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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
Developing Reading Comprehension
“In recent years the debate about teaching young children to read has tended to focus upon equipping them with the crucially important knowledge and skills they need to read words accurately in and out of context, that is to say, teaching them how the alphabet works for reading and spelling. While such knowledge and skills are essential, more is required for children to become literate, fluent readers who understand what they read. In short, the goal of reading is comprehension. This book scrupulously examines the obstacles to reading comprehension and exemplifies what can be done to help children overcome them. It is an important and timely contribution to securing high-quality teaching of the range of attributes children need to become fully-fledged readers.”
Sir Jim Rose, CBE
“The studies by Professors Charles Hulme and Maggie Snowling and their team over two decades based around the Reading Intervention Programme are the most sustained, comprehensive and rigorous research series on reading yet conducted in the UK. Their increasing focus on children who experience the most difficulty in reading is exactly where attention should be directed. This volume summarises the team’s achievements to date, and is most eagerly awaited.”
Greg Brooks, Emeritus Professor of Education, University of Sheffield, Member of European High Level Group of Experts on Literacy
“Developing Reading Comprehension presents a landmark study from the top research team in the UK on how to improve reading comprehension. It’s an exemplary masters-level textbook written with undergraduate-level lucidity and approachability.”
Colin Harrison, Emeritus Professor of Literacy Studies in Education, University of Nottingham
A significant minority of children aged 7–11, despite being able to read fluently and accurately, have difficulty extracting meaning from text. This detailed guide offers three evidence-based intervention programmes, drawn from the cutting edge of educational psychology, for improving the reading skills of children in this group. It includes a definitive introduction to the characteristics of the ‘poor comprehender profile’, and explains how to monitor and assess students’ experiences and learning outcomes. With invaluable strategies for teachers, psychologists and special educational needs coordinators, the book will help professionals to support learners in their efforts to explore the full richness of language and to read with real understanding.
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Contents
List of Figures
List of Boxes
Foreword by Jean Gross CBE
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: What is Reading Comprehension?
MODELS OF READING COMPREHENSION
THE IMPORTANCE OF READING COMPREHENSION
SUMMARY
Chapter 2: The Poor Comprehender Profile
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO POOR READING COMPREHENSION
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
SUMMARY
Chapter 3: The York Reading for Meaning Project: An Overview
THEORETICAL AIMS
PRACTICAL AIMS
INTERVENTION DESIGN
RESEARCH DESIGN
ASSESSMENT
FINDINGS
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
APPENDICES
Chapter 4: Teaching Principles
VYGOTSKIAN PRINCIPLES
DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
THEMES
PASSAGE CHOICE
SUMMARY
Chapter 5: Intervention Materials: Oral Language Programme
1. VOCABULARY
2. RECIPROCAL TEACHING WITH SPOKEN LANGUAGE
3. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
4. SPOKEN NARRATIVE
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter 6: Intervention Materials: Text Level Programme
1. METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
2. RECIPROCAL TEACHING WITH WRITTEN LANGUAGE
3. INFERENCING
4. WRITTEN NARRATIVE
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter 7: Intervention Materials: Combined Programme
SUMMARY
Chapter 8: Feedback and Evaluation
FEEDBACK FROM TEACHING ASSISTANTS
THE PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING ASSISTANTS
OVERALL EVALUATION AND NEXT STEPS
CHILDREN’S REFLECTIONS
PARENTS’ FEEDBACK
SUMMARY
Chapter 9: Theoretical and Practical Implications
HELPING CHILDREN WITH READING COMPREHENSION DIFFICULTIES
SUPPORTING CHILDREN’S LANGUAGE AS A FOUNDATION FOR READING COMPREHENSION
FEATURES OF SUCCESSFUL TEACHING APPROACHES
IDENTIFYING CHILDREN WITH READING COMPREHENSION DIFFICULTIES
SUMMARY
Appendices
APPENDIX 1. CONSENT PROCEDURES
APPENDIX 2. TRAINING OF TEACHING ASSISTANTS
APPENDIX 3. TEACHING ASSISTANT FEEDBACK ON TRAINING
APPENDIX 4. MANUAL PRODUCTION
APPENDIX 5. ADDITIONAL PREPARATION
APPENDIX 6. FORTNIGHTLY TUTORIAL GROUPS
APPENDIX 7. RECORD SHEETS
APPENDIX 8. OBSERVATIONS AND ON-SITE FEEDBACK
APPENDIX 9. NEWSLETTERS
APPENDIX 10. SHARING DATA
Glossary
References
Index
