Educational Research E-Book

Phil Wood

• Herausgeber: Independent Thinking Press
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Educational Research by Phil Wood and Joan Smith blends together discussion of some of the main concepts and knowledge concerning educational research with some basic frameworks and approaches for completing your own projects. Research can play an important role in offering ideas and insights into educational issues, but it should always be understood and utilised through the filter of professional values and judgement. This book is suitable for those with little or no research experience: in it, the authors sketch out some of the main features and concepts in educational research, whilst also offering advice on constructing single, small-scale research projects. As such, it will allow readers to engage with some of the basic conceptual elements of research as well as offering a foundation of knowledge and application. Educational Research has two main aims: (1.) To introduce some of the basic concepts and knowledge underlying an understanding of research. This is important as research has a specialist language all of its own. To engage with and critique research we need to be able to understand how and why a piece of research has been developed in the way it has. (2.) To provide some basic frameworks for developing your own small-scale research projects. One of the best ways to deepen your understanding of research is to carry out your own! Educational Research is a comprehensive guide to practitioner research; equipping teachers with the tools to develop their research literacy and conduct their own small-scale research projects. The book covers: the foundations of good educational research, research literacy, ethical issues in educational research, managing researcher bias, critical reading and writing, an introduction to research interests, context and questions, worldviews, philosophies and methodologies of research, research methods, data capture, sampling, methods of data collection, analysing data, descriptive statistics, reliability and validity and developing small-scale research projects.

Leseprobe

Praise for Educational Research

Here’s a must for the staff library; useful for any staff thinking of taking a higher degree – and there are many – and vital to a school keen on using research findings and in setting out to base their improvement on practical school-based research.

Sir Tim Brighouse, former London Schools Commissioner and Chief Education Officer for Birmingham and Oxfordshire

In capturing an education zeitgeist, this book provides teachers with a thoroughly engaging, much needed introductory guide to refer to when engaging with education research. I particularly like the fact that ethical issues are given precedence right at the beginning of the book. As the authors say, all too often ethical considerations can be given scant regard or seen as a procedural, box ticking exercise when conducting research. Yet by foregrounding its importance, Phil and Joan are developing a crucial, ethical awareness in the reader from the outset of the book. Practising what they preach and starting as they mean to go on! This is a book well worth reading for any teacher thinking about dipping their toe in the education research waters or even those who simply want to find out more about the subject.

Dr Matt O’Leary, Reader in Education, Centre for the Study of Practice and Culture in Education (CSPACE), Birmingham City University

Educational Research provides an engaging insight into research principles, methods and frameworks. Every step of the research process is clearly presented: from the design of surveys and questionnaires and getting the most out of interviews, all the way to thinking about how best to analyse and present your data.

Importantly, Wood and Smith have placed ethics at the heart of this book. The principles of honesty, transparency and care underpin every stage of the research process as they describe it. Crafting any educational research project using Educational Research will set you on the path to results that are credible, fairer and more robust.

So, this book is a goldmine for any teacher who regularly asks themselves, ‘What changes do I want or need to see?’, ‘How will I bring these about?’ and ‘What will I try then?’ The delight of this book is that it also gives us an answer to the final impact question, ‘…and how will I truly know it’s made a difference?’ Packed with practical tools, examples and reflective questions, Educational Research will add to and expand the research repertoire of every classroom teacher.

So simply open up the first page and get started.

Zoë Elder, Executive Director, Clevedon Learning Hub, independent education consultant, author of Full On Learning

This book is well-structured and considers all the main points first-time researchers need to consider. The examples are particularly beneficial for students studying short research modules, as seen on our PGCE course, and the section on ethics provides simple, clear explanations of the important aspects to consider. I would certainly recommend this to students I am teaching and supervising as an accessible introduction into this aspect of academic writing.

Jenny Fogarty, Senior Lecturer, Division of Education, London South Bank University

Phil Wood and Joan Smith have written a neat guide to educational research which will contribute nicely to the burgeoning research-in-education business. Wood and Smith demonstrate with utter clarity that undertaking your own research is a complicated business. What I like most is their acknowledgement that educational research should ‘always be understood and utilised through the filter of professional values and judgement’. Educational Research explains the nuances of research and will prove an invaluable guide for anyone on the verge of engaging in developing an evidence-informed approach to teaching.

John Tomsett, Head Teacher, Huntington School, York

Educational Research summarises all the areas for a new researcher to consider. It is a very accessible resource, not only because of the way it is written but also because of the examples and case studies which the authors provide. These show the complexity and also the rewards of undertaking research. Particularly helpful are the summaries of other key books on research.

