Economic Systems Analysis and Assessment E-Book

Andrew P. Sage

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Wiley Series in Systems Engineering and Management
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 666

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

An Authoritative Introduction to a Major Subject in Systems Engineering and Management

This important volume fills the need for a textbook on the fundamentals of economic systems analysis and assessment, illustrating their vital role in systems engineering and systems management. Providing extensive coverage on key topics, it assumes no prior background in mathematics or economics in order to comprehend the material.

The book is comprised of five major parts:

• Microeconomics: a concise overview that covers production and the theory of the firm; theory of the consumer; market equilibria and market imperfections; and normative or welfare economics, including imperfect competition effects and consumer and producer surplus

• Program Management Economics: discusses economic valuation of programs and projects, including investment rates of return; cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis; earned value management; cost structures and estimation of program costs and schedules; strategic and tactical pricing issues; and capital investment and options

• Cost Estimation: reviews cost-estimation technologies involving precedented and unprecedented development, commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) software, software reuse, application generators, and fourth-generation languages

• Strategic Investments in an Uncertain World: addresses alternative methods for valuation of firms including Stern Stewart's EVA, Holt's CFROI, and various competing methodologies

• Contemporary Perspectives: covers ongoing extensions to theory and practice that enable satisfactory treatment of the increasing returns to scale, network effects, and path-dependent issues generally associated with contemporary ultra-large-scale telecommunications and information networks

Also discussed in this comprehensive text are normative or welfare economics and behavioral economics; COCOMO I and II and COSYSMO as examples of a cost model; and options-based valuation models and valuation of information technology intensive enterprises.

Economic Systems Analysis and Assessment serves as an ideal textbook for senior undergraduate and first-year graduate courses in economic systems analysis and assessment, as well as a valuable reference for engineers and managers involved with information technology intensive systems, professional economists, cost analysts, investment evaluators, and systems engineers.

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

Preface

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Economic Systems Analysis and Assessment: Cost, Value, and Competition in Information and Knowledge Intensive Systems, Organizations, and Enterprises

1.1 Introduction

1.2 A Framework for Systems Engineering and Management

1.3 Theory of the Firm

1.4 Theory of the Consumer

1.5 The Interaction of the Theories of Firms and Consumers: Microeconomic Models of Economic Activity

1.6 Welfare or Normative Economics

1.7 Program and Project Management Economics

1.8 Contemporary Issues Concerning Information and Information Technology Economics

1.9 Economic Pitfalls in the Engineering of Systems

1.10 Summary

Chapter 2 : Production and the Theory of the Firm

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Production Function

2.3 Multiproduct Firms and Multiproduct Production Functions

2.4 Classic Theory of the Firm

2.5 Imperfect Competition

2.6 Summary

Chapter 3 : The Theory of the Consumer

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Economic Utility Theory and Its Axioms

3.3 Properties of Utility Functions

3.4 The Fundamental Problem of the Consumer

3.5 Sensitivity and Substitution Effects

3.6 Summary

Chapter 4 : Supply–Demand Equilibria and Microeconomic Systems Analysis and Assessment Models

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Basic Supply–Demand Equilibrium for a Single Good

4.3 General Supply–Demand Equilibrium Conditions

4.4 Extensions to General Equilibrium to Include Market Interdependencies

4.5 Microeconomic Models

4.6 Summary

Chapter 5 : Normative or Welfare Economics, Decisions and Games, and Behavioral Economics

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Pareto Optimality under Perfect Competition Conditions

5.3 External Effects and Imperfect Competition: Public Goods

5.4 External Effects and Imperfect Competition: Nonindependent Production and Consumption

5.5 Welfare Maximization and Social Choice

5.6 Summary

Chapter 6 : Cost–Benefit and Cost–Effectiveness Analyses and Assessments

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Time Value of Money

6.3 Identification of Costs and Benefits

6.4 The Identification and Quantification of Effectiveness

6.5 Summary

Chapter 7 : Cost Assessment

7.1 Model-Based Parameters for Productivity

7.2 Early Models for Estimation of Costs, Including Effort and Schedule

7.3 The Constructive Cost Model

7.4 Summary

Chapter 8 : Approaches to Investment Valuation

8.1 Microeconomics

8.2 The Investment Problem

8.3 Investment Valuation

8.4 Summary

Chapter 9 : Real Options for Investment Valuation

9.1 Nature of Options

9.2 Option Pricing Theory

9.3 Option Calculator

9.4 Strategic Metrics

9.5 Investment Decision Making

9.6 Value-Centered R&D

9.7 Summary

Chapter 10 : Contemporary Perspectives

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Evolutionary Economics

10.3 Path Dependence and Network Effects

10.4 Intellectual Capital

10.5 Value of Information

10.6 Investing in Humans

10.7 Summary

Index

Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Sage, Andrew P.

Economic systems analysis and assessment / Andrew P. Sage, William B. Rouse.

p. cm.– (Wiley series in systems engineering and management; 54)

ISBN 978-0-470-13795-6 (hardback)

1. Microeconomics. 2. System analysis. I. Rouse, William B. II. Title.

HB172.S127 2011

338.501—dc

222010042299

WILEY SERIES IN SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Andrew P. Sage, Editor

A complete list of the titles in this series appears at the end of this volume.

PREFACE

The purpose of this book is to provide a background in the fundamentals of economic systems analysis and assessment that is appropriate for engineers and managers concerned with the systems engineering and management of systems that are generally information technology intensive. It is assumed that readers of this book will have previously studied mathematics through calculus and differential equations, and that they have some background in linear algebra. No prior background in mathematical programming or economics is assumed, although a modest exposure to undergraduate microeconomics will be very helpful. The objectives of this book include a salient discussion of engineering economic systems that will be relevant for those who need or desire to use the subject matter in their professional practice. This book will also support those who must communicate and broker the results of engineering economic systems analyses and assessments between the many professionals having a stake in definition, development, and deployment of information technology intensive systems. Finally, this book provides a thorough grounding in investment analysis and assessment, particularly for technology portfolios, capacity improvement and expansion, and mergers and acquisitions to acquire technologies and/or capacity.

