodynamics, Mitigation and Sustainability is an ideal text for courses on mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineering.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Preface

Structure of the Book

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Notation

English Symbols

Subscripts/Superscripts

Greek Symbols

Dimensionless Numbers

Chapter 1: Thermodynamic Systems

1.1 Overview

Learning Outcomes

1.2 Thermodynamic System Definitions

1.3 Thermodynamic Properties

1.4 Thermodynamic Processes

1.5 Formation of Steam and the State Diagrams

1.6 Ideal Gas Behaviour in Closed and Open Systems and Processes

1.7 First Law of Thermodynamics

1.8 Worked Examples

1.9 Tutorial Problems

Chapter 2: Vapour Power Cycles

2.1 Overview

Learning Outcomes

2.2 Steam Power Plants

2.3 Vapour Power Cycles

2.4 Combined Heat and Power

2.5 Steam Generation Hardware

2.6 Worked Examples

2.7 Tutorial Problems

Chapter 3: Gas Power Cycles

3.1 Overview

Learning Outcomes

3.2 Introduction to Gas Turbines

3.3 Gas Turbine Cycle

3.4 Modifications to the Simple Gas Turbine Cycle

3.5 Gas Engines

3.6 Worked Examples

3.7 Tutorial Problems

Chapter 4: Combustion

4.1 Overview

Learning Outcomes

4.2 Mass and Matter

4.3 Balancing Chemical Equations

4.4 Combustion Terminology

4.5 Energy Changes During Combustion

4.6 First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Combustion

4.7 Oxidation of Nitrogen and Sulphur

4.8 Worked Examples

4.9 Tutorial Problems

Chapter 5: Control of Particulates

5.1 Overview

Learning Outcomes

5.2 Some Particle Dynamics

5.3 Principles of Collection

5.4 Control Technologies

5.5 Worked Examples

5.6 Tutorial Problems

Chapter 6: Carbon Capture and Storage

6.1 Overview

Learning Outcomes

6.2 Thermodynamic Properties of CO

2

6.3 Gas Mixtures

6.4 Gas Separation Methods

6.5 Aspects of CO

2

Conditioning and Transport

6.6 Aspects of CO

2

Storage

6.7 Worked Examples

6.8 Tutorial Problems

Chapter 7: Pollution Dispersal

7.1 Overview

7.2 Atmospheric Behaviour

7.3 Atmospheric Stability

7.4 Dispersion Modelling

7.5 Alternative Expressions of Concentration

7.6 Worked Examples

7.7 Tutorial Problems

Chapter 8: Alternative Energy and Power Plants

8.1 Overview

8.2 Nuclear Power Plants

8.3 Solar Power Plants

8.4 Biomass Power Plants

8.5 Geothermal Power Plants

8.6 Wind Energy

8.7 Hydropower

8.8 Wave and Tidal (or Marine) Power

8.9 Thermoelectric Energy

8.10 Fuel Cells

8.11 Energy Storage Technologies

8.12 Worked Examples

8.13 Tutorial Problems

Appendix A: Properties of Water and Steam

Appendix B: Thermodynamic Properties of Fuels and Combustion Products

Bibliography

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Typical steam table.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Table of common elements associated with combustion.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1

C

D

–Re empirical parameters.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Forms of the ideal gas law.

Table 6.2 Unit comparison of fundamental mixture laws.

Table 6.3 Comparison of gravimetric and volumetric analyses.

Table 6.4 Unit comparison of mixture thermodynamic properties.

Table 6.5 Unit comparison of mixture entropy change and exergy destruction.

Table 6.6 Comparison of total separation work expressions.

Table 6.7 Comparison of two‐component separation work expressions.

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Approximate composition of ‘clean’ air.

Table 7.2 Pasquil climatological stability classifications.

Table 7.3 Height‐dependent wind velocity empirical parameters.

