Electric Powertrain E-Book

John G. Hayes

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 728

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

The why, what and how of the electric vehicle powertrain

Empowers engineering professionals and students with the knowledge and skills required to engineer electric vehicle powertrain architectures, energy storage systems, power electronics converters and electric drives.

The modern electric powertrain is relatively new for the automotive industry, and engineers are challenged with designing affordable, efficient and high-performance electric powertrains as the industry undergoes a technological evolution. Co-authored by two electric vehicle (EV) engineers with decades of experience designing and putting into production all of the powertrain technologies presented, this book provides readers with the hands-on knowledge, skills and expertise they need to rise to that challenge.

This four-part practical guide provides a comprehensive review of battery, hybrid and fuel cell EV systems and the associated energy sources, power electronics, machines, and drives.

• Introduces and holistically integrates the key EV powertrain technologies.
• Provides a comprehensive overview of existing and emerging automotive solutions.
• Provides experience-based expertise for vehicular and powertrain system and sub-system level study, design, and optimization.
• Presents many examples of powertrain technologies from leading manufacturers.
• Discusses the dc traction machines of the Mars rovers, the ultimate EVs from NASA.
• Investigates the environmental motivating factors and impacts of electromobility.
• Presents a structured university teaching stream from introductory undergraduate to postgraduate.
• Includes real-world problems and assignments of use to design engineers, researchers, and students alike.
• Features a companion website with numerous references, problems, solutions, and practical assignments.
• Includes introductory material throughout the book for the general scientific reader.
• Contains essential reading for government regulators and policy makers.

Electric Powertrain: Energy Systems, Power Electronics and Drives for Hybrid, Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles is an important professional resource for practitioners and researchers in the battery, hybrid, and fuel cell EV transportation industry. The resource is a structured, holistic textbook for the teaching of the fundamental theories and applications of energy sources, power electronics, and electric machines and drives to engineering undergraduate and postgraduate students.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Preface

Acknowledgments

Textbook Structure and Suggested Teaching Curriculum

About the Companion Web Site

Part 1: Vehicles and Energy Sources

1 Electromobility and the Environment

1.1 A Brief History of the Electric Powertrain

1.2 Energy Sources for Propulsion and Emissions

1.3 The Advent of Regulations

1.4 Drive Cycles

1.5 BEV Fuel Consumption, Range, and mpge

1.6 Carbon Emissions for Conventional and Electric Powertrains

1.7 An Overview of Conventional, Battery, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Electric Systems

1.8 A Comparison of Automotive and Other Transportation Technologies

References

Further Reading

Problems

Assignments

2 Vehicle Dynamics

2.1 Vehicle Load Forces

2.2 Vehicle Acceleration

2.3 Simple Drive Cycle for Vehicle Comparisons

References

Further Reading

Problems

Sample MATLAB Code

Assignment: Modeling of a BEV

3 Batteries

3.1 Introduction to Batteries

3.2 Lifetime and Sizing Considerations

3.3 Battery Charging, Protection, and Management Systems

3.4 Battery Models

3.5 Example: The Fuel Economy of a BEV Vehicle with a Fixed Gear Ratio

References

Further Reading

Problems

Appendix: A Simplified Curve‐Fit Model for BEV Batteries

4 Fuel Cells

4.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells

4.2 Basic Operation

4.3 Sizing the Fuel Cell Plant

4.4 Fuel Cell Aging

4.5 Example: Sizing Fuel Cell System for Heavy Goods Tractor–Trailer Combination

4.6 Example: Fuel Economy of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle

References

Problems

Assignments

5 Conventional and Hybrid Powertrains

5.1 Introduction to HEVs

5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

5.3 Comparative Examples of Conventional, Series, and Series‐Parallel Hybrid Systems

5.4 The Planetary Gears as a Power‐Split Device

References

Problems

Assignments

Advisor 2.0

MATLAB Code for BSFC Map for 1997 Toyota Prius

Part 2: Electrical Machines

6 Introduction to Traction Machines

6.1 Propulsion Machine Overview

6.2 Machine Specifications

6.3 Characteristic Curves of a Machine

6.4 Conversion Factors of Machine Units

References

7 The Brushed DC Machine

7.1 DC Machine Structure

7.2 DC Machine Electrical Equivalent Circuit

7.3 DC Machine Circuit Equations

7.4 Power, Losses, and Efficiency in the PM DC Machine

7.5 Machine Control using Power Electronics

7.6 Machine Operating as a Motor or Generator in Forward or Reverse Modes

7.7 Saturation and Armature Reaction

7.8 Using PM DC Machine for EV Powertrain

7.9 Using WF DC Machine for EV Powertrain

7.10 Case Study – Mars Rover Traction Machine

7.11 Thermal Characteristics of Machine

References

Problems

8 Induction Machines

8.1 Stator Windings and the Spinning Magnetic Field

8.2 Induction Machine Rotor Voltage, Current, and Torque

8.3 Machine Model and Steady‐State Operation

8.4 Variable‐Speed Operation of Induction Machine

8.5 Machine Test

References

Further Reading

Problems

Sample MATLAB Code

9 Surface‐Permanent‐Magnet AC Machines

9.1 Basic Operation of SPM Machines

9.2 Per‐Phase Analysis of SPM Machine

References

Further Reading

Problems

MATLAB Code

10 Interior‐Permanent‐Magnet AC Machine

10.1 Machine Structure and Torque Equations

10.2

d‐

and

q

‐Axis Inductances

10.3 IPM Machine Test

10.4 Basic Theory and Low‐Speed Operation

10.5 High‐Speed Operation of IPM Machine

10.6 dq Modeling of Machines

References

Further Reading

Problems

Assignments

Part 3: Power Electronics

11 DC‐DC Converters

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Power Conversion – Common and Basic Principles