The book itself is comprised of five major parts as follows:

1.Microeconomics. We provide a concise overview of classic microeconomics including production and the theory of the firm; theory of the consumer; market equilibria and market imperfections; and normative or welfare economics, including imperfect competition effects and consumer and producer surplus. Chapters 2 to 5 contain this presentation. We also discuss some behavioral economics issues in this part, particularly in Chapter 5. These chapters are as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction to Economic Systems Analysis and AssessmentChapter 2: Production and the Theory of the FirmChapter 3: The Theory of the ConsumerChapter 4: Supply–Demand Equilibria and Microeconomic Systems Analysis and Assessment ModelsChapter 5: Normative or Welfare Economics, Decisions and Games, and Behavioral Economics

2. Program Management Economics. We discuss economic valuation of programs and projects including investment rates of return, cost–benefit and cost–effectiveness analysis, earned value management, cost structures and estimation of program costs and schedules, strategic and tactical pricing issues, and capital investment and options. There is one lengthy chapter in this part:

Chapter 6: Cost–Benefit and Cost–Effectiveness Analyses and Assessments

3. Cost Estimation. Cost estimation technologies involve precedented and unprecedented development, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software, software reuse, application generators, and fourth-generation languages. Contemporary cost estimation methods are evaluated in terms of openness of underlying models, platform requirements, data required as inputs, output, and accuracy of estimates provided by the models. COCOMO I and II, and COSYSMO are examples of a cost model, function point cost estimation models. Cost is estimated for systems of systems engineering. There is a single chapter in this part:

Chapter 7: Cost Assessment

4. Strategic Investments in an Uncertain World. The final part of our economic systems analysis and assessment efforts is concerned with valuation of major investments such as technology portfolios and large-scale capacity expansions, as well as mergers and acquisitions. Here we provide a chapter that addresses alternative methods for valuation of firms including Stern–Stewart’s EVA, Holt’s CFROI, and various competing methodologies. Chapter 9 considers option-based valuation models including classic real option models (Black–Scholes) and extensions for multistage options with more robust portfolio assumptions. Valuation of information technology intensive enterprises is also addressed. Overall, this part provides a discussion of valuation methods for managing strategic investments in an uncertain world:

Chapter 8: Approaches to Investment ValuationChapter 9: Real Options for Investment Valuation

5. Extensions to the Work. There are many extensions possible to economic systems analysis and assessment. There are needed extensions to the classic microeconomics of economic systems analysis and assessment to enable satisfactory treatment of the increasing returns to scale, network effects, and path-dependent issues generally associated with contemporary ultra-large-scale telecommunications and information networks. Investing in the training and education, safety and health, and work productivity of humans is another very important issue. In our concluding chapter of this work, we present a very brief discussion of these issues:

Chapter 10: Contemporary Perspectives

We sincerely hope that readers find our discussions of economic systems analysis and assessment of value to their work in systems and software engineering, systems and enterprise management, and related areas.

Andrew P. Sage

Department of Systems Engineering and Operations Research

George Mason University

Fairfax, VA 22030-4444

William B. Rouse

Tennenbaum Institute

School of Industrial and Systems Engineering

College of Computing

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, GA 30332

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMIC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT: COST, VALUE, AND COMPETITION IN INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE INTENSIVE SYSTEMS, ORGANIZATIONS, AND ENTERPRISES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This book is about one of the fundamental concerns in the engineering and management of systems of all types, and especially those with a major telecommunications and information network focus: the economic behavior of these systems. We discuss the very important role of economics in shaping our lives and designing our activities and institutions to achieve economic (and other) objectives. The purpose of this book is to present those fundamentals of classic and modern microeconomic systems analysis and assessment that are most necessary in the engineering and management of systems of machines, humans, and organizations that are effective and efficient, and equitable as well. We desire to equip ourselves to answer three fundamental questions:

1. What should be produced and how much of it should be produced?

2. How should the goods be produced?

3. Who should get the goods and services that are produced?

The first of these questions relates to effectiveness, the second to efficiency, and the third to equity concerns. There are a number of related concerns. Many other questions, and their answers, are also important. We are generally concerned with why, where, and when artifacts as well as what, how, and who. For example, we surely wish to ensure sustainability, by preserving the natural resource basis to enable continued satisfaction of human needs in an equitable manner over time. There are also issues that affect marketing of our products, as well as with research and development to enable the production of innovative products (and services). Thus, we wish to examine a plethora of issues associated with the engineering of economic systems.

This chapter will provide an overview of our undertakings. We will first summarize a framework for systems engineering and illustrate the important role of the economics of a firm in maximizing profits and that of the economics of the consumer in maximizing satisfaction by allocating resources, all within the constraints of finite resources. Then we will provide an introductory discussion of the microeconomics of firms and consumers operating together in various markets. Our presentation will stress the information base and other conditions necessary to ensure what we will call a perfectly competitive economy.

These conditions will, as will be apparent, typically not prevail. Various distortions from perfect competition will then result. Our discussions will concern normative economics—how individuals and organizations should ideally behave from an axiomatic perspective to best achieve identified objectives. We will also discuss descriptive economics—how individuals and organizations actually behave. Finally, we will discuss prescriptive economics—how individuals and organizations should behave in realistic settings. This chapter provides a relatively detailed outline of this work and our objectives in writing it.

1.2 A FRAMEWORK FOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

A central purpose of systems engineering is to assist clients in organizing knowledge that contributes to the efficiency, effectiveness, equity, and explicability of decisions and associated resource allocations. Systems engineering methodology provides a framework for the formulation, analysis, and interpretation of issues and problems that lead to the resolution of issues of large scale and scope. Within this framework, content, concepts, and methods are selected. The systems process, in which client(s) and analyst(s) cooperate to establish useful policies, plans, or designs, involves three fundamental steps:

1.Formulation of the issue or problem,

2.Analysis of the (impacts of) alternatives, and

3.Interpretation of results for the value systems of relevant stakeholders, thereby leading to the evaluation and prioritization of alternatives as well as the selection and implementation of selected alternative(s).

The systems engineering process is typically characterized by

1. a systematic, rational, and purposeful course of action;

2. a holistic approach in which issues or problems are generally examined in relation to their environment, as well as to due attention to the causal or symptomatic, institutional, and value aspects of the issue under consideration; and

3. the eclectic use of methods and knowledge based on the normative theory of systems science and operations research, as well as the behavioral theory of systems and organizational management.