This edition first published 2014© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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The right of Paula J. Clarke, Emma Truelove, Charles Hulme and Margaret J. Snowling to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Developing reading comprehension / Paula J. Clarke [and three others] ; illustrations by Dean Chesher – First edition.pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-60676-6 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-118-60675-9 (paper) 1. Reading comprehension. 2. Reading comprehension–Study and teaching (Elementary) I. Clarke, Paula J.LB1573.7.D46 2013372.47–dc23
2013029204
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover image: Mary Ethel Hunter, Girl Reading, oil on wood. Leeds Museums and Galleries / The Bridgeman Art LibraryCover design by Design Deluxe
List of Figures
1.1
An annotated version of the sample passage demonstrating the results of a think-aloud activity
1.2
The simple view of reading (Gough and Tunmer, 1986)
1.3
The Construction–Integration Model (Kintsch and Rawson, 2005)
2.1
The ‘poor comprehender profile’
2.2
Possible presentations of the poor comprehender at home and in school
3.1
A summary of the three intervention approaches investigated in the Reading for Meaning Project
3.2
Components and session structures used in the Oral Language intervention programmes
3.3
Components and session structures used in the Text Level intervention programmes
3.4
Two example variants of the components and session structures used in the Combined programme
3.5
A hypothetical scenario to illustrate a basic intervention procedure
3.6
A timeline of the key activities in the York Reading for Meaning Project
3.7
Key principles and recommendations for the design, evaluation and reporting interventions (after Duff and Clarke, 2011)
3.8
The gains made by each intervention group relative to the control group on the WIAT Reading Comprehension subtest
4.1
The Reciprocal Teaching (Palinscar and Brown, 1984) strategies
4.2
The ‘Today we are going to…’ poster
5.1
The four components in the Oral Language programme
5.2
The introduction of activities within the four components of the Oral Language programme
5.3
An example recipe containing ‘unusual’ words
5.4
Model of vocabulary knowledge
5.5
Teaching Tier 2 words activates and enriches the child’s understanding of a number of other words that are linked to their understanding of the target word. This can be characterised as a cascading effect akin to a fountain
5.6
Picture prompt card for teaching the Tier 2 word ‘Admire’
5.7
An example of a basic mind map for the Tier 2 word ‘Ambition’
5.8
An example of a memory aid to support new word learning
5.9
An example of a verbal reasoning activity around a Tier 2 word
5.10
Prediction Bingo
5.11
Quality Question Street game card
5.12
Mind map structures poster
5.13
‘Don’t wind her up!’
5.14
‘Where do milkshakes come from?’
5.15
The structure of the narrative teaching
5.16
The story mountain
5.17
Sequencing nursery rhymes using the story mountain signposts
5.18
The Story Planner used in the Oral Language Programme
6.1
The four components in the Text Level programme
6.2
The introduction of activities within the four components of the Text Level programme
6.3
Metacognitive strategy card templates
6.4
The sequence of activities used to support thinking in pictures
6.5
The thought train explain and reflect activity
6.6
The ideas factory explain and reflect activity
6.7
A visual aid to summarise the first four metacognitive strategies
6.8
The title quest summarisation activity
6.9
The question generator disc
6.10
The Wheel of Wonder worksheet
6.11
The Dotty Dice Dilemma worksheet
6.12
The step back in time worksheet
6.13
Summary of inference types
6.14
An example worksheet used to support bridging inferences
7.1
An overview of the components in the Oral Language and Text Level programmes
7.2
A Combined programme session: Example 1
7.3
A Combined programme session: Example 2
8.1
The questionnaire given to the teaching assistants at the end of Block 1
8.2
A representative selection of the feedback from the teaching assistants relating to support provided by the research team
8.3
Prompts used for teaching assistants’ self-reflection activity
8.4
A summary of responses from the teaching assistants’ final evaluation
8.5
End of block questionnaire for children
8.6
End of project questionnaire for parents
8.7
How often has your child spoken about the READ ME project?
8.8
Has your child enjoyed taking part in the READ ME project?
8.9
Since starting the READ ME project how would you rate your child’s progress in reading aloud?
8.10
Since starting the READ ME project how would you rate your child’s progress in listening?
8.11
Since starting the READ ME project how would you rate your child’s progress in understanding text?
8.12
Since starting the READ ME project have you noticed any changes in your child’s confidence?
8.13
Since starting the READ ME project have you noticed any changes in your child’s attitude towards reading?