11.3 The Buck or Step‐Down Converter

11.4 The Boost or Step‐up Converter

11.5 Power Semiconductors

11.6 Passive Components for Power Converters

11.7 Interleaving

References

Further Reading

Problems

Assignments

Appendix I

Appendix II: Buck‐Boost Converter

12 Isolated DC‐DC Converters

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Forward Converter

12.3 The Full‐Bridge Converter

12.4 Resonant Power Conversion

References

Further Reading

Problems

Assignments

Appendix I: RMS and Average Values of Ramp and Step Waveforms

Appendix II: Flyback Converter

13 Traction Drives and Three‐Phase Inverters

13.1 Three‐Phase Inverters

13.2 Modulation Schemes

13.3 Sinusoidal Modulation

13.4 Inverter Power Loss

References

Further Reading

Problems

Assignments

14 Battery Charging

14.1 Basic Requirements for Charging System

14.2 Charger Architectures

14.3 Grid Voltages, Frequencies, and Wiring

14.4 Charger Functions

14.5 Charging Standards and Technologies

14.6 The Boost Converter for Power Factor Correction

References

Further Reading

Problems

Assignments

15 Control of the Electric Drive

15.1 Introduction to Control

15.2 Modeling the Electromechanical System

15.3 Designing Torque Loop Compensation

15.4 Designing Speed Control Loop Compensation

15.5 Acceleration of Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) using PM DC Machine

15.6 Acceleration of BEV using WF DC Machine

References

Problems

Assignment and Sample MATLAB Codes

Part 4: Electromagnetism

16 Introduction to Electromagnetism, Ferromagnetism, and Electromechanical Energy Conversion

16.1 Electromagnetism

16.2 Ferromagnetism

16.3 Self‐Inductance

16.4 Hard Ferromagnetic Materials and Permanent Magnets

16.5 The Transformer

16.6 The Capacitor

16.7 Electromechanical Energy Conversion

References

Further Reading

Further Viewing

Problems

Assignments

Reference Conversion Table

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 01

Table 1.1 Energy and carbon content of various fuels.

Table 1.2 Timeline of vehicle‐related developments in California.

Table 1.3 Drive cycle parameters.

Table 1.4 EPA data on 2017 Toyota Prius Eco emissions and fuel economy.

Table 1.5 EPA data on 2015 Mercedes‐Benz ML250 BlueTEC 4MATIC emissions and fuel economy.

Table 1.6 Comparison of conventional gasoline, diesel, hybrid‐electric and battery‐electric vehicles.

Table 1.7 2015 Nissan Leaf test results.

Table 1.8 Fuel economy, upstream carbon emissions, and range for various 2015–2017 vehicles (based on 2017 data).

Table 1.9 Drivetrain efficiency comparison.

Table 1.10 Drivetrain case study comparison.

Chapter 02

Table 2.1 Vehicle specifications.

Table 2.2 2015 Nissan Leaf coast‐down coefficients in US and metric units.

Table 2.3 Vehicle road power and energy consumption examples.

Table 2.4 Incline angles and grade.

Table 2.5 Simplified characteristics for 2015 Nissan Leaf traction motor.

Chapter 03

Table 3.1 Representative battery cell and pack parameters for various vehicles.

Table 3.2 Cell parameters for various batteries.

Table 3.3 Approximate cell, module, and pack parameters for the 2011 Nissan Leaf [3,4].

Table 3.4 Representative parameters for various batteries.

Table 3.5 Curve‐fitting coordinates for 33.3 Ah cell.

Table 3.6 Curve‐fitting parameters for 33.3 Ah cell.

Table 3.7 Estimations of various quantities for the 33.3 Ah Li‐ion cell.

Table 3.8 Results for simplified drive cycle using a BEV.

Chapter 04

Table 4.1 Various safety factors for different fuels.

Table 4.2 Cell parameters for a PEM fuel cell.

Table 4.3 Fuel cell parameters.

Table 4.4 Results for drive cycle using an FCEV.

Chapter 05

Table 5.1 Test vehicle gear ratios.

Table 5.2 Drive cycle operation for SI and CI engines.

Table 5.3 Results for drive cycle using gasoline engine.

Table 5.4 Results for drive cycle using diesel engine.

Table 5.5 Series HEV simplified drive cycle results.

Table 5.6 Series‐parallel HEV simplified drive cycle results.

Table 5.7 Drive train comparison.

Table 5.8 Gearing for CVT of 2004 Toyota Prius.

Chapter 06

Table 6.1 A comparison of various traction machines.

Table 6.2 Machine quadrants.