Mary Myatt, school adviser and blogger marymyatt.com

Following a 30-year career as an educational practitioner, I embarked on a professional doctorate in 2010. I really wish this book had been available then! It is a comprehensive, clear and accessible guide to how to conduct research, particularly single, small-scale projects, in a responsible and rigorous way.

The readable style and accessible language reflect the book’s intended audience of professionals, rather than the academic community. The key message is communicated in a compelling way – the importance of being ‘positively critical’, of avoiding bias and ensuring ethical principles underpin all stages of the research process. Wood and Smith argue convincingly that the best way to develop research literacy is to conduct your own research. This book will help you to do so in a way which is informed and robust. My only complaint is the timing of the publication of the book – just as I submit my doctoral thesis …

Jill Berry, former head teacher, educational consultant and researcher

Educational Research

Taking the Plunge

Phil Wood and Joan Smith

In memory of Kathleen Smith

(1926–2015).

Contents

Title PageDedication1.What is research?IntroductionWhat are some of the foundations of good educational research?The interdisciplinary nature of educational researchBecoming research literateIntroduction to the remaining chapters2. Ethical issues in educational researchIntroductionBasic principles of ethical researchConsentHonestyCareManaging researcher biasManaging researcher bias in the research designManaging researcher bias in data collectionManaging researcher bias in organising and analysing dataManaging researcher bias in reporting findingsSummary3. Critical reading and writingIntroductionWhat do we mean by ‘criticality’?Critical thinking, writing and friendshipCritical reading and writing in your researchTheoretical frameworkDiscussion and analysis of findingsWriting clearly and criticallyAvoid jargon and convoluted languageCheck your grammarMake sure each paragraph communicates a key pointMatch subheadings to contentEliminate overstatement and redundant phrasesBe your own editorSummary4. Thinking about the basicsIntroductionInterestsContextResearch questionsSummary5. Worldviews and methodologiesIntroductionGrappling with the philosophy of researchOntologyEpistemologyWorldviewsMethodologiesAction researchSurveysCase studiesExperimental methodologiesMixed methodsSummary6. Considering data captureIntroductionSamplingProbability samplingNonprobability samplingData collectionQuestionnairesInterviewsObservationsVisual methodsSummary7. Thinking about dataIntroductionValidity and reliabilityAnalysing dataQuantitative data analysisTypes of quantitative dataWorked example of some basic descriptive statisticsQualitative data analysisExtract from interview with CoralSummary8. Developing small-scale researchIntroductionSummaryAppendix 1: Developing your understanding of research methods – suggested further readingAppendix 2: Exemplar research ethics consent formReferencesIndexCopyright

Chapter 1

What is research?

Introduction

Since 2010 there has been an increasingly wide interest in the role of research in education, particularly in schools. Initially this interest tended to emphasise the idea of uncovering ‘what works’ in classrooms. Such an approach is not surprising as there is a ready appeal in seeing research as a medium for ‘solving’ issues in schools, and particularly in classrooms. The impression can be given that research will ultimately lead to a recipe book from which we can find the ‘correct’ ways to teach or ensure good behaviour in lessons. However, research is a complex process which can be approached in many different ways to offer insights into a very wide range of questions. We argue that research can play an important role in offering ideas and insights into educational issues, but it should always be understood and utilised through the filter of professional values and judgement; it should never be seen as a recipe book to be slavishly followed.

In 1983, Donald Schon wrote The Reflective Practitioner, which was an argument for positioning reflective practice at the centre of teacher work. He identified two forms of reflection:

Reflection in action: The ability we develop within our own practice which focuses on our constant assessment about what we’re doing as we do it. When we assess that something is not working, we use our experience and knowledge to alter activity in the moment. This often occurs when something out of the ordinary happens, giving us a reason to alter our practice as the event or activity unfolds.Reflection on action: This is based on describing, analysing, reviewing and evaluating practice beyond the immediacy of the classroom to gain a deeper understanding of our work, particularly to help identify areas for improvement in the future.

Reflective practice has become an important activity which teachers are expected to undertake to improve their pedagogy. Whilst valuable, these activities predominantly rely on individual perception. There is little to ensure that what we think is an answer to our developmental needs is indeed as we see it, as our own biases and perceptions can give us a very partial view of the challenge or issue we are facing. If we decide we want to gain more structured, and possibly less biased, insights from our reflections as a way of interrogating our own perceptions, or if we want to engage with evidence from beyond our immediate classroom experience, then we are beginning to move from a reflective process to one of research.

In writing this book, we have two main aims in mind:

To introduce some of the basic concepts and knowledge underlying an understanding of research. This is important as research has a specialist language all of its own. To engage with and critique research we need to be able to understand how and why a piece of research has been developed in the way it has.To provide some basic frameworks for developing your own small-scale research projects. As we will demonstrate later in this chapter, we believe that one of the best ways to deepen your understanding of research is to carry out your own!