A.1
Teaching assistant feedback following training
A.2
Observation checklist
A.3
Summary of the feedback given to the teaching assistants following observations
List of Boxes
1.1
TA commentary
2.1
TA commentary
4.1
TA commentary
4.2
TA commentary
4.3
TA commentary
4.4
TA commentary
4.5
TA commentary
4.6
TA commentary
4.7
TA commentary
4.8
TA commentary
4.9
TA commentary
5.1
Manual section
5.2
TA commentary
5.3
TA commentary
5.4
TA commentary
5.5
TA commentary
5.6
TA commentary
5.7
TA commentary
5.8
Manual section
5.9
TA commentary
5.10
TA commentary
5.11
TA commentary
5.12
TA commentary
5.13
Manual section
5.14
TA commentary
5.15
TA commentary
5.16
TA commentary
6.1
Manual section
6.2
TA commentary
6.3
Manual section
6.4
Manual section
6.5
Manual section
6.6
Manual section
6.7
Manual section
6.8
TA commentary
6.9
TA commentary
6.10
TA commentary
6.11
TA commentary
6.12
Manual section
6.13
Manual section
6.14
Manual section
7.1
TA commentary
9.1
TA commentary
Foreword by Jean Gross CBE
In my two years as government’s Communication Champion for children I described the Reading for Meaning project and its findings everywhere I went, as an example of how working on children’s oral language impacts on their achievement in reading. And every headteacher, literacy leader and SENCO immediately asked how they could find out more about an intervention that clearly meets a pressing need in schools – what to do about children who towards the end of primary school are not on track to meet the attainment levels required by the age of 11.
Schools and teachers know the central importance of reading comprehension for success in English. They also know how much it matters for grasping the meaning of word problems on maths papers, and for learning right across the curriculum. Yet there is a huge gap in our knowledge of what to do to enable children who are poor comprehenders to catch up with their peers.
This book helps to fill that gap. It will be of interest to every primary teacher and leader, providing, practical guidance on how to develop the components of comprehension. The book describes small group intervention programmes. The ideas – such as invaluable advice on how to develop children’s spoken vocabulary – have however a much wider application and should be used in every primary classroom, every day.
Even more importantly, the ideas are based on sound evidence. As educators, we are getting better at using evidence from research. We are beginning to use the language of trials, control groups, statistical significance. This book will take us further on that journey. The teaching strategies it describes, such as distributed practice, scaffolding and co-operative learning, are firmly rooted in evidence. They form the design principles of the Reading for Meaning intervention programmes, which in turn were subjected to full Randomised Controlled Trials. The researchers followed up children’s progress well beyond the end of the intervention period. They can demonstrate that the interventions worked, and that (particularly for the oral language intervention), the impact did not ‘wash out’ when the additional support ended.
Finally, the book makes a significant contribution to our understanding of the reading process. It provides further support for the ‘Simple View of Reading’ and reminds us of the importance of language comprehension as well as decoding skills. It is one of a long line of publications from a group of researchers who have made an outstanding and sustained contribution to our understanding of how children learn to read, and of what for me has always been of vital importance – how to help those who can’t read well.
Jean Gross CBE, founder of the Every Child a Reader initiative and former government Communication Champion for children.
Acknowledgements
In preparing this book we are very grateful to Tanya Cowton and Fiona Richards for providing the teaching assistant commentary. We also wish to recognise the contribution of our illustrator Dean Chesher, who has created all of the figures, boxes and illustrations in the book, and Emily Reeves who compiled the index.
Many individuals have contributed to the success of the project and we would like to thank all children, parents, teaching assistants and schools for their co-operation, hard work and participation.
We are particularly grateful for the help of Elizabeth Fieldsend, who was key in supporting our teaching assistants, and Sarah Watson who made a significant contribution to the project in its final year through dissemination activities and data analysis. We would also like to give thanks to Angela Harrington who wrote some bespoke passages for the intervention programmes.
We would like to thank the research staff who helped us at different stages of the project including, Claudine Bowyer-Crane, Pamela Baylis, Kimberley Manderson, Silvana Mengoni, Dimitra Ioannou and Leesa Clarke. Furthermore we would like to recognise the contributions of support staff including Geraldine Collins and Simon Fletcher and the many students who helped with data collection and preparation of teaching materials.
Chapter 1
What is Reading Comprehension?