Chapter 07

Table 7.1 Maxon 24 V PM

DC MACHINE

, part no. 339152.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 DC test summary for 2004 Toyota Prius motor [1].

Table 10.2 DC current test summary for 2007 Camry [2].

Table 10.3 DC current test summary for 2010 Toyota Prius motor [3].

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Switch and diode conduction.

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 SAE J1772 levels

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Sample hard and soft magnetic materials.

Table 16.2 Ferromagnetic metals in the periodic table.

Table 16.3 Properties of sample soft magnetic materials.

Table 16.4 Magnetization curve and relative permeability data for silicon steel core.

Table 16.5 Magnetization curve and relative permeability for silicon steel core.

Table 16.6 Inductor parameters.

Table 16.7 Copper skin depth at 25 °C.

Table 16.8 Rare earth materials in the periodic table.

Table 16.9 Sample permanent magnetic materials from Hitachi Metals.

Table 16.10 Unit conversions for magnetic quantities.

Table 16.11 Inductor parameters.

Table A.1 Conversions from commonly used US and Imperial units to metric units.

textbook

Table I Book content and related teaching.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 AC Propulsion tzero.

Figure 1.2 Chevy Bolt.

Figure 1.3 Battery and propulsion system of a stripped‐down Chevy Bolt.

Figure 1.4 Global trends in gCO

2

/km (left axis) and L/100 km (right axis) normalized to NEDC.

Figure 1.5 Euro III to VI for heavy‐duty diesel engines.

Figure 1.6 EPA drive cycles.

Figure 1.7 Conventional vehicle architecture and energy flow.

Figure 1.8 BEV architecture and energy flow.

Figure 1.9 Series HEV architecture and energy flow.

Figure 1.10 Parallel HEV architecture and energy flow.

Figure 1.11 Series‐parallel HEV architecture and energy flow.

Figure 1.12 FCEV architecture and energy flow.

Figure 1.13 Fuel consumption per kilometer per tonne [liter/km/tonne].

Figure 1.14 Power‐to‐weight ratio for various transportation options in kW/tonne.

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Vehicle load forces.

Figure 2.2 Road‐load forces for various vehicles.

Figure 2.3 Road‐load power for various vehicles.

Figure 2.4 Plot of high‐performance BEV range at constant cruising speed.

Figure 2.5 Nissan Leaf vehicle road‐load power versus speed for various slopes.

Figure 2.6 Vehicle (a) motoring and (b) regenerating.

Figure 2.7 Nissan Leaf nominal power and torque characteristics.

Figure 2.8 Acceleration profile for Nissan Leaf modeled with road load.

Figure 2.9 Simplified vehicle powertrain.

Figure 2.10 Simple drive cycle.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 (a) Battery symbol; batteries in (b) series, (c) parallel, and (d) series‐parallel.

Figure 3.2 Battery pack of Chevy Bolt.

Figure 3.3 Simplified battery cell.

Figure 3.4 Cell, module, and battery pack for 2011 Nissan Leaf [3].

Figure 3.5 Representative discharges curves for a 33.3 Ah Li‐ion cell.

Figure 3.6 Representative charge\discharge cycles and capacity versus cell float voltage for Li‐ion battery.

Figure 3.7 Charge\discharge cycles versus depth of discharge (DOD).

Figure 3.8 2013 Ford Focus BEV voltage versus capacity discharged during the static discharge test at a C/3 rate.

Figure 3.9 2013 Chevy Volt PHEV voltage versus capacity discharged during the static discharge test at a 10 kW rate.

Figure 3.10 Li‐ion charge profile.

Figure 3.11 Discharge curves for Li‐ion cell with polarization regions outlined.

Figure 3.12 Static battery equivalent circuit model.

Figure 3.13 Discharge curves for (a) 33.3 Ah cell and (b) simulation.

Figure 3.14 (a) 33.3 Ah cell voltage versus DOD and (b) pack power versus DOD for 192 33.3 Ah cells.

Figure 3.15 Series‐parallel battery pack equivalent circuits.

Figure 3.16 Cell discharge curves for HEV operation.

Figure 3.17 Simulated charge curves for the 33.3 Ah cell.

Figure 3.18 Simple battery model.

Figure 3.19 BEV architecture.

Figure 3.20 Representative discharge curves for a LiT 2.0 Ah battery cell.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 Electrochemical fuel cell.

Figure 4.2 Fuel cell polarization curve and power curve.

Figure 4.3 Fuel cell and plant efficiencies.

Figure 4.4 Automotive fuel cell and balance of plant.

Figure 4.5 Polarization curve for heavy‐duty automotive PEM fuel cell.

Figure 4.6 Fuel cell power plant voltage and power versus output current.

Figure 4.7 Fuel cell power plant efficiency and power versus output current.

Figure 4.8 Fuel cell vehicle architecture.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 Representative torque and efficiency characteristics for various powertrains.

Figure 5.2 BSFC map for 1997 Toyota Prius using data from [2].

Figure 5.3 1997 Toyota Prius Atkinson‐cycle SI engine characteristics for (a) fuel consumption and (b) efficiency.

Figure 5.4 BSFC map for GM Saturn 1.9 L SI IC engine using data from [2].

Figure 5.5 BSFC map for Mercedes 1.7 L CI IC engine using data from [2].