The typical product of a systems engineering study is a plan to implement a decision, or a plan to implement another phase of a systems study that will ultimately result in such a plan. Economic concerns are vital in developing appropriate plans. It is the study of engineering economic systems analysis that is of interest here. This study is all the more valuable if we first embed it within a discussion of the entire systems process.

A very important fundamental concept of systems engineering is that all systems are associated with life cycles. These are of several types: we have a life cycle for the engineering of the system, and another life cycle for the use of the system. Similar to all natural systems that exhibit a birth–growth–aging–death lifecycle, human-made systems also have a life cycle. Generally, this life cycle consists of three essential phases: definition of the requirements for a system, development of the system itself, and deployment of the system in an operating environment. Each of these may be described by a larger number of more fine-grained phases. These three phases are found in all intentional systems evolutionary efforts. Most realistic life-cycle processes comprise more than three phases. One of the major contributions of systems engineering is in adopting an appropriate perspective for the life cycles associated with engineering the system.

This life-cycle perspective should also be associated with a long-term view toward planning for systems evolution, research to bring about any new and emerging technologies needed for this evolution, and a number of activities associated with actual systems evolution, or acquisition. Thus, we see that the efforts involved in the life-cycle phases of definition, development, and deployment need to be implemented across three life cycles that comprise:

systems planning and marketing;research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E); andsystems acquisition or procurement.

We briefly examine these life-cycle phases here. Discussions of the methods for systems engineering are very important. Here we emphasize economic systems analysis and its application to telecommunications and information networks. We emphasize that these discussions would be incomplete if they are not associated with some discussion of systems engineering life cycles, processes, or methodology and the systems management efforts that lead to selection of appropriate processes.

Systems engineering is a management technology to assist and support policy making, planning, decision making, and associated resource allocation or action deployment. Systems engineers accomplish this by quantitative and qualitative formulation, analysis and assessment, and interpretation of the impacts of action alternatives on the needs perspectives, the institutional perspectives, and the value perspectives of their clients or customers.

The key words in this definition are formulation, analysis and assessment, and interpretation, which form an integral part of systems engineering. We may exercise these in a formal sense, or in an experientially based intuitive sense. These are the components comprising a structural framework for systems methodology and design. We need a guide to formulation, analysis and assessment, and interpretation efforts, and systems engineering provides this through embedding these three steps into life cycles, or processes, for systems evolution.

Systems management and integration issues are of major importance in determining the effectiveness, efficiency, and overall functionality of systems designs. To achieve a high measure of functionality, it must be possible for a systems design to be efficiently and effectively produced, used, maintained, retrofitted, and modified throughout all phases of a life cycle. This life cycle begins with need conceptualization and identification, through specification of systems requirements and architectures, to ultimate systems installation, operational implementation, evaluation, and maintenance throughout a productive lifetime.

For our purposes, we may also define systems engineering as the definition, design, development, production, and maintenance of functional, reliable, and trustworthy systems within cost and time constraints. It is generally accepted that we may define things according to

structure,function, orpurpose.

Often, definitions are incomplete if they do not address structure, function, and purpose. Our continued discussion of systems engineering will be assisted by the provision of a structural, functional, and purposeful definition of systems engineering as follows:

Structure. Systems engineering is an appropriate combination of methods and tools, made possible through a suitable methodology and systems management procedures, in a useful process-oriented setting that is appropriate for the resolution of real-world problems, often of large scale and scope.

Function. Systems engineering is a management technology to assist clients through the formulation, analysis and assessment, and interpretation of the impacts of proposed policies, controls, or complete systems on the need perspectives, institutional perspectives, and value perspectives of stakeholders to issues under consideration.

Purpose. The purpose of systems engineering is information and knowledge organization that will assist clients who desire to define, develop, and deploy total systems to achieve a high standard of overall quality, integrity, and integration as related to performance, trustworthiness, reliability, availability, and maintainability of the resulting system.

Each of these definitions is important and an understanding of all three is generally needed, as we have noted. In our three-level hierarchy of systems engineering there is generally a nonmutually exclusive correspondence between function and tools, structure and methodology, and purpose and management, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1. A systems engineering process results from efforts at the level of systems management to pick an appropriate methodology, or appropriate set of procedures, or a process for engineering a system. A systems engineering product, or service, results from this process, or product line, together with an appropriate set of methods and metrics. These are illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.1. The Evolution of Process and Product from Purpose, Function, and Structure and the Three Levels of Systems Engineering: Systems Management, Methodology, and Methods and Tools.

Figure 1.2. Three-Level Systems Engineering and Management Perspective on the Engineering of Systems.

We have illustrated three hierarchical levels of systems engineering in Fig. 1.1. These are associated with structure, function, and purpose, as also indicated in Fig. 1.1. The evolution of a systems engineering product, or service, from the chosen systems engineering process is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. The systems engineering process is driven by systems management, and there are a number of drivers for systems management, such as the competitive strategy of the organization. The basic activities of systems engineers are usually concentrated on the evolution of an appropriate process to enable the definition, development, or deployment of a system or on the formulation, analysis, and interpretation of issues associated with one of these phases. Figure 1.3 illustrates the basic systems engineering process phases and steps. Generally, these are combined to illustrate the occurrence of each of the three steps of systems engineering within each of the three phases, as represented in Fig. 1.4. A three-element-by-three-element matrix structure representation of a systems engineering framework is also possible as shown in Fig. 1.5.

Figure 1.3. The Three Basic Steps and Phases of Systems Engineering.

Figure 1.4. A Systems Engineering Framework Comprised of Three Phases and Three Steps Per Phase.

Figure 1.5. Illustration of Nine Activity Cells for a Simple Two-Dimensional Systems Engineering Framework.

A systems engineering framework, from a formal perspective at least, consists of three fundamental steps: issue formulation, issue analysis, and issue interpretation. These are conducted at each of the life-cycle phases that have been chosen to implement the basic life-cycle phased efforts of definition, development, and deployment. There are three general systems life cycles, as suggested by Fig. 1.6:

Figure 1.6. Interactions across the Three Primary Systems Engineering Life Cycles.

research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E);acquisition (or production, or manufacturing, or fielding);planning and marketing.