Language conveys meaning and allows the sharing of information, ideas and perspectives. When written messages are successfully understood, reading can be a wonderfully inspiring, enjoyable and transforming experience. Written language has the power to take the mind to different places, times and events; it can put us in the shoes of fascinating characters and hold our attention through gripping plots, suspense and intrigue. Texts can provide escapism and offer alternative perspectives on the world; what’s more, they can ‘kindle’ our imaginations to create rich mental images that may stay with us forever. Texts can inform and develop knowledge, provide us with new vocabulary and provoke new ways of thinking.
For many children, however, the messages conveyed through written text are not well understood; this has potentially far-reaching consequences for their learning, development and well-being. This chapter outlines the richness of written language and the complexities of the processes involved in reading for meaning. This serves to highlight the many ways in which children’s ability to understand text can break down, and will provide points to consider when teaching and developing interventions to improve reading comprehension. Chapter 2 considers in more detail the difficulties that cause some children to have specific difficulties in understanding what they read.
To consider the richness of written language, let us consider the following short passage as an example:
Jennie sprang bolt upright. Moments of disorientation followed before she recognised the now faded floral wallpaper and tatty matching curtains. Framed family faces stared down from the bookshelf. ‘Home for the holidays’ she remembered. Blinking and yawning she stumbled around for her slippers and gown. The tinny voice from the bedside table was delivering the news and warning of harsh winds and icy roads. Jennie reached across and hit the button. ‘Today is definitely a two sweater day,’ Jennie thought as she rifled around in her suitcase for her favourite winter clothing.
Reflect for a moment on your understanding of the passage and think about the following questions:
Why did Jennie spring bolt upright? Where was Jennie? Why might she have felt disorientated? What are the framed family faces? Why did she stumble? Where was the tinny voice coming from? What was the button? What did Jennie mean by a ‘two sweater day’? What was Jennie doing in her suitcase?
Returning to the passage, consider your experience of trying to decipher its meaning. In the annotated version in Figure 1.1 we have documented some of the initial reflections that you may have when you reread the passage.
The complexity of comprehension is highlighted in these annotations. Engaging in this type of conscious ‘think-aloud’ activity focuses attention on aspects of reading comprehension that might otherwise go unnoticed. In the example, you can see that our understanding of the text’s message gradually builds up over the course of reading it. Initial predictions are confirmed by later information, potentially ambiguous vocabulary is resolved by the context and assumptions based on previous experience are tested. The annotations, however, only scratch the surface of the demands of the task. Making connections between parts of the passage in order to build up an interpretation requires recognition of the words, an ability to hold information in mind, an ability to scan backwards and forwards to relevant words and phrases, an understanding of cues from sentence structure and punctuation, an empathy with the character and many other skills and processes.
Only part of the task of reading comprehension is situated within the text itself; a developed understanding comes from the interaction between the text and the reader’s response to it. The diverse perspectives that we bring to the task result in different interpretations of a text. When we watch films of books that we have read they rarely match up to our imagined versions. When we discuss reading material with others, we may find that we have interpreted the same sentence in very different ways. We may also find that our interpretations are inconsistent with the message that was intended by the author. Such differences in imagination and personal response, whilst complex and difficult to capture, are at the heart of the reading comprehension experience.
Figure 1.1 An annotated version of the sample passage demonstrating the results of a think-aloud activity
MODELS OF READING COMPREHENSION
Models of reading comprehension can help us to understand the different skills and processes involved in interpreting text. The simple view of reading (Gough and Tunmer, 1986) offers a useful model for characterising successful reading. As shown in Figure 1.2, Gough and Tunmer (1986) propose that two skills are needed in order to read for meaning: the ability to recognise or pronounce the words (decoding) and the ability to understand spoken language (listening comprehension).
Figure 1.2 The simple view of reading (Gough and Tunmer, 1986)
As well as helping us to understand reading success, this model can help to describe the different ways in which reading can break down and inform early identification and intervention for children at risk of reading difficulties. According to the simple model, a child may show a generally poor reading profile and experience difficulties in developing both decoding and listening comprehension. Alternatively, a child may have difficulties in the area of decoding but show intact or even superior listening comprehension skills. The opposite pattern to this, termed ‘the poor comprehender profile’, is also possible and will be the focus of the next chapter. This profile is characterised by intact or superior decoding skills coupled with weak listening comprehension. As a result, children with a poor comprehender reading profile will read aloud well but have difficulty understanding what they read. Children who experience difficulties with decoding, listening comprehension or both skills will experience difficulties in understanding text.