Figure 5.6 Conventional vehicle power flow.

Figure 5.7 Series HEV power flow.

Figure 5.8 Series‐parallel HEV.

Figure 5.9 Sun and planetary gearing system.

Figure 5.10 CVTs and gearings of 2010 Toyota Prius, 2004 Toyota Prius and 2007 Toyota Camry [3]. (Courtesy of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy.)

Figure 5.11 Series‐parallel HEV in electric‐only mode.

Figure 5.12 Series‐parallel HEV in full‐power mode.

Figure 5.13 Series‐parallel HEV in cruise and regenerative modes.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Toyota windshield wiper motor as an example of a conventional dc motor.

Figure 6.2 Stator of 2007 Toyota Camry hybrid electric vehicle motor [1].

Figure 6.3 The spinning magnetic field due to Tesla’s invention for various magnetic pole counts.

Figure 6.4 Sketches of (a) induction, (b) surface permanent‐magnet, (c) interior permanent‐magnet, and (d) reluctance machines.

Figure 6.5 Views of automotive powertrain induction motor (a) stator and (b) rotor.

Figure 6.6 Views of the IPM rotor from the 2007 Toyota Camry HEV motor [1].

Figure 6.7 Stator and rotor laminations of 2004 Toyota Prius motor.

Figure 6.8

Opportunity

Mars rover image and a self‐portrait from Mars.

Figure 6.9 Coreless dc motor.

Figure 6.10 Four‐quadrant torque versus speed.

Figure 6.11 Continuous and transient operation for the practical machine over all four quadrants.

Figure 6.12 Torque and power versus speed curves.

Figure 6.13 2010 Toyota Prius motor efficiency map [4].

Figure 6.14 2010 Toyota Prius inverter‐motor efficiency map [4].

Figure 6.15 Various machine temperatures For 2010 Toyota Prius HEV at 25 kW output, 3000 rpm, and 25°C coolant [4].

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Elementary dc machines.

Figure 7.2 Variation of brush voltage and torque with angle

θ

for a single turn

of a dc machine.

Figure 7.3 Equivalent circuit of dc motor (a) with a permanent magnet, (b) with an electromagnet, and (c) in steady state.

Figure 7.4 Series‐ and shunt‐wound machines.

Figure 7.5 First quadrant torque and power characteristic curves for a dc machine.

Figure 7.6 DC machine equivalent circuit motoring power flow.

Figure 7.7 DC motor electric drive: (a) dc‐dc converter and (b) full‐bridge dc‐dc converter.

Figure 7.8 Motoring and generating modes.

Figure 7.9 Dc machine equivalent circuit regenerating power flow.

Figure 7.10 Torque versus current for an industrial PM dc machine with and without saturation.

Figure 7.11 (a) Wound‐field (WF) dc and (b) permanent‐magnet (PM) dc machine power and torque characteristics.

Figure 7.12 Power and torque characteristic for (a) PM dc and (b) WF dc machines.

Figure 7.13 WF dc motor drive.

Figure 7.14 Output torque and power versus speed for Maxon 24 V motor.

Figure 7.15 Armature resistance versus current for graphite‐copper and precious‐metal brushes.

Figure 7.16 Thermal path for winding power loss.

Chapter 08

Figure 8.1 Machine stators for (a) 2007 Toyota Camry IPM motor, (b) USH induction machine, and (c) 2004 Toyota Prius stator lamination.

Figure 8.2 Three‐phase windings for an elementary three‐phase machine.

Figure 8.3 Star/wye and delta/mesh configurations of the stator windings.

Figure 8.4 Three‐phase motor electrical symbol.

Figure 8.5 Magnetic field due to phase

a

current.

Figure 8.6 Magnetic flux density due to current of phase

a

.

Figure 8.7 Elementary three‐phase two‐pole machine.

Figure 8.8 Magnetic flux densities for the phases and stator of the elementary three‐phase two‐pole machine.

Figure 8.9 Distributed windings for three‐phase two‐pole machines with (a) full pitch and (b) fractional pitch.

Figure 8.10 Magnetic flux densities for distributed windings with (a) full‐pitch and (b) fractional pitch.

Figure 8.11 Three‐phase currents.

Figure 8.12 Space vectors.

Figure 8.13 Automotive induction machine rotor with aluminum bars and end rings.

Figure 8.14 Lamination outline for a three‐phase four‐pole induction machine showing yokes, teeth, and slots of stator and rotor.

Figure 8.15 Three‐phase two‐pole induction motor: (a) axial view of stator and rotor and (b) side view of rotor.

Figure 8.16 Torque generation in the induction machine rotor coil.

Figure 8.17 Equivalent circuit of an induction machine with a spinning rotor.

Figure 8.18 Equivalent circuit of the induction machine.

Figure 8.19 Equivalent circuit of the induction machine showing the two rotor resistance components.

Figure 8.20 Equivalent circuit of induction machine showing power flow.

Figure 8.21 Plot of torque versus rotor speed and slip.

Figure 8.22 Characteristic curves for induction machine.

Figure 8.23 Phasor diagram of induction motor.

Figure 8.24 Phasor diagram of induction generator.

Figure 8.25 Simplified equivalent circuit model.

Figure 8.26 Simplified equivalent circuit model.