Table 7.4 Dispersion coefficient correlations suitable for a downwind range (

x

) of 100–10 000 m.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Biomass conversion technology matrix.

Table 8.2 Typical ultimate analysis of woody biomass.

Table 8.3 Seebeck effects for some common materials.

Table 8.4 Types of fuel cell. Adapted from Hodge, B.K. (2010)

Alternative Energy Systems and Applications

, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Table 8.5 Geometric

k

factors.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Thermodynamic system, boundary and surroundings.

Figure 1.2 Thermodynamic processes.

Figure 1.3 (a) Formation of vapour (steam); (b) state diagram; (c) two‐phase definitions.

Figure 1.4 Temperature–entropy chart for water/steam.

Figure 1.5 Concept of isentropic efficiency.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Typical steam power plant.

Figure 2.2 The Carnot cycle.

Figure 2.3 The simple Rankine cycle.

Figure 2.4 The Rankine superheat cycle.

Figure 2.5 The Rankine reheat cycle.

Figure 2.6 Effects of irreversibilities in a steam cycle.

Figure 2.7 Single‐feed‐heater cycle.

Figure 2.8 Multiple‐feed‐heater cycle.

Figure 2.9 Organic Rankine cycle.

Figure 2.10 A simple power‐only plant.

Figure 2.11 A process‐heating‐only plant.

Figure 2.12 Combined heat and power plant.

Figure 2.13 Comparison of (a) separate heat and power systems with (b) CHP.

Figure 2.14 Types of boiler. (a) Water‐tube boiler; (b) fire‐tube boiler.

Figure 2.15 Superheat control techniques. (a) Burner arrangements; (b) desuperheater; (c) gas recirculation.

Figure 2.16 Types of steam condenser. (a) Non‐contact condenser; (b) evaporative jet condenser.

Figure 2.17 Cooling towers.

Figure 2.18 Pump types. (a) Single‐acting reciprocating pump; (b) double‐acting reciprocating pump; (c) centrifugal pump; (d) lobe pump; (e) vane pump; (f) gear pump.

Figure 2.19 Steam turbines. (a) Impulse turbine; (b) reaction turbine.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Ideal gas turbine cycle.

Figure 3.2 Real gas turbine processes.

Figure 3.3 Regenerative gas turbine.

Figure 3.4 Gas turbine with intercooling.

Figure 3.5 Gas turbine with reheating.

Figure 3.6 Compound gas turbine cycle.

Figure 3.7 Optimal intermediate pressures for expansion and compression.

Figure 3.8 Combined gas turbine/steam turbine system.

Figure 3.9 The Otto cycle

P–v

diagram.

Figure 3.10 The Diesel cycle

P–v

diagram.

Figure 3.11 The dual combustion cycle

P–v

diagram.

Figure 3.12 Diesel engine power plant.

Figure 3.13 Ideal Stirling cycle.

Figure 3.14 Stirling engine types.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Packed column SO

2

scrubbing tower arrangement.

Figure 4.2 Typical flue gas desulphurization (FGD) waste recovery system.

Figure Worked Example 4.12 Figure 4.3 Adiabatic flame temperature graphical solution.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Particle forces on a body falling under the effects of gravity.

Figure 5.2 Generalized drag coefficient–Reynolds number relationships for spherical bodies.

Figure 5.3 Cylindrical collector geometry.

Figure 5.4 Spherical collector geometry.

Figure 5.5 Collector operating parameters.

Figure 5.6 Schematic of collectors in series.

Figure 5.7 Schematic of collectors in parallel.

Figure 5.8 Gravity settler overall dimensions.

Figure 5.9 Gravity settler ‘unmixed’ or ‘laminar’ model parameters.

Figure 5.10 Gravity settler ‘well‐mixed’ model parameters.

Figure 5.11 Generalized collection efficiency–particle size relationship for well‐mixed model assumptions.

Figure 5.12 Curved duct collection principles. (a) Particle collection path and model parameters; (b) well‐mixed model, i.e. redistribution of uncaptured particles across duct.