Another model that can be used to capture the skills and processes involved in successful reading is the Construction–Integration Model of Kintsch and Rawson (2005). This model, presented in Figure 1.3, provides a more detailed overview of the processes involved in reading comprehension. The model proposes that when we read text we create a personal representation of its meaning; this representation (or mental model) is made up of the information from the text itself alongside our general knowledge of the words and the topic.
The processes involved in deciphering the text are described in terms of three levels. The first is the ‘linguistic’ level in which the reader recognises and processes individual words and their meanings. The second is the ‘microstructure’ in which the reader goes beyond words in isolation to recognise and process the meaning of larger chunks of text. The third is the ‘macrostructure’ in which the reader recognises and processes themes, topics and genre information about the text. These three levels form what is called a ‘textbase’. The textbase combines with the reader’s existing general knowledge to form an individual’s representation of the meaning of the text. This interpretation is called the ‘situation model’ and, in forming it, the reader uses many different types of knowledge. For example, the reader may need to use theory of mind skills to understand the author’s or character’s intentions, beliefs, desires and feelings. To have a ‘theory of mind’ requires an awareness of your own mind, recognition that other people have minds and an understanding that another’s mind is independent of your own. This understanding provides the foundation for perspective taking and the realisation that others have ideas and emotions which may be similar to or different from your own.
Figure 1.3 The Construction–Integration Model (Kintsch and Rawson, 2005)
To illustrate the application of this model, we can link its features to the processes involved in understanding the passage introduced at the beginning of this chapter. Let’s remind ourselves of the passage:
Jennie sprang bolt upright. Moments of disorientation followed before she recognised the now faded floral wallpaper and tatty matching curtains. Framed family faces stared down from the bookshelf. ‘Home for the holidays’ she remembered. Blinking and yaw[ning] she stumbled around for her slippers and gown. The tinny voice from the bedside table was delivering the news and warning of harsh winds and icy roads. Jennie reached across and hit the button. ‘Today is definitely a two sweater day,’ Jennie thought as she rifled around in her suitcase for her favourite winter clothing.
By following this example through, you can see how an apparently simple passage can be understood at several different levels, all of which contribute to the formation of a rich situation model.
Taken together, these models describe many of the skills and processes involved in reading comprehension. However, it is important to remember that models are not ‘real’ – they are theories that may be incomplete or incorrect in a variety of ways. Such models can be tested and refined in research into how people read. Consideration should also be paid to other aspects of reading not specified in these models, for example the relationship between understanding text and motivation. When we read something that we understand and can immerse ourselves in, we are motivated to read more. Enjoyment of text promotes engagement and sustained interest and attention. If comprehension breaks down reading will be less pleasurable, which may lead to less time spent reading, which in turn will weaken reading skills further.
It is also necessary to recognise the metacognitive skills that underlie reading for meaning. Metacognition refers to what we know about our own knowledge and includes the ability to reflect on our understanding of text as it unfolds. As we saw in the ‘think-aloud’ activity at the beginning of this chapter, there are many aspects of reading comprehension that can be dissected and reflected upon. As individuals, we vary in our ability to keep track of what and how much we understand. Some people may think frequently about their interpretation of a text both during and after reading, whilst others may monitor less and may continue to read on, long after they have lost the thread of the story or passage. The extent to which an individual monitors their own understanding may also vary according to the reason why they are reading. For example, if you have been asked to prepare for an exam, you may read more intently and with more emphasis on understanding than if you are flicking through a magazine in the dentist’s waiting room. This aspect of reading for meaning is often referred to by the term ‘standard of coherence’; that is the degree to which an individual is concerned with whether text makes sense.
Perfetti, Landi and Oakhill (2005) argue that for reading comprehension to develop, a high standard of coherence is necessary. To give an example, Sophia and George are two children with different standards of coherence. When reading a story, they may extract the same level of meaning but while Sophia classes this as unclear, George considers it is satisfactory and therefore does not seek further clarification. Sophia is likely to be better able to develop good comprehension because she deploys a number of strategies to gain further information that will enable her to overcome the feeling of not fully understanding; these may include asking an adult or a peer a follow-up question or thinking back to a similar personal experience and bringing her previous knowledge to bear. George, on the other hand, may read on without the sense that he has not fully extracted the meaning from the passage.
THE IMPORTANCE OF READING COMPREHENSION
At this point, it is necessary to return to the importance of reading for meaning. Much of the commentary surrounding theoretical models of reading comprehension has focused on the knowledge that the reader brings to the process of understanding. However, it is important to recognise that reading can be a transformative experience influencing the thinking and learning of the reader. New words, concepts and perspectives can be encountered that challenge and enhance existing knowledge. Consequently, reading is central to teaching and learning and it is vital to consider the circumstances in which the developing child is required to extract and apply meaning derived from text.