Figure 8.27 DC resistance test.

Figure 8.28 Per‐phase equivalent circuits for (a) regular operation, (b) locked‐rotor test, and (c) no‐load test.

Chapter 09

Figure 9.1 Simple single‐coil machine.

Figure 9.2 Back emf generated in coil.

Figure 9.3 Two‐coil machine.

Figure 9.4 Coil and phase voltages for phase

a

.

Figure 9.5 Simple three‐phase, two‐pole machine with two series coils per winding.

Figure 9.6 Coil back emfs and phase voltages.

Figure 9.7 Experimental waveforms for traction motor back emf for 2004 Toyota Prius THS II [2].

Figure 9.8 Sinusoidally distributed windings.

Figure 9.9 Experimental waveform of phase back emf from a sinusoidally distributed machine.

Figure 9.10 Per‐phase equivalent circuit models of SPM machine.

Figure 9.11

d

and

q

axes.

Figure 9.12 Phasor diagrams and equivalent circuit for SPM machine.

Figure 9.13 Plots of rotor torque and power versus speed for a constant supply voltage with torque limit.

Figure 9.14 SPM torque generation due to (a)

q

winding only, (b)

q

winding due to

d

winding, and (c)

d

winding due to

q

winding.

Figure 9.15 Phasor diagram for motoring during field weakening.

Figure 9.16 Characteristic plots for field‐weakened SPM machine without saturation.

Figure 9.17 Efficiency map for field‐weakened SPM machine.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Two elementary salient‐pole machines: (a–c)

L

md

>

L

mq

, (d–f)

L

md

<

L

mq

.

Figure 10.2 Elementary two‐pole, three‐phase IPM machine.

Figure 10.3 Elementary IPM machine showing flux patterns for (a) synchronous torque, (b)

d

‐axis, and (c)

q

‐axis.

Figure 10.4 2004 Toyota Prius traction motor stator and rotor iron laminations.

Figure 10.5

d

‐ and

q

‐axis flux patterns [7].

Figure 10.6 Simulated 2004 Toyota Prius motor

d‐

and

q

‐axis (a) inductances, and (b) flux linkages, generated using FEMM. [7].

Figure 10.7 Dynamometer setup for machine testing [5].

Figure 10.8 Phase rms voltage versus speed for 2004 Toyota Prius traction motor

Figure 10.9 IPM torque versus dc test setup.

Figure 10.10 Calculated currents versus torque components for 2004 Toyota Prius motor at 150 A.

Figure 10.11 Rotor torque versus angle plots for fixed dc currents for (a) experimental [1] and (b) simulated [7].

Figure 10.12 Per‐phase direct and quadrature equivalent circuits of IPM ac machine.

Figure 10.13 Phasor diagram for IPM ac machine in motoring mode with negative

I

ph,d

.

Figure 10.14

d

‐ and

q

‐axis representations.

Figure 10.15 Torque versus dc current for 2007 Toyota Camry [2].

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Power controller diagram for 2010 Toyota Prius [1].

Figure 11.2 Views of the 2010 Toyota Prius power control unit [1].

Figure 11.3 Views of boost and inverter silicon for the 2010 Toyota Prius [1].

Figure 11.4 (a) Voltage conversion from 14 V to 5 V and (b) linear converter.

Figure 11.5 Switch‐mode power converter.

Figure 11.6 Buck, boost, and buck‐boost converters.

Figure 11.7 Half‐bridge converter.

Figure 11.8 Buck or step‐down (a) converter and (b) pole voltage.

Figure 11.9 A buck converter with source and load filter components.

Figure 11.10 HEV bidirectional dc‐dc converter.

Figure 11.11 Buck CCM (a) pole voltage, (b) inductor voltage, and (c) inductor current.

Figure 11.12 Currents for (a) inductor, (b) transistor, (c) diode, (d) high‐voltage capacitor, and (e) low‐voltage capacitor.

Figure 11.13 Capacitor voltages (solid) and currents (dashed).

Figure 11.14 Buck BCM inductor current.

Figure 11.15 Buck BCM voltage and current waveforms.

Figure 11.16 Buck DCM pole voltage and inductor voltage and current.

Figure 11.17 Buck DCM operation voltage and current waveforms.

Figure 11.18 Switch current in DCM.

Figure 11.19 Boost or step‐up converter.

Figure 11.20 A boost converter with source and load filter components.

Figure 11.21 Boost CCM pole voltage and inductor voltage and current.

Figure 11.22 Boost CCM voltage and current waveforms.

Figure 11.23 Boost BCM voltage and current waveforms.

Figure 11.24 Boost DCM voltage and current waveforms.

Figure 11.25 (a) IGBT, (b) MOSFET, and half‐bridges with (c) generic switch and (d) IGBT switch.

Figure 11.26 Output characteristics of 600 V, 200 A (a‐b) IGBT and (c‐d) diode.

Figure 11.27 Switching losses for (a) IGBT and (b) diode at a test voltage of 300 V.

Figure 11.28 Thermal circuit model for heat flow from junction to heat sink.

Figure 11.29 Interleaved two‐phase boost converter.

Figure 11.30 Waveforms for two‐phase interleaved converter.