Systems engineers are involved in efforts associated with each of these life cycles and the associated functions, often in a technical direction or systems management capacity. The detailed life-cycle phases are shown only in the systems acquisition life cycle in the figure. Only the three basic phases are shown for the RDT&E life cycle, and the planning and marketing life cycle. An objective in this is to engineer trustworthy and sustainable systems that have such desirable attributes as those shown in Fig. 1.7.

Figure 1.7. Attributes of a Trustworthy Systems Engineering Product or Service.

There are a number of frameworks that we might use to characterize systems engineering and management efforts. Without a sound and well-understood process for the acquisition or production of large systems, it is very likely that there will be a number of flaws in the resulting system itself. Thus, the definition, development, and deployment of an appropriate process, or a set of processes, for the engineering of systems are very important. To undertake a study of systems engineering methods only and their potential use to support the engineering of trustworthy systems, without some understanding of systems engineering processes, is likely to lead to very unsatisfactory results.

Systems engineers provide a needed interface between the client or stakeholder group, or enterprise, to which an operational system will ultimately be delivered, and a detailed design and implementation group, which is responsible for specific systems production and implementation. Figure 1.8 illustrates this view of a systems engineering team as an interface group that provides conceptual design and technical direction to enable the products of a detailed design group to be responsive to client needs. Thus, systems engineers act, in part, as brokers of information between a client group and those responsible for detailed design and systems production. Knowledge and use of the principles of economic systems analysis are especially important in achieving this needed brokerage.

Figure 1.8. Systems Engineering as a Broker of Information and Knowledge.

Systems engineering processes are to a very large extent based on frameworks for systems methodology and design. The framework chosen here consists of three dimensions:

logic dimension, which consists of three fundamental steps;time dimension, which consists of three basic life-cycle phases; andlife-cycle dimension, which consists of three stages or life cycles.

An important fourth dimension, which we may call a perspectives dimension, is also discussed in this chapter. This is comprised of the three basic perspectives of user enterprise, systems management and technical direction, and implementation.

We envision a three-level performance hierarchy for systems engineering phased efforts, as shown in Fig. 1.3. This three-level structured hierarchy comprises a systems engineering life cycle and is one of the ingredients of systems engineering methodology. It involves

systems definition,systems development, andsystems deployment.

The structural definition of systems engineering we posed earlier indicates that we are concerned with a framework for problem resolution that, from a formal perspective at least, consists of three fundamental steps for a systems engineering activity:

issue formulation,issue analysis and assessment, andissue interpretation.

These are conducted at each of the life-cycle phases that have been chosen for the definition, development, and deployment efforts that lead to the engineering of a system. Regardless of the way in which the systems engineering life-cycle process is characterized, and regardless of the type of product or system or service that is being designed, all characterizations of the phases of the systems engineering life cycles will necessarily involve

1.formulation of the problem—in which the needs and objectives of a client group are identified, and potentially acceptable design alternatives, or options, are identified or generated;

2.analysis and assessment of the alternatives—in which the impacts of the identified design options are identified and evaluated or assessed; and

3.interpretation and selection—in which the options, or alternative courses of action, are compared by means of interpretation and comparison of the assessed impacts of the alternatives and how the client group values these. The needs and objectives of the client group are necessarily used as a basis of this selection. The most acceptable alternative is selected for implementation or further study in a subsequent phase of systems engineering.

Our model of the steps of the logic structure of the systems process is based on this conceptualization. These three steps can be, and generally are, disaggregated into a number of other more detailed steps. Each of these steps of systems engineering is accomplished for each of the life-cycle phases. As is the case with respect to the life-cycle phases, it is generally needed to have iteration and learning associated with these steps. This strongly suggests that evolutionary life-cycle approaches, as extensions of the waterfall models illustrated here, will generally be very desirable. In a later Chapter 10, we explicitly consider this in the form of evolutionary economic analysis.

As we have noted, there are generally three different systems engineering life cycles. These relate to the three different stages of effort that are needed to deliver a competitive product or service to the marketplace:

research, development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E);system acquisition or production; andsystems planning and marketing.

Thus we may imagine a three-dimensional model of systems engineering that is comprised of steps associated with each phase of a life cycle, the phases in the life cycle, and the life cycles that comprise the coarse structure or stages of systems engineering. Figure 1.9 illustrates this across three distinct but interrelated life cycles, for the three steps, and the three phases that we have described here. This is one morphological framework for systems engineering. As we have noted, it will generally be necessary to expand the three steps and three phases we indicate here into a larger number of steps and phases. Often, also, there will be a number of concurrent RDT&E and systems acquisition efforts that will be needed to ultimately bring about a large-scale system.

Figure 1.9. Major Systems Engineering Life Cycles with Three Phases within Each Life Cycle.

It is necessary that efforts across these three life cycles be well integrated and coordinated, or else difficulties can ensue. Figure 1.10 represents the relationships across these life cycles. The systems planning and marketing life cycle yields answers to the question: What is in demand? The RDT&E life cycle yields answers to the question: What is (technologically) possible (within reasonable economic and other considerations)? The acquisition life cycle yields answers to the question: What can be developed (from an efficiency, effectiveness, trustworthiness, and sustainability perspective)? It is only in the region where there is overlap, in an n-dimensional space, that responsible actions should be implemented to bring about programs for all three life cycles. This suggests that the needs of one life cycle should not be considered independently of the other two. Figure 1.10 represents this conceptually in a two-dimensional Venn-diagram-like representation of the possibility space for each life cycle. Effort should be undertaken to address only the issues within the ellipse represented by the thicker exterior.

Figure 1.10. Illustrations of the Need for Coordination and Integration across Life Cycles.