We will therefore blend together discussion of some of the main concepts and knowledge concerning educational research with some basic frameworks and approaches for completing your own projects.

What are some of the foundations of good educational research?

If research is not synonymous with professional reflection, we need to try to define what it is and what some of the basic features of good research might be. There is no single, accepted definition of research across all subjects (more on that later), and even within education there are a large number of different approaches and traditions which understand research in different ways. Below we offer a definition merely as a starting point to aid discussion of what good research might include:

The systematic investigation into, and study of, materials, sources, situations and people in order to explore and understand identified issues with the aim of reaching new insights.

This definition highlights the central notion that all research should be, in some way, systematic. But what do we mean by ‘systematic’? We take this to mean that the work being undertaken has included some form of thoughtful planning, orientated around a clear focus and with a logical set of activities planned out to capture ‘data’. The research activities which are developed will vary widely depending on the focus of the research. One researcher might be interested in a historic question which requires a lot of work with documents, whilst another may be interested in classroom practice requiring very different, and perhaps multiple, tools. Each research project requires careful consideration of how and why data are collected, and the underlying assumptions on which the research is based.

Research is about exploring and understanding issues. As such, it should not be seen as a linear endeavour that automatically provides continuous improvements to practice. Research can lead to results which are unexpected (often seen as ‘negative’) or find little evidence of change or improvement. In either case, the research should not be seen as a failure; all insights are important, and frequently it is research which turns out to be counter-intuitive that leads to new, interesting questions and foci for further work. To ensure we don’t attempt to second-guess and produce insights which fit with our preconceptions, we need to develop logical and carefully considered approaches to research – approaches which we will eventually share transparently with others. The full disclosure of our research approaches when reporting is crucial so that readers can fairly critique and engage with our work. Much of the research in education will add to our understanding of practical issues, but rarely, if ever, will it give us absolute truths or laws. This is why we suggest that research can help us to gain new insights, but it rarely leads to solid, universal conclusions.

From this consideration of the nature of research, we will outline what we think are the features of good research in education. These principles underlie our discussion of research methods throughout this book:

Focuses on a definable issue or problem. Research needs to be focused on a clear area for exploration. If it is too broad it becomes unwieldy which makes it difficult to collect meaningful data. In attempting to develop a coherent focus for research, the appropriate use of research questions is extremely important.Emphasises an ethical approach. All research in education should be developed with the explicit understanding that it should be an ethical process. The vast majority of research in this field includes human participants in some way. Our research should always protect the well-being and dignity of both participants and researchers. This is often the stated purpose of research ethics, the ‘legal’ aspects of which are the primary focus of review panels. However, we stress that ethical research should also focus on the need for honest and transparent reporting so that work can be read critically and fairly by peers. This includes the reporting of research approaches, any conflicts of interest and the context of the research. It also requires that when we rely on the work of others, we reference them fully so that they are given due recognition for their work.Gives a clear outline of the context of research. The process of education is highly complex. Therefore, when writing about research it is always important to give readers a clear context (albeit anonymised). If a small-scale study is completed with a class of 12- and 13-year-olds in an inner-city school composed predominantly of more able students, then it is essential that the reader has this information so they can understand the context of the data gained. This also allows the reader to consider the degree of relevance of the research to their own situation. It is a central part of honest and transparent reporting and educational debate.Uses research literature to inform the research design. The vast majority of research builds on work already done. It is important to begin to gain an understanding of the research which has been published previously in an area of interest. We need to be good at reading and assessing research so that we can judge the degree of evidence on which we might build our own work.Gives a clear outline/discussion of the methodology and methods which have been used to collect data. Ethical research should make the methodology and methods which have been used to collect data transparent. Readers need to know how our research has been carried out as this is crucial to being able to interpret the data, and therefore engage critically with any claims that are made. By explaining decisions concerning preferred methodologies we give an insight into the way the research is positioned and the nature of the claims made. An account of the data collection tools (methods) used is equally important for the same reasons. If a study has used interviews, are the questions reported so that we can judge the level of neutrality? Where observations are used, is the focus and method of data capture explained? If these issues are not thought through and reported then a considered, critical reading of the research cannot be achieved. Where research occurs at a meta-level – for example, through the use of literature reviews – it should include a methodology outlining the search criteria, filtering processes and how publications have been analysed. If a literature review merely presents an area of research with no methodology, it needs to be read with caution as we have no way of assessing its validity.Uses appropriate methods which clearly link back to the initial issues/problems and research questions. Well-conceived research will be able to make clear how particular methods help in investigating the chosen issues/research questions; this gives the research coherence.Analyses collected data in a transparent way. In the same way as it is important to carefully consider the reporting of methodology and methods, so it is with analysing the data which have been collected. Analysis is often not considered to the same level of detail as methodology and data collection, but it is crucial in ensuring a reasoned and valid consideration of the data, particularly when trying to minimise biases and the selective use of data. To make the process transparent, it is again important to report how data have been analysed.Develops explanations and discussion derived from the data. Good research develops a clear discussion of the data collected. This is at the centre of reporting research, in the same way as it is when the interpretation of the project is developed. It is crucial that explanations emerge from the data provided and are not dissonant with the evidence. In addition, the discussion of the data should be related to the literature with which you have engaged and which is the foundation on which the research study rests.Offers measured insights/conclusions. Good research is measured in the claims made. Small-scale research cannot easily make claims which can be scaled up; in other words, an analysis of one cycle of action research focusing on, for example, improving questioning practices in one class, cannot act as the basis for national policy. However, small-scale research can still provide valuable insights for practitioners by providing useful information as to where good practice might be found. Within large-scale research, projects often rely on quantitative analyses. Insights here tend to be based on statistical manipulations which offer a constructive exploration of patterns and trends. However, in-depth explanations are sometimes more problematic as this type of research is more likely to provide answers to the ‘what’ rather than the ‘why’.