Reading comprehension skills become more important as children progress through the educational system. Teachers frequently expect children and young people to research topics from books or from the internet in the Sciences as well as the Arts and Humanities. Indeed, in all areas of the curriculum children need to be able to locate relevant information, to filter out the information that is less pertinent to the current topic and to select the appropriate information to focus upon. For example, maths comprehension exercises draw upon reading comprehension skills to support the development of numeracy skills. Consider the following:
The local primary school was having a cake sale to raise money for charity. John baked two dozen buns. Anita made ten brownies but two were too burned to be sold. Before the sale, John dropped half a dozen buns on the floor which his dog promptly ate. In total, how many baked goods did John and Anita bring to the cake sale?
Answer: 26
Having read this chapter, you will no doubt recognise the number of comprehension processes and skills involved in completing this calculation. For example, a number of vocabulary items are crucial to understanding the question including ‘dozen’, ‘brownie’, ‘baked goods’. Furthermore, the child must understand the preposition ‘before’ in order to correctly sequence the events in the question. Thinking back to the Construction–Integration Model, the child is likely to be assisted by accessing general knowledge and previous experience of baking and attending cake sales. A child’s success in understanding the question at the levels of words, sentences and overall gist will impact on the cognitive resources available and capacity to attend to the key mathematical calculations required. This is just one example of how reading comprehension skills support and influence learning in areas that are not generally associated with literacy.
SUMMARY
When we read we seldom pay attention to the complex processes that contribute to our ability to understand text. In this chapter we have considered the inherent complexity of reading for meaning. In doing so, we have made reference to key theoretical models and component skills and processes. In this book we will consider the skills that are involved in learning to read with understanding, how and why reading comprehension may break down and what characterizes a ‘poor comprehender’. Against this backdrop, we describe in detail a project that we undertook to develop and evaluate a set of interventions to develop reading comprehension in children in the middle school years. We will present findings that demonstrate the efficacy of these interventions and elaborate their content for practitioners who wish to use them. We will argue that such interventions should be part of the ‘toolkit’ of teachers, teaching assistants, special needs advisors and speech and language therapists who are concerned with individual differences in children’s literacy.
Chapter 2
The Poor Comprehender Profile
Reading is a highly complex process and therefore it may not be surprising that some children struggle to become proficient readers. As outlined in Chapter 1, children with the poor comprehender profile demonstrate weaknesses in understanding what they read despite being able to read aloud accurately and fluently. Poor comprehenders’ strengths in decoding often mask their difficulties in comprehension and, as a result, such children are likely to go unnoticed in the classroom. This may be especially true during the early years of schooling when emphasis is placed on learning to decode. As the teaching emphasis shifts from ‘learning to read’ to ‘reading to learn’, children who struggle with aspects of understanding what they read become increasingly disadvantaged. The ability to access text is crucial for supporting learning across the curriculum and communication through writing increases with age; thus, reading comprehension difficulties are a considerable obstacle to educational attainment.
The long-term implications of weak comprehension make it important to raise awareness of the poor comprehender profile among parents, teachers and educational professionals, and to ensure that children who are affected receive support as early as possible. Our understanding of the poor comprehender profile has increased markedly in recent years. In practice, the criteria used to define the poor comprehender profile are not fully agreed and the cut-off used to define an impairment is to some degree arbitrary. Furthermore, the assessments used to measure comprehension vary considerably. As a consequence incidence rates have been reported to range from 3 to 10% of primary school aged children.
The difficulties experienced by poor comprehenders become apparent from around 8 years of age when the mechanics of reading are secure. Although comprehension weaknesses at this age may be relatively mild in comparison to those experienced by peers with special educational needs, there is evidence to suggest that poor comprehenders are unlikely to catch up and will continue to have difficulties. Indeed, there is a concern that as children transfer to secondary education the emphasis placed on ‘reading to learn’ across subject areas may lead to widespread difficulties for poor comprehenders across the curriculum. For these reasons we believe that poor comprehenders are deserving of extra support during primary school to prevent a spiral of negative outcomes over time.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the poor comprehender profile, which is characterised by the discrepancy between the ability to read words aloud accurately (a skill which is usually within the average range) and the ability to answer questions which tap understanding of what has been read (a skill which is usually below average).