Figure 5.13 Particle forces in a cyclone.

Figure 5.14 Typical or ‘classical’ cyclone dimensions based on the cylinder diameter (

D

o

).

Figure 5.15 Simple plate and wire electrostatic precipitator arrangement.

Figure 5.16 Schematic of coronal discharge and particle collection in a single channel.

Figure 5.17 Particle forces in an ESP.

Figure 5.18 Wire and single‐plate ESP parameters.

Figure 5.19 Fibre collection mechanisms.

Figure 5.20 Fabric filter parameters.

Figure 5.21 Baghouse filter operation.

Figure 5.22 Spray chamber parameters.

Chapter 6

6.1 Pressure–temperature (

P–T

) property diagram for carbon dioxide.

Figure 6.2 Compressibility chart. Reproduced with permission from Moran, Shapiro, Boettner and Bailey (2012)

Principles of Engineering Thermodynamics

, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons.

Figure 6.3 Illustration of Dalton's Law.

Figure 6.4 Illustration of Amagat's Law.

Figure 6.5 Absorber/stripper plant layout schematic.

Figure 6.6 Recirculation of flue gases in an oxyfuel combustion system.

Figure 6.7 Chemical looping system.

Figure 6.8 Membrane partial pressure enhancement strategies.

Figure 6.9 Comparison of gas compression (1–2) processes.

Figure 6.10 Gas compression with intercooling.

Figure 6.11 Dehydration/pressurization cascade.

Figure 6.12 Structure of chlorophyll.

Figure 6.13 Simplified schematic of photosynthetic pathway.

Figure 6.14 Example of structural trapping in an anticline.

Figure 6.15 Salt dome CO

2

storage.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Layered structure of the atmosphere.

Figure 7.2 Temperature–elevation relationships.

Figure 7.3 Pasquil stability temperature–elevation gradients.

Figure 7.4 Stack plume behaviour for non‐inversion conditions.

Figure 7.5 Stack plume behaviour for inversion conditions.

Figure 7.6 Gaussian plume dispersion spatial parameters. (a) Ground‐level (elevation) view; (b) aerial (plan) view.

Figure 7.7 Horizontal dispersion coefficient graph for ‘rural’ topography.

Figure 7.8 Vertical dispersion coefficient graph for ‘rural’ topography.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 World electricity generation 1990–2040. Data courtesy of EIA 2013 report.

Figure 8.2 Pressurized‐water reactor (PWR).

Figure 8.3 Solar thermal and solar PV global capacity 2005–2015. Data courtesy of REN21 Global status report 2016.

Figure 8.4 Typical current–voltage relationship for a PV cell.

Figure 8.5 Effect of series/parallel arrangement on PV electrical characteristics. (a) PVs in series; (b) PVs in parallel.

Figure 8.6 Solar thermal power generation plants. (a) Parabolic trough collector; (b) linear Fresnel collector; (c) central receiver system with dish collector; (d) central receiver system with distributed reflectors.

Figure 8.7 Global bio‐power generation by region, 2006–2016. Data courtesy of REN21 Global status report 2017.

Figure 8.8 Digester zones.

Figure 8.9 Biomass gasifier.

Figure 8.10 Geothermal power capacity for top ten countries in 2015. Data courtesy of REN21 Global status report 2016.

Figure 8.11 Geothermal steam power plant variations. (a) Dry steam; (b) flash steam plant; (c) binary plant.

Figure 8.12 Global wind power 2005–2015. Data courtesy of REN21 Global status report 2016.

Figure 8.13 Ideal wind energy theory.

Figure 8.14 Variation in power coefficient with velocity ratio.

Figure 8.15 Wind turbine types – vertical and horizontal axis.

Figure 8.16 World capacity of hydropower. Data courtesy of EIA, international energy statistics.

Figure 8.17 Run‐of‐river system characteristics.