Figure 11.31 Energy losses at 125 °C for 1200 V, 300 A IGBT at a test voltage of 600 V.

Figure 11.32 Simulink buck model.

Figure 11.33 Simulation waveforms for a buck converter.

Figure 11.34 (a) Buck‐boost and (b) boost converters.

Figure 11.35 Buck‐boost converter.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Automotive auxiliary power converter for a Ford vehicle.

Figure 12.2 (a) Buck converter and (b) idealized forward converter.

Figure 12.3 Forward converter.

Figure 12.4 Forward converter CCM modes.

Figure 12.5 Output inductor waveforms for CCM forward converter.

Figure 12.6 Forward converter CCM waveforms.

Figure 12.7 Forward converter voltage waveforms.

Figure 12.8 Full‐bridge converters.

Figure 12.9 Gate voltages, switch configurations, primary voltage, and magnetizing current waveforms.

Figure 12.10 Full‐bridge converter CCM current waveforms.

Figure 12.11 Principal modes for hard‐switched full‐bridge converter with (a) center tap and (b) full‐bridge rectifier.

Figure 12.12 Inductive charging resonant topology.

Figure 12.13 Pole voltage and inductor, switch, and diode currents.

Figure 12.14 ZVS turn‐off of the switch.

Figure 12.15 Simplified equivalent circuit.

Figure 12.16 Simplified equivalent circuit.

Figure 12.17 Equivalent circuit at fundamental frequency.

Figure 12.18 Simplified inverter and rectifier waveforms.

Figure 12.19 Simple Simulink LCLC circuit model

Figure 12.20 Simple LCLC circuit model current waveforms.

Figure 12.21 Rms series inductor current and dc output current at output voltages of (a) 200 V and (b) 400 V.

Figure 12.22 Flyback converter.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Three‐phase inverter.

Figure 13.2 Sinusoidal (a) pole and (b) phase voltages.

Figure 13.3 (a) PWM inverter and (a) ac three‐phase circuit.

Figure 13.4 Phasor diagram showing phase and line voltages.

Figure 13.5 Sinusoidal phase voltages with third harmonic addition.

Figure 13.6 Single pole of the three‐phase inverter.

Figure 13.7 Three‐phase sinusoidal PWM patterns.

Figure 13.8 Three‐phase sinusoidal PWM patterns.

Figure 13.9 Per‐phase voltage and current.

Figure 13.10 Conduction and switching characteristic plots of 600 V, 600 A IGBT half‐bridge module (300 V test voltage).

Figure 13.11 Simulink inverter circuit.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Basic power block diagram for battery charging.

Figure 14.2 Conductive ac charging power block diagram.

Figure 14.3 Conductive dc charging power block diagram.

Figure 14.4 Wireless/inductive ac charging power block diagram.

Figure 14.5 Integral ac charging power block diagram.

Figure 14.6 Basic 230 V wiring system.

Figure 14.7 Basic 100/120 V wiring system.

Figure 14.8 Three‐phase 208 V system.

Figure 14.9 Low‐power charger.

Figure 14.10 (a) Input and (b) rectifier‐capacitor waveforms.

Figure 14.11 Automotive standard charger.

Figure 14.12 Power‐factor‐corrected waveforms: (a) input and (b) rectifier.

Figure 14.13 Conductive battery charging system.

Figure 14.14 (a) SAE J1772 Level 2 socket, (b) VDE‐AR‐E 2623‐2‐2 plug, and (c) VDE‐AR‐E 2623‐2‐2 plus SAE Combo socket.

Figure 14.15 CHAdeMO: (a) off‐board dc charger, (b) plug, and (c) on‐board socket.

Figure 14.16 Tesla plug adapters and charging plug.

Figure 14.17 EV1 coupler and vehicle inlet.

Figure 14.18 Automotive EV charger.

Figure 14.19 Boost PFC and waveforms.

Figure 14.20 Representative 600 V, 15 A MOSFET and SiC diode conduction characteristics.

Figure 14.21 Representative 600 V, 15 A MOSFET (and SiC diode) turn‐on and turn‐off switching losses at 125°C and a test voltage of 380 V

dc

.

Figure 14.22 Representative 600 V, 30 A MOSFET (and SiC diode) Turn‐on and turn‐off energy curves at 380 V

dc

.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Control block diagram.

Figure 15.2 Simulink model of electric vehicle (EV) with PM dc drive.

Figure 15.3 Simulink model of mechanical system.

Figure 15.4 Simulink model of dc machine.

Figure 15.5 PI controller.

Figure 15.6 PM dc drive simulation outputs.

Figure 15.7 Simulink model of WF dc drive.

Figure 15.8 Simulink model of WF dc machine.

Figure 15.9 WF dc drive simulation scope outputs.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Closed contour of magnetic field strength

H

around conductor of current

I

.

Figure 16.2 Right hand rule.

Figure 16.3 Flux and surface vectors.

Figure 16.4 Surface and flux.

Figure 16.5 Various ferromagnetic core shapes.

Figure 16.6 (a) Disassembled and (b) assembled magnetic device [2].

Figure 16.7 Stator of 2007 Toyota Camry hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) traction motor [3].

Figure 16.8 Nested

B‐H

curves or hysteresis loops.