Each of the logical steps of systems engineering is accomplished for each of the life-cycle phases. There are generally three different systems engineering life cycles or stages for a complete systems engineering effort, as we have indicated. Thus we may imagine a three-dimensional model of systems engineering that is comprised of steps associated with each phase of a life cycle, the phases in the life cycle, and the life cycles or stages of a complete systems engineering effort. Figure 1.10 illustrates this framework of steps, phases, and stages as a three-dimensional cube. This is one three-dimensional framework, in the form of a morphological box, for systems engineering. The word morphology is adapted from biology and means a study of form. As we use it, a methodology is an open set of procedures for problem solving. Consequently, a methodology involves a set of methods, a set of activities, and a set of relations between the methods and the activities. To use a methodology we must have an appropriate set of methods. Generally, these include a variety of qualitative and quantitative approaches from a number of disciplines that enable formulation, analysis, and interpretation of the phased efforts that are associated with the definition, development, and deployment of both an appropriate process and the product that results from this process. Associated with a methodology is a structured framework with which particular methods are associated for the resolution of a specific issue.

Figure 1.11. Three-Dimensional Framework for Systems Engineering.

Of course, systems engineering is comprised of much more than just a methodological framework, or frameworks. In an earlier three-level view of systems engineering, we indicated that we can consider systems engineering efforts at the levels of

systems engineering methods and tools, and associated metrics;systems methodology, or life-cycle processes; andsystems management.

We suggested Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 as illustrative of this representation of systems engineering. This is also an important dimension to a systems engineering framework, as is the situation assessment that occurs for issue recognition, and the individual and organizational learning that should occur as systems engineering efforts evolve over time. We could expand on these concepts greatly, and this has been accomplished in several of the references cited in the bibliography at the end of this chapter. It is our hope that the basic concepts illustrated here will serve as a suitable introduction to the principles of systems engineering and management for appreciation of its implications for the engineering of economic systems, which is the major focus of this work and the subject we address in the remainder of this chapter and the rest of the book.

Our major concern here will be the analysis and assessment of a systems effort, especially those portions that involve the microeconomic concerns of the interactions between firms and consumers in markets and the evaluation and prioritization of alternative projects, especially as they concern telecommunications and information networks.

There are several points that merit further discussion here. First of all, neither systems engineering and management nor economic systems analysis efforts within systems engineering and management are processed in a sequenced linear way. They involve a process in which iteration plays a central part. Insights obtained from one part of the effort might lead to a revision of approaches taken earlier, making iteration and feedback necessary. Second, the steps and phases outlined are helpful as a guide, not as a restrictive format. Flexibility in the procedures and methods used is a central feature of systems engineering and management. It should be noted, however, that each of the steps and phases outlined above represents an important ingredient in a systems engineering effort, and omission or neglect of any step increases the risks of failure. Third, since systems engineering is a process in which people work together to realize the various steps and phases of the effort, the selection of an appropriate combination of capable analysts, experts, or other participants, and methods or aids in the process, is at least as important as adherence to the several steps of the systems engineering framework. Figure 1.12 presents a conceptual flowchart of the steps in a typical systems engineering process. These steps are conducted across each of the phases in the process.

Figure 1.12. Prototypical Flowchart of Steps in the Systems Engineering Process.

In this section, we have presented an essential introduction to systems engineering. Our purpose here is primarily to present some of the essential underlying concepts. The references related to systems engineering in the selected bibliography at the end of this chapter provide much supporting detail.

1.3 THEORY OF THE FIRM

Chapter 2 will be concerned with the classic theory of the firm. We will adopt as a fundamental hypothesis the assumption that the goal of a firm is to maximize profit. To do this, the firm will need to know the costs of production. These costs will depend on the market conditions extant for the three fundamental types of classic economic resources: land,1 capital, and labor. In much of the literature on modern economic systems, information and knowledge are considered to be the fourth fundamental resource. We will develop the classic theory of the firm in Chapter 2, and introduce newer concepts in the later chapters.

If we know the way in which the quantity of a product depends on the input of land, capital, and labor to production, then it becomes possible to determine the cost of a given quantity of produced goods in terms of the unit costs of the inputs to production and the quantity of these inputs that are used. If we use amounts T, K, and L of land, capital, and labor, respectively, and if the known wages2 of these factor input to production are given by wT, wK, and wL, then the costs of production are

(1.1)

where F denotes the fixed—initially set up—costs of production. The revenue to the firm for selling a production quantity q at a fixed price p is

(1.2)

The quantity of goods produced by the firm is related to the input factors of production (land, capital, and labor) by the production relation

(1.3)

The profit to the firm is the difference between the revenue and the production costs, or

(1.4)

There are several important and relevant questions we might pose here:

1. How can we maximize profit to the firm?

2. How can we minimize costs of production of a given quantity of the product?

3. Are there circumstances under which we will not produce?

It turns out that the answers to the first two questions are equivalent. To obtain maximum profit, we maximize Π given by Equation 1.4, subject to the equality constraints of Equations 1.1 through 1.3. The result of doing this is that we obtain a production or supply curve for the producer that gives the quantity of goods that will be produced as a function of the price received for the goods (or services). To minimize production costs we minimize the costs of production, which is given by C in Equation 1.1 subject to the equality constraints of Equations 1.2 and 1.3. Doing this results in a relation for the minimum production cost C(q) for producing a quantity of goods q. The answer to the third question is that we should produce as long as we can obtain a nonnegative profit.

We will explore issues such as these in considerably greater detail in Chapter 2. A number of extensions will be undertaken. In particular, we will consider the case where there is a sole producer of a given product who has perfect information about consumer demand for the product. This situation is known as a monopoly. This will be the first of several situations that we will examine in which one or more of the conditions for “perfect economic competition” are violated.

One very important notion is that of return to scale in production. If increasing all factors of production by some amount λ > 1 increases the quantity produced by the same amount, we say that the production function possesses constant returns to scale (CRS):

(1.5)

In the case where increasing all factors of production by the same positive amount λ > 1 results in a produced amount that is less than λ times the initial amount, we have decreasing returns to scale (DRS):

(1.6)

The majority of classic production functions possess either DRS or, in a very few cases, CRS. When we examine information and knowledge intensive products, such as software, in our later work, we will generally find that they possess increasing returns to scale (IRS), such that increasing all factors of production by an amount λ > 1 results in a production quantity that is greater than λ times the amount initially produced:

There are many very interesting properties of these information intensive products that are often called network effects: consumption externalities, switching costs and lock-in, and many issues that affect compatibility, standards, and complementarity of these products. These are generally a result of these positive or increasing economies of scale in production.