Figure 8.18 Typical storage hydropower plant.

Figure 8.19 Typical hydraulic turbine specifications.

Figure 8.20 Archimedean screw turbine.

Figure 8.21 Wave variables.

Figure 8.22 Wave power device – wave capture absorber.

Figure 8.23 Wave power device – oscillating‐column absorber.

Figure 8.24 Wave power device – floating point absorber.

Figure 8.25 Wave power device – static‐pressure point absorber.

Figure 8.26 Wave power device – wave‐profile‐following device.

Figure 8.27 Wave power device – wave surge system.

Figure 8.28 General characteristics of a tidal barrage scheme.

Figure 8.29 Seebeck effect.

Figure 8.30 Peltier circuit.

Figure 8.31 Thermoelectric generator.

Figure 8.32 Generic fuel cell.

Figure 8.33 Pump storage scheme.

Figure 8.34 CAES scheme.

Figure 8.35 Flow battery schematic.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Pages

C1

vi

xi

xii

xiii

xiv

xv

xvi

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

265

266

267

268

269

270

Conventional and Alternative Power Generation

Thermodynamics, Mitigation and Sustainability

Neil Packer and Tarik Al-Shemmeri

Copyright

This edition first published 2018

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Neil Packer and Tarik Al-Shemmeri to be identified as the author(s) of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered Office

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Offices

9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK

The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including, without limitation, any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Packer, Neil, author. | Al-Shemmeri, Tarik, author.

Title: Conventional and alternative power generation : thermodynamics, mitigation and sustainability / Neil Packer, Prof. Tarik Al-Shemmeri.

Description: 1 edition. | Chichester, UK ; Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2018006236 (print) | LCCN 2018012068 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119479376 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119479406 (epub) | ISBN 9781119479352 (cloth)

Subjects: LCSH: Electric power production. | Renewable energy sources. | Thermodynamics.

Classification: LCC TK1001 (ebook) | LCC TK1001 .P325 2018 (print) | DDC 621.31/21-dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018006236

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: © chinaface/iStockphoto; © westcowboy/iStockphoto; © Diyana Dimitrova/Shutterstock

Preface

Thermodynamics, often translated as ‘movement of heat’, is simply the science of energy and work. Energy itself is described as the capacity to do work.

French steam engineer Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot, who was well aware that the realization of water power is a function of water level or head difference across a turbine, suggested in 1824 that capacity for work and power across a heat engine would be dependent on the prevailing temperature difference.

Between 1840 and 1850, British scientist and inventor James Joule investigated the nature of work in a range of forms, for example, electrical current, gas compression and the stirring of a liquid. He concluded from his work that ‘lost’ mechanical energy would express itself as heat, for example, friction, air resistance etc., and hence spoke of the mechanical equivalent of heat.

In 1847, German physicist, Hermann Von Helmholtz first postulated the principle of energy accountancy and energy conservation. In 1849, British physicist William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) is thought to have coined the term Thermodynamics to describe the subject of energy study, and the Helmholtz principle became enshrined as the First law of thermodynamics.

In 1850, German physicist Rudolf Julius Emmanuel Clausius used the term entropy to describe non‐useful heat and proposed that, in universal terms, entropy increase is a natural, spontaneous process, leading to the development of a Second law of thermodynamics. This can be stated in several ways but perhaps the simplest is that it is not possible for an engine operating in a cycle to convert heat into work with 100% efficiency.

Civilizations are often judged on their cultural legacy, described in terms of their contribution to architecture, art and literature, and its spread across the globe.

It could be argued that the current manifestation of human civilization will be judged on the legacy of its technological ingenuity and, in particular, its endeavours to supply energy to a rapidly expanding planetary population seeking ever‐increasing standards of living.

The challenge is to make the most efficient use of energy sources and produce power at the minimum cost and least environmental impact. Failure to achieve this has global consequences in terms of an unwanted environmental legacy.