Figure 16.9 Hysteresis loop.

Figure 16.10 Magnetization curve.

Figure 16.11 Magnetization curve and relative permeability for silicon steel core.

Figure 16.12 A selection of power inductors.

Figure 16.13 Inductor symbol.

Figure 16.14 Elementary gapped toroidal inductor.

Figure 16.15 Variation of flux density and inductance with exciting current.

Figure 16.16 Gapless toroidal inductor.

Figure 16.17 Magnetic circuit.

Figure 16.18 Magnetic circuit with core reluctance and two air gaps in series.

Figure 16.19 Eddy currents in a laminated toroid.

Figure 16.20 Inductor with core loss.

Figure 16.21 Inductor with core and copper loss.

Figure 16.22 Top and side views of CC‐core inductor.

Figure 16.23 Conductors: (a) solid with dc, (b) solid with ac, and (c) litz.

Figure 16.24 (a) Intrinsic and (b) normal hysteresis loops for hard material.

Figure 16.25 Hysteresis loops for 2010 Toyota Camry traction motor permanent magnets at 114 °C [3].

Figure 16.26 Magnet recoil characteristics.

Figure 16.27 Magnet operating points.

Figure 16.28 Simplified diagram showing the magnetic materials of a permanent‐magnet dc machine.

Figure 16.29 BH energy product and the recoil line.

Figure 16.30 A horseshoe‐shaped magnet lifting an iron bar.

Figure 16.31 Elementary machine with electromagnet.

Figure 16.32 (a) Inductor and (b) transformer operation.

Figure 16.33 Polarity and dot convention.

Figure 16.34 Leakage flux.

Figure 16.35 Transformer model.

Figure 16.36 Full equivalent circuit.

Figure 16.37 Transformer equivalent circuit without leakage inductances or resistive losses.

Figure 16.38 (a) Sinusoidal and (b) square wave voltage sources and resulting magnetizing currents.

Figure 16.39 Transformer currents.

Figure 16.40 Elementary capacitor.

Figure 16.41 Images of electrolytics, film, and

X

and

Y

caps.

Figure 16.42 Fleming’s left hand rule.

Figure 16.43 Interaction of field resulting in motion.

Figure 16.44 Elementary dc machine.

Figure 16.45 Flux density and flux linkage distributions of the elementary dc machine.

Figure 16.46 Fleming left and right hand rules.

Guide

Cover

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Electric Powertrain

Energy Systems, Power Electronics and Drives for Hybrid, Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles

John G. HayesUniversity College Cork, Ireland

G. Abas GoodarziUS Hybrid, California, USA

This edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of John G. Hayes and G. Abas Goodarzi, to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered Office(s)John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Hayes, John G., 1964– author. | Goodarzi, G. Abas, author.Title: Electric powertrain : energy systems, power electronics and drives for hybrid, electric and fuel cell vehicles / by John G. Hayes, G. Abas Goodarzi.Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2017029458 (print) | LCCN 2017043878 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119063667 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119063674 (epub) | ISBN 9781119063643 (cloth)Subjects: LCSH: Electric vehicles–Power supply. | Hybrid electric vehicles–Power trains. | Power electronics.Classification: LCC TL220 (ebook) | LCC TL220 .H39 2018 (print) | DDC 629.25/02–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017029458

Cover Design: WileyCover Images: (Bus) Image supplied by G. Abas Goodarzi; (Concept Car) © ‐M‐I‐S‐H‐A‐/iStockphoto; (Mars Rover) © NASA

To all who have contributed to the electrification of the automobile for a cleaner, more sustainable future.

Preface

“The scientific man does not aim at an immediate result. He does not expect that his advanced ideas will be readily taken up. His work is like that of the planter – for the future. His duty is to lay the foundation for those who are to come, and point the way.” Nikola Tesla (1856–1943).

“An inventor is simply a fellow who doesn't take his education too seriously.” Charles Kettering (1876–1958)

“A problem well stated is a problem half‐solved.” Charles Kettering.

This book describes a technological evolution that has major implications around the globe. The objective of this book is to provide the theory behind electric vehicles and insight on the factors motivating the global adoption of these technologies. The story told in the book is largely based on technologies originally developed in Detroit, California, and Japan. However, these technologies are spreading rapidly around the world, having been embraced by German, French, Chinese, and Korean and other global manufacturers. While the car is changing, it is worth noting that the foundations of the modern car are anything but new; vehicular technology and electrical machines are products of the nineteenth century, while semiconductors, lithium‐ion batteries, and PEM fuel cells are products of the twentieth century. These technologies are significantly impacting transportation in the early twenty‐first century and becoming essential components of the modern vehicle.

I had the privilege of working on the General Motors’ EV1 electric car program in Southern California for ten years. The EV1 was the first electric car developed for mass production in the modern era. I even met my wife, Mary, a mechanical engineer from Detroit, when we worked together on the EV1 – we were both working on the new wireless charging approach known as inductive coupling. I left the automotive world, returning to Ireland to teach, and yet my teaching and research still revolve around automotive topics. The closest connection to automotive history here on the south coast of Ireland is the ancestral home of the Ford family, from which William Ford fled to the United States during the Great Irish Famine in 1847. His son, Henry Ford, was a semi‐literate Michigan farm boy, who grew up to revolutionize an industry and create what we now call mass‐market consumer capitalism.