1.4 THEORY OF THE CONSUMER

Why should a firm produce a product or service? One answer is that there is a demand for the product or service, because the firm is effective in fulfilling some (perceived) need, and that the firm is efficient in producing it and can make a profit by doing so. In Chapter 3 we examine various aspects of the economic theory of the consumer. We assume that the consumer has a utility function that expresses the satisfaction received from the possession or consumption, a term used by economists to also include savings or investment, of a bundle of goods and services. The consumer is assumed to have a utility function

(1.7)

where x = [x1, x2, ..., xN]T is a bundle of goods and services or commodity bundle. There is a price vector p = [p1, p2, ..., pN]T that represents the fixed price that has to be paid for a unit of each of the N goods and services.

The consumer is assumed to be greedy and selfish, in that “more” of any given good or service is always better than “less.” Sadly, the consumer has limited resources and cannot pay more than some fixed “income” I for these. The fundamental problem of the consumer is to maximize utility, given by Equation 1.7, subject to the resource constraint

(1.8)

We will explore various facets of consumer behavior in attempting to maximize the effectiveness of limited resources in maximizing satisfaction. The result of resolving the maximization of utility with a constraint on disposable income is the demand curve for a consumer. Figure 1.13 shows six supply–demand curves for various factors and consumer goods and services in a classic representation of a (free-market) economic system where there are DRS, which is the classic case. We will have much more to say about these relationships in Chapter 3. In our later chapters, we will also explore the many issues associated with information and knowledge intensive networks and products where there are IRS.

Figure 1.13. Simple Flows in Economic Systems.

1.5 THE INTERACTION OF THE THEORIES OF FIRMS AND CONSUMERS: MICROECONOMIC MODELS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

Chapters 2 and 3 discuss the theories of firms and consumers. In Chapter 4 we will extend these concepts to microeconomic models that describe the behavior of economic agents such as firms, consumers, and resource owners in a (free) market economy. We will be primarily concerned with the conditions that prevail in a market system that is in equilibrium and in which no imperfections (monopolies, externalities, etc.) exist. Microeconomic models such as these serve primarily as guides to the behavior that will result in the greatest satisfaction for each economic agent.

The foundation for a microeconomic model is a set of relations that describe

1. the price and quantity of goods and services that will be desired by a consumer who is maximizing their utility;

2. the price and quantity of goods and services that will be desired by a firm that is maximizing its profits; and

3. the general conditions characterizing the markets in which firms and consumers interact.

These relations are combined to determine the equilibrium market conditions that will result in the greatest mutual satisfaction for all firms and consumers in the economic system. This equilibrium is, mathematically, the intersection of the supply and demand curves for products and the intersection of the supply and demand curves for the factor inputs to production.

Microeconomic models provide insight into the workings and effects of “ideal” market systems and can be used to evaluate alternative policies designed to regulate economic behavior or alter economic conditions. They can be used to investigate the effects of changes in such elements as preferences of consumers, technologies of firms, and the availability and costs of the various factor resource inputs to production.

Typical final results or products of the use of supply–demand models of microeconomic activity include

1. a quantitative model describing the interaction of some set of economic agents, including firms and consumers, in a market economy;

2. a determination of the market conditions that will exist in equilibrium when all economic agents are deriving maximum satisfaction;

3. increased understanding of the workings and effects of a free-market system;

4. a set of relations describing the quantity of commodities and resources that each economic agent will desire for a given price; and

5. a determination of those economic decisions that will result in maximum utility for the consumers and maximum profit for the firms.

The first step in building a microeconomic model of the supply–demand relations describing economic activity is to identify the basic components of the economic system under consideration. These components will generally include

1. a “consumption sector,” generally represented by a set of consumers or households;

2. a “production sector,” generally represented by a set of firms;

3. a set of final goods, commodities, or services; and

4. a set of economic resources that are the factor inputs to production.

Generally these consist of capital (K), land (T), and labor (L). The set of relations that provide the foundation for a microeconomic model are derived from theoretical considerations of

1. the economic behavior of firms (Chapter 2),

2. the economic behavior of households (Chapter 3), and

3. the equilibrium conditions that prevail in the markets where households and firms exchange resources and commodities (Chapter 4).

Let us provide some more perspective on each of these.

The Economic Behavior of Productive Units. The role of a firm in a classic economic system generally consists in buying factor inputs in the form of land, capital, and labor; producing goods and services from these resources; and finally selling these goods to households and other firms for consumption. In economic systems, it will be necessary for some firms to use goods and services produced by other firms as factor inputs to their own production. For example, a firm that manufactures television sets may purchase components from another firm that manufactures electronic parts. It is assumed that associated with each firm is a production function that describes the maximum amount of final goods a firm can produce for a given quantity of factor inputs. The form of this production function will depend on the firm’s technology and productive capacity. The profit of a particular firm is the total value of goods and services sold (revenues) minus the cost of producing these commodities. It is assumed that the basic goal of the firm is to maximize profits subject to the constraints on its technology and capacity as reflected in its production function. The solution to this optimization problem will result in the quantity of commodities produced and sold for consumption for given and assumed fixed prices.3 This will be the supply curve for the firm in question. The solution to this profit maximization equation will also result in a factor demand equation. We will obtain a relation that gives the demand for factor inputs to production in terms of their prices. Of course, we could postulate a supply equation for a firm with several unspecified parameters. Regression techniques could, in principle, be used to identify parameters such that we identify a supply curve for a given firm as it operates in practice.

The Economic Behavior of Consumers. The role of the household or consumer in an economic system generally consists in selling resources, such as labor, or factor inputs for production to firms and in buying commodities (final goods) for consumption with the income received from selling these factors. The utility function describes the amount of satisfaction a household derives from the possession of a given set of commodities and a given set of factor inputs. The form of this utility function will depend on the tastes and preferences of each consumer or household. Each consumer will also have a budget constraint, which reflects the total amount of income a household has to spend on final goods and services. The income of a household comes from the sales of factor inputs and from the ownership of firms. The basic goal of a household is to maximize its utility function subject to the budget constraint.4 The solution to this optimization problem identifies an “optimum” quantity of commodities demanded for consumption and an “optimum” quantity of factor inputs supplied to firms for given commodity and factor input prices. The quantities that are optimum for a particular household will depend on its resources and preferences as reflected in its utility function and budget constraint. For example, consumers will sell factor inputs, such as labor for wages, to increase their incomes. Consumers will also derive some utility from unsold factor inputs. Labor hours not supplied by a consumer can be interpreted, for example, as leisure time.