This book examines currently available conventional and renewable power‐generation technologies and describes the allied pollution‐control technologies associated with the alleviation of their environmental impact.

Neil Packer and Tarik Al‐Shemmeri

Structure of the Book

Chapter 1

Flemish (modern‐day Belgium) chemist Jan Baptista van Helmont first coined the terms gas and vapour in the 17th century. He related the classification to ambient temperature. Substances like oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide are gases at ambient temperature whereas substances like water can only be gasified at an elevated temperature, making steam, a vapour.

In any heat engine, the transfer of energy from place to place is the job of the working fluid. Working fluids in heat engines are liquids, vapours and gases, and so Chapter 1 looks at some of the fundamental properties of these phases in relation to their energy content and introduces the reader to the use of standard property tables and charts.

Chapter 2

For about 100 years from the late 18th century, the reciprocating piston/cylinder and drive wheel steam engine dominated mechanical power production. However, in 1884, British engineer Charles Algernon Parsons changed all that when he conceived a new technology for accessing the power of steam. His revolutionary idea was to use nozzles to direct high‐pressure, high‐temperature steam jets onto a series of engineered blades connected at their roots to a shaft, thus causing the shaft to rotate. Originally, his idea was deployed in a marine transport application but it was not long before his steam turbine was connected to a stationary generator by the fledgling electrical power supply industry at the beginning of the 20th century.

However, vapour power generation comprises a number of processes and technologies in addition to the turbine, for example, a boiler, condenser, pump etc., making up a cycle, and so Chapter 2 progressively introduces the reader to complex vapour power cycles, enabling the calculation of fundamental performance parameters such as cycle efficiency, SSC etc.

Chapter 3

A power‐generation system employing non‐condensable gases is not a new idea.

In 1816, a member of the Scottish clergy, Reverend Robert Stirling, proposed a heat engine based on the sequential heating and cooling of air. However, at the time, the design was not a great success because of the limitations of contemporary material science knowledge.

Gas reciprocating engines for small motive power applications have been in development since 1860, when Frenchman Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir exhibited his horizontal, double‐acting, single‐cylinder, non‐compression machine running on coal gas and air. Although earlier attempts were made, German inventor Nicolaus August Otto is credited with the first compressed‐gas, electrically ignited, four‐stroke engine patented in 1866. (French‐born) German engineer Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel patented an engine in 1892 that did not rely on a spark for ignition but instead achieved a flash point temperature for the fuel by compression alone, making it suitable for use with liquid fuels.

Proposals and patents for the gas turbine can be traced back to the mid‐18th century. However, the production of the first practical industrial gas turbine power plant is credited to the Swiss company Brown Boveri in 1939. Since that time, many improvements have been proposed, including multiple shafts, exhaust gas recuperation, intercooling and reheating and closed and combined cycles.

In the modern era, gas cycles in stationary power generation also play an increasingly important role in base load, decentralized, standby and peak lopping applications. Chapter 3 covers gas power generation cycles in both rotary compressor/turbine schemes and displacement engines.

Chapter 4

In distant historical times, mechanical power had to be supplied by man's own muscles or by those of his animals. Rendered animals and plants could also be the source of oils that would burn for illumination purposes. For most of our history, however, wood has been our major source of fuel. There is evidence to suggest that coal was used as a fuel from about the 1200s onwards. At the beginning of the 17th century, coal was discovered to be a potential source of derived fuels if heated in the absence of air.

In 1859, American Edwin Laurentine Drake thought that a naturally occurring, high‐density, inflammable liquid that was found in association with shale deposits might have an economic value for lighting purposes, and he drilled the first oil well in Titusville, western Pennsylvania, USA. By the turn of the century, this crude oil was being distilled and reformed to produce a range of liquid and vapour fuels. In fact, it was soon discovered that natural gaseous resources could often be found underground in situ with oil deposits.