While it can be very useful for writing and teaching to be at a distance from the developing story, it is important not to be detached or isolated from such developments. My co‐author, Abas Goodarzi, is a former colleague who is living and working to deliver the new technologies. Abas and I started work together at the General Motors’ Hughes Aircraft subsidiary in Culver City, California, in October 1990. After directing the development of the EV1 electric powertrain, Abas pursued an electric vehicle start‐up. After working in a few more start‐ups, Abas founded US Hybrid, where he remains CEO. US Hybrid is a company specializing in delivering battery, hybrid, and fuel cell solutions for heavy‐duty transportation. Between us, we have been part of engineering teams which have developed for mass production all of the technologies discussed in this book.

The modern automobile is a great topic for teaching because it is a consumer product to which all students, family, and friends can relate and discuss. Also, it features engineering marvels such as energy storage, combustion engines, electric drives, power electronics, and more. The structure of this book is set up to explain how these technologies interact in the vehicle as a whole and then becomes more technical as the book or a particular chapter unfolds.

The book features problems and assignments of varying technical difficulty for university students. The reader can attempt them based on his or her level.

The car and electrical technology have a history rich with the contributions of many prominent people. Hence, their quotations are often included at the start of a chapter. They generally tie in with the story or underlying philosophies … and are often fun and thought‐provoking.

Acknowledgments

First, we’d like to thank all our colleagues in industry, government, and academia who have provided us feedback, reviews, comments, suggestions, material, and criticism for the book: Mohamed Alamgir, Peter Bardos, Ted Bohn, Amy Bueno, Tim Burress, Kevin Cadogan, Paul Carosa, Gilsu Choi, Amgad Elgowainy, James Francfort, Mark Gibbons, John Goodenough, Oliver Gross, John Hall, Silva Hiti, Gerard Hurley, Joe Kimmel, Tony O'Gorman, Ray Radys, Wally Rippel, James Rohan, Brad Rutledge, Steve Schulz, Matthew Shirk, Charlie Sullivan, and George Woody. Thank you to the all the staff at Wiley, especially Michelle Dunckley, Adalfin Jayasingh, Aravind Kannankara and Athira Menon, with a special mention for Peter Mitchell, who answered the question “do you have any textbook which covers all of power electronics and machines and can help me teach an electric vehicle course?” with “No, would you write one?”.

A word of thanks to all the supportive staff at University College Cork, especially Michael Egan, and to the former students who have provided help and educated us at times: David Cashman, Kevin Hartnett, Marcin Kacki, Brendan Lyons, Donal Murray, and Marek Rylko; and especially to Brendan Barry, Kevin Davis, Diarmaid Hogan and Robbie Ryan for final proofing and support. A special thank you to the undergraduate and postgraduate students who patiently worked through the various drafts of the book.

We are grateful to the companies and various US agencies for providing us material and would like to acknowledge their great work in the field: AC Propulsion, General Motors, International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), Maxon Motors, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and the Department of Energy laboratories: Argonne National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Idaho National Laboratory.

Abas and I have been lucky to have been supervised in our postgraduate studies by some seminal authors who have led the way in technical education: Ned Mohan of the University of Minnesota, the late John M. D. Murphy of University College Cork, and the late Richard Hoft of the University of Missouri (Columbia).

We wish to acknowledge our former colleagues at Hughes Power Control Systems, and within the General Motors companies and beyond, for their contributions to the EV industry, especially the first commercial battery electric car, featuring the first automotive IGBT traction inverter and an inductive charging infrastructure.

Finally, we thank our extended families and friends for their love, support, and endless patience while we write books or start companies focused on electric vehicles. Mary and Aryan are understanding spouses‐Mary is an experienced EV engineer and Aryan is the financial controller at US Hybrid. Thank you to Mary and the girls, Madi, Tasha, and Saoirse, and to Aryan and the boys, Milad and Navid.

Textbook Structure and Suggested Teaching Curriculum

This is primarily an engineering textbook covering the automotive powertrain, energy storage and energy conversion, power electronics, and electrical machines. A significant additional focus is placed on the engineering design, the energy for transportation, and the related environmental impacts. This textbook is an educational tool for practicing engineers and others, such as transportation policy planners and regulators. The modern automobile is used as the vehicle upon which to base the theory and applications, which makes the book a useful educational reference for our industry colleagues, from chemists to engineers. This material is also written to be of interest to the general reader, who may have little or no interest in the power electronics and machines. Introductory science, mathematics, and an inquiring mind suffice for some chapters. The general reader can read the introduction to each of the chapters and move to the next as soon as the material gets too advanced for him or her.

I teach the material across four years here at University College Cork. The material can be taught across various years as outlined in Table I.

Table I Book content and related teaching.

Chapter

Topic

General

2nd

3rd

4th/PG

1

Vehicles and Energy Sources

Electromobility and the Environment

Y

2

Vehicle Dynamics

Y

3

Batteries

Y

4

Fuel Cells

Y

5

Conventional and Hybrid Powertrains

Y

6

Electrical Machines

Introduction to Traction Machines

Y

7

The Brushed DC Machine