All research has potential shortcomings because no approach is perfect or has all of the answers in a particular area of interest. Often, deep insights occur through the long-term application of a number of qualitative and quantitative approaches which augment understanding and give progressively fuller and more critical perspectives on an issue.

The interdisciplinary nature of educational research

Many academic disciplines have a generally well-understood and accepted philosophical approach to investigation and knowledge generation. As a result, they do not make their philosophical underpinnings an explicit element of training; the underpinning assumptions of what constitutes knowledge and how it is ‘found’ are more often implicit in the research methods. However, education is not a discipline – it is interdisciplinary (see Figure 1.1). This means that education as an area for enquiry is impacted on by different disciplinary perspectives which overlap.

Figure 1.1. Education as an interdisciplinary field – many disciplines converge on educational interests.

This is perhaps what leads to debates about, and sometimes denunciations of, different methodological approaches within educational research. However, it is important when engaging with research in education that we attempt to understand and embrace these different views of knowledge and the methodologies which emerge. It is by developing an understanding of these different perspectives that we can begin to positively engage with and critique the work of others. In this sense, being ‘positively critical’ means to understand and engage with research from other philosophical traditions, even if our own beliefs are quite different. In the long run we may attach less importance to such work, or even discount particular perspectives, but by widening our horizons and developing multiple perspectives our thinking will be more informed and rigorous.

Becoming research literate

Research methods is an area of rich conceptual and knowledge content. This means that to develop a deep, critical understanding takes time and involves a great deal of sustained effort. To read and engage with research at a critical level requires a level of research literacy – that is, the ability to understand the positioning of research, the assumptions underpinning it and how this has influenced the resultant change. We argue that to develop a good level of research literacy requires three elements (summarised in Figure 1.2):

Knowledge. A working knowledge of research methods, from philosophical traditions/foundations to the practicalities of research design, is crucial for understanding both others’ research and also for developing our own research projects. Without any knowledge we are at serious risk of producing poorly designed and, hence, unreliable and invalid research. When reading research, a lack of knowledge also leads to an inability to assess the degree to which we are able to trust research outputs.Threshold concepts. The theory of threshold concepts has become increasingly popular in higher education research since Meyer and Land popularised the idea in the early 2000s (see Meyer and Land, 2003). It rests on the notion that disciplines have particular conceptual frameworks and that some of the concepts involved are central and transformatory to our understanding. However, these concepts are often hard to understand well and may take much time and effort to engage with deeply. Research methods is no exception. Some of the concepts which are central to gaining a critical understanding of research methods include ontology, sampling and methodology, to name just a few. We therefore need to spend time developing our understanding of these ideas if we are to engage critically with the work of others and develop our own research projects.Application. Developing and carrying out research projects is not a pursuit for everyone. We don’t believe that primary research activity is necessary for all educators, even if individuals are keen to develop their research literacy. However, the development of small-scale research can have advantages for developing a wider research literacy. Firstly, undertaking small-scale research is an experiential learning process in its own right, requiring us to understand how some of the concepts and knowledge we might have read about actually come together to form a process of investigation. To read about research allows for a good level of theoretical understanding, but to try it out gives us a deeper perception. It also leads to another important aspect of application – that of gaining insight into the complexities of decision-making, development and the messiness of research as a ‘live’ activity. By applying some of our emerging understanding, we can build a more critical and nuanced perspective when reading the work of others.