Our entire civilization now depends on these fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and they are used extensively as the energy source in the previously described power cycles. Chapter 4 explores their properties, the chemical changes taking place during their burning or combustion with air, the prediction of the energy released and the nature of some gaseous emissions associated with their use.

Chapter 5

Liquid and solid fuels tend to have mineral content as part of their composition, and so the consumption of some fuels, for example, coal, diesel and biomass, has associated with it the significant generation of potentially harmful particulate matter.

The size of this particulate matter tends to be on the micron scale, making it particularly harmful if inhaled. The World Health Organization suggests annual and 24‐hour concentration exposure limits for the most dangerous 10 µm and 2.5 µm diameter particles.

In 1851, Irish physicist and mathematician, George Gabriel Stokes provided a model predicting the resulting velocity for a small particle falling under the effect of gravity. This simple understanding underpins much of Chapter 5, which looks at the nature of particulates in a fluid stream and describes the theory and operation of a range of pollution‐control devices to capture them and alleviate the problem.

Chapter 6

Our planetary heat exchange with space is dependent on solar input, surface reflectivity and the composition of our atmosphere. The heat balance determines our planet's average temperature. The emissions associated with our fossil‐fuel‐based industrialization have dramatically altered the earth's atmosphere and hence its equilibrium, resulting in a prediction of a significant increase in average temperature. At the end of the 19th century, Swedish scientist and climate modeller Svante Arrenius first postulated a link between increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration from fossil fuel use and a rise in global temperature. This effect is already in evidence in the second decade of the 21st century. There are a number of global warming gases, but the principal emission associated with this change is carbon dioxide, and Chapter 6 focuses on this aspect. Carbon dioxide is usually found in a combination with other emissions, and so properties of gas mixtures are introduced along with a thermodynamic analysis of gas separation. The chapter goes on to look at practical separation techniques as well as some proposed storage solutions to the problem.

Chapter 7

In fossil fuel power generation, whatever remains of the products of combustion after filtration is transferred to a stack or chimney for release to the atmosphere. Its atmospheric dispersion is, essentially, an example of the diffusion spreading of one substance in another along a concentration gradient. The laws governing the resulting diffusive flux and concentration field were laid down by German physicist and physiologist Adolf Fick in 1855. For a gaseous stack emission, ambient pressure, temperature and wind velocities would modify this diffusion, and so having an understanding of atmospheric phenomena and plume characteristics is key to acceptable and legal dispersal of emissions. This understanding was provided in the 1950s and 1960s by F. A. Gifford and British scientist Frank Pasquil. Chapter 7 looks at the principles of simple dispersal modelling, enabling the reader to predict air pollutant concentrations downwind of a stack.

Chapter 8

Generating energy from fossil fuels is ultimately unsustainable, as they are a finite resource and raise global warming issues. Sustainable power generation requires the deployment of renewable energy sources such as the sun, the wind and biomass. Although, strictly speaking, not renewable, some countries also consider the use of nuclear fuel as part of the solution. Of course, the switch cannot be achieved overnight but forward‐looking countries around the world are already moving slowly towards this objective. Renewable sources tend to be intermittent and so energy storage will be required with their use. Chapter 8 reviews a range of renewable energy technologies and some measures by which to match their supply with a varying demand.

Notation

A text covering a broad range of topics will unavoidably require a large nomenclature. In general, parameters are introduced along with their units in the text. However, there are a few cases where the reuse of a symbol in a different context has become necessary to maintain coherence. The listings below highlight the reuse of a parameter by indicating, in brackets, the chapter of its subsequent reoccurrence.

Occasionally, differentiation may require an extended subscript. For example, amb – ambient, comb – combustion, gen – generated etc. Notation such as this is self‐evident and will not be included in the list below.