Market Equilibrium Conditions. An economic market is in equilibrium when the quantity of all the goods and services demanded is equal to that which is supplied. In microeconomic models in which firms, consumers, factor inputs, and commodities are all involved, equilibrium conditions require that the following two conditions hold:

1. For each final good or commodity produced, the total quantity supplied by all firms is equal to the total quantity demanded by all households. This gives rise to a set of commodity market clearing equations.

2. For each economic factor input to production, the total quantity supplied by all households is equal to the total quantity demanded by all firms. This gives rise to a set of factor market clearing equations.

After the basic structure of the model has been identified according to the issue formulation guidelines presented earlier, data need to be collected and used to determine the precise forms of the production function and consumers’ utility functions. Utility functions might be reconstructed from observed past behavior or elicited in a more direct form. Statistical techniques, such as regression analysis and estimation theory, are also useful in constructing models of production functions for firms and utility curves for consumers.

The next step in the construction of a microeconomic supply–demand model is to actually solve the equations describing economic equilibrium. In theory, this requires the solution to the optimization problem for each household and each firm, subject to constraints and the market clearing conditions. The resulting solution will give the quantities of commodities and factor inputs that will, theoretically, be exchanged in equilibrium, together with the market prices at which they will be exchanged. This information can then be used to investigate the effects of changes in such factors as consumer preference, firm technology, income distribution, market structure, and resource availability on equilibrium market conditions. It can be used to evaluate the consequences of alternative policies designed to regulate or improve existing economic conditions. Figure 1.13 illustrates, conceptually, the results that we might obtain from the construction of a simple microeconomic model. In Fig. 1.13 there are two fundamental feedback loops: one involving the flow of products and the other involving the flow of capital. We will expand on this diagram in Chapter 4. Here it is especially important to note the flows into and out of the firms and consumer sectors. The input to the firms is the income due to sales and the factors for production; the output from the firms is the products of goods and services, the aggregate total of which is generally termed the gross national product (GNP), although the term gross domestic product (GDP) is now more common, and payments for the factor inputs to production.

Microeconomic models can be used to gain insight into the behavior of economic systems, as well as to assess the impact of alternative policies designed to alter or regulate behavior. They can also be used to determine market structures that will result in some desired utilization of resources. Thus microeconomic models may be useful for identifying alternatives, as well as for the analysis of their impacts. A simple example will illustrate some of the concepts involved in constructing a microeconomic model.

Example 1.1:

We shall construct a microeconomic model based on a very simple economy consisting of two firms and two consumers. We will present much more detailed and realistic models in our later chapters. Imagine that in this small market system firm 1 buys labor from the consumers to make clothes to sell to the consumers, while firm 2 buys oil from the consumers to produce food to sell to the consumers. The generic questions we wish to answer are: How much food and how much clothing will each consumer purchase, and how much labor will each firm use? To construct a model that can answer these questions, we make some definitions and assumptions.

We use the following terminology. We let

C = clothes produced by firm 1

F = food produced by firm 2

L1 = labor bought by firm 1

L2 = labor bought by firm 2

C1 = clothes bought by consumer 1

F1 = food bought by consumer 1

C2 = clothes bought by consumer 2

F2 = food bought by consumer 2

PC = price of one unit of clothing

pF = price of one unit of food

wL = wage per unit of labor

Π1 = profit of firm 1

Π2 = profit of firm 2

U1 = utility of consumer 1

U2 = utility of consumer 2

The question naturally arises as to the time interval or horizon over which these prices, quantities, and profits are valid. The answer is that a specified planning interval over which incomes are obtained, goods produced, etc., must be identified. The models of firms and consumers should be valid for that interval. Since this is intended to be a simple illustration of economic analysis, we do not need to specify these here.

We also need a brief description of the production, consumption, and market mechanisms.

Production. We assume that firm 1 can make units of clothing for units of labor purchased in such a way that its production function is given by C = 8(5L1)0.5. The profits of firm 1 are the value of the clothes sold minus the cost of the labor required to produce the clothing. Thus, the profit for this firm is given by the relationship

Similarly, firm 2 can produce units of food from each unit of labor in such a way that its production function is given by the relationship F = 8(10L2)0.5 and its profits are given by the relationship

Consumption. We assume that each consumer initially owns 40 units of labor, all of which is sold to the firms, so that the income of each consumer is given by I = 40wL. We assume that consumer 1 is partial to clothes and derives satisfaction from the consumption of clothes and food according to the utility function for consumer 1 given by

Also, assuming that consumer 1 spends all of the income earned, the purchase of clothing and food will be subject to the budget constraint

Consumer 2 prefers food and has utility and budget equations given by

Market Equilibrium. In equilibrium, the quantities of labor, clothing, and food supplied must equal the respective quantities demanded. In the market for labor, then, the total quantity of labor purchased by the two firms must be equal to the quantity of labor provided by the consumers. This is represented by the factor market clearing equation:

Similarly, the quantities of clothes and food purchased by the households must equal the quantities produced by firms l and 2, respectively. Thus the commodity market clearing equations are

We can now set up the optimization problems that must be solved to determine the quantities of goods and resources that will be exchanged when each firm and household is maximizing its own satisfaction function, profit for the firms, and utility for the consumers. Each firm must maximize profit subject to the production constraint, whereas each consumer must maximize utility subject to the budget constraint. We have four optimization problems:

Firm 1Firm 2Maximize Πl = pCC − wLL1Maximize Π2 = + pFF − wLL2subject to C = 8(5L1)0.5subject to F = 16(5L1)0.5Consumer 1Consumer 2Maximize U1 = (C1)0.75(F1)0.25Maximize U2 = (C2)0.25(F2)0.75subject to pCC1 + pFF1 = 40wLsubject to pCC2 + pFF2 = 40wL

Also, we have two sets of clearing equations, one each for the commodity and factor markets.