English Symbols

A

area

m

2

a

wave amplitude

m

BF

buoyancy flux parameter

m

4

/s

3

C

capacitance

Farad

C

p

specific heat capacity at constant pressure

kJ/kg K

C

v

specific heat capacity at constant volume

kJ/kg K

c

concentration

kg/m

3

D

A

diffusion coefficient

m

2

/s

d

diameter

m

d

distance (8)

m

E

electric potential

volts

EF

electric field

volts/m

F

force

N

F

Faraday's constant (8)

kJ/kmol V

f

frequency

Hertz

Gibbs energy

kJ, kJ/kmol

g

gravitational acceleration

m/s

2

H

,

h

,

enthalpy

kJ, kJ/kg, kJ/kmol

H

,

h

height (5, 6)

m

h

Planck's constant (8)

Js

I

current

amps

I

m

moment of inertia

kg m

2

I

s

insolation

kWh/annum

K

H

Henry's coefficient

Pa

L

length

m

L

self‐inductance (8)

Henrys

M

molar mass

kg/kmol

m

,

mass, mass flow rate

kg, kg/s

N

rotational speed

rpm

n

,

number of moles, molar flow rate

kmol, kmol/s

P

pressure

Pa

P

A

permeance

m

3

/m

2

sPa

Q

,

q

heat content

kJ, kJ/kg

heat transfer

kW

q

electrical charge (5)

Coulombs

R

o

universal gas constant

kJ/kmol K

R

specific gas constant

kJ/kg K

R

electrical resistance (8)

Ohms

r

radius

m

S

,

s

,

entropy

kJ/K, kJ/kg K, kJ/kmol K

S

A

solubility coefficient

m

3

/m

3

m Pa

T

temperature

°C, K

T

wave period (8)

seconds

t

time

s

U

,

u

,

internal energy

kJ, kJ/kg, kJ/kmol

V

,

v

,

volume

m

3

, m

3

/kg, m

3

/kmol

V

voltage (8)

volts

velocity

m/s

volume flow rate

m

3

/s

W

,

w

work

kJ, kJ/kg

W

width (5)

m

work transfer

kW

X

exergy

kJ/kg

z

height above a datum

m

Subscripts/Superscripts

a

air

B

buoyancy

b

boiler

b

building (7)

C

centrifugal

c

compression

c

collection (5)

cr

critical

cw

cold water

D

drag

d

diameter

E

electrostatic

e

emission

f

liquid

f

formation (4)

f

friction (8)

fb

fibre

fg

liquid– gas condition

G

gravitational

g

gas or vapour

gb

gearbox

g‐g

gas in gas

g‐l

gas in liquid

H

high

I

intermediate

I

inertial (5)

i

isentropic

i

component (4)

L

low

L

liquid (5)

o

standard state

p

pump

p

process (3)

p

particle (5)

R

resultant

r

reaction (4)

r

relative (5)

s

steam

st

stack

t

turbine

th

thermal

ts

terminal settling

u

utilization

v

void

w

wind

x

,

y

,

z

co‐ordinates

Greek Symbols

α

Seebeck coefficient

V/K

ε

o

permittivity of free space

C/Vm

η

efficiency

%

λ

wavelength

m

μ

dynamic viscosity

kg/ms

π

Peltier coefficient

V

ρ

density

kg/m

3

ρ

electrical resistivity (8)

Ω/m

σ

dispersion coefficient

m

ω

rotational speed

rad/s

Ψ

,

ψ

thermodynamic property

various

Dimensionless Numbers

A/F

air–fuel ratio

C

D

drag coefficient

CF

correction factor

ε

dielectric constant

ε

u

utilization factor (2)

f

f

fibre solid fraction

φ

equivalence ratio

γ

ratio of specific heats

K

acentric factor

k

isentropic condition index

k

geometric factor (8)

mf

mass fraction

n

expansion/compression index

p

wind elevation exponent

Re

Reynolds number

r

c

cut‐off ratio

r

v

compression ratio

Stk

Stokes's number

WR

work ratio

x

dryness fraction

y

molar fraction

z

compressibility factor