Commodity market clearing equations:

Factor market clearing equation:

These are the basic equations for this economic model. Attempts to indicate the full details concerning the solution to this problem would take us into subjects we will explore thoroughly in Chapter 4; we will therefore only indicate the highlights of our solution procedure here. It is easy to find the commodity bundles that maximize the utility of consumers 1 and 2. We obtain

where we use the symbol ∧ to indicate optima.

By using the commodity market clearing equations, we obtain from the foregoing

As we should intuitively expect, these commodity demand relations show that the quantity of each product demanded decreases with increasing price of the commodity. To obtain maximum profit for each firm we find the quantity produced such that we have the necessary condition for profit maximization: ∂Π1/∂C = ∂Π2/∂F = 0. We easily obtain

As we would intuitively expect, the quantity of the commodity that is produced increases with the price the firm can get for it.

We note that the first two relations for and are demand relations, whereas the latter two relations are supply relations. Economic equilibrium requires that these two be equal. We obtain as conditions for economic equilibrium wL = 2pC = 4pF. This simply says that one of the prices, or the labor wage, can serve as a “numeraire” or “anchor” on which all other prices are based. We should not expect otherwise, as a little thought will show. Thus we may as well let wL = 1 and get pC = 0.5 and pF = 0.25.

We already incorporated the factor market clearing equation when we wrote the budget constraint for each consumer, as this constraint included the clearing equation. Thus, all the necessary relations

1. the equations for optimality of the firm,

2. the equations for optimality of the consumers, and

3. the market clearing equations

have now been obtained. We obtain as the equilibrium relations the results , and .

In Chapter 4, we will provide a relatively general discussion of market equilibria and the effects that market imperfections, such as due to monopolist firms, may produce on equilibria.

1.6 WELFARE OR NORMATIVE ECONOMICS

Welfare or normative economics is that branch of microeconomics that is primarily concerned with the allocation of resources among competing uses. The purpose of welfare or normative economics is to determine patterns of resource allocation, commodity distribution, and economic organization that will result in maximum economic welfare for the economic system as a whole. As such, it is a part of what may be called normative economics. In deciding what distribution of resources among the members of a society is most desirable or equitable, ethical value judgments must be made. In Chapters 2 to 4 we are concerned primarily with efficiency and effectiveness; in Chapter 5 we are also concerned with equity. There are a number of issues associated with equity, the notion of sustainable development being a very important one of these. We will provide an introductory discussion of these generalized equity concerns in Chapter 5.

The basis for normative or welfare economics consists of a set of mathematical relations that describe

1. the satisfaction derived by each consumer from the possession or consumption of given quantities of goods and resources;

2. the productive capacity of the economic system for transforming economic resources into consumable goods or services; and

3. the level of general economic welfare associated with each distribution of goods and resources among the individual economic agents in the system.

These relations can be embedded into an optimization problem, the solution of which will determine a resource allocation and commodity distribution pattern yielding maximum economic efficiency, maximum economic effectiveness, and maximum equity, all according to the specified welfare function. We will show in Chapter 5 that it is not possible to optimize equity independently of efficiency and effectiveness concerns. The converse is also true.

The intent of a welfare economics application is often to determine policies that will enhance or increase the general economic welfare. Examples of application areas include policies pertaining to the income distribution among citizens, the allocation of raw materials among alternative productive uses, the distribution of consumable energy, government funding of public projects, and issues that concern sustainability.

The typical final results or product of a welfare or normative economic study may include

1. a quantitative model describing the allocation, utilization, and consumption of economic resources and commodities by consumers and firms;

2. a mathematical relation that assigns an index of social desirability or general economic welfare to each resource allocation and commodity distribution pattern in the economic system;

3. a determination of the economic configuration for which the social welfare function will attain a maximum value;

4. a determination of economic decisions that will result in maximum satisfaction for individual consumers;

5. a determination of resource allocations and utilizations to best ensure sustainable development;

6. a determination of how each consumer’s satisfaction contributes to the overall social welfare; and

7. an increased understanding of the workings of the economic system under consideration.

All of this seems very desirable; however, there are major requirements for the large-scale application of welfare economics concepts. These include

1. a set of utility functions that represent each consumer’s tastes and preferences with respect to the possession or consumption of given quantities of resources and commodities;

2. an aggregate production function representing the total productive capacity of the economic system such that we know the maximum quantity of consumable goods that can be produced for given amounts of resources available for productive use;

3. a social welfare function that maps levels of utility attained by individual consumers into an overall measure of social economic welfare;

4. a set of relations that describe the sustainable development concepts to be incorporated; and

5. a specification of the information and knowledge sources on which the welfare economics model is based.

Not all normative or welfare economics models will fully incorporate all of these issues. In particular, sustainable development issues are not incorporated in many classic welfare functions.

The first step in building a welfare economics model is to identify the components of the economic system under consideration. These components will generally include

1. a set of commodities or final (consumable) goods,

2. a set of economic resources used as factor inputs to the production of final goods,

3. a set of consumers who sell resources (e.g., labor) to firms and who buy final goods for consumption, and

4. a set of firms that produce final goods using factor inputs.

The construction of a welfare economics model will require the determination of

a. consumer preferences,

b. production functions, and

c. an overall economic welfare function.

We describe these three concepts in more detail here.

Consumer Preferences. Associated with each consumer is a utility function that describes the level of satisfaction derived from the consumption of goods and services. The form for this function depends on the relative preferences and tastes of the consumer, the amount of resources with which the consumer is endowed, and the preferences of the consumer with respect to the factor inputs that they supply to firms and those which are retained for other uses, such as hours devoted to leisure. Generally, the utility function describes the level of satisfaction a consumer attains for a given state of the economy.

Productive Capacity of Firms. Each firm produces final goods from factor inputs subject to the constraints on its technology and productive capacity. The production functions of all the firms in the economic system can, in principle, be combined to form an aggregate production function that describes the total productive capacity of the system. This aggregate production function gives the maximum quantity of consumable goods that the system can produce for given amounts of available resources.

General Economic Welfare. The utility function of all consumers in the economic system is used to determine a social welfare function that describes the overall desirability of a given economic state. The form of this function depends on the relative contribution of each consumer’s satisfaction level to the level of economic welfare of the whole system, and thus depends on very subjective value judgments. The premise is that the maximum value of an appropriately constructed social welfare function results from an economic state in which the distribution of resources and goods among consumers is the most equitable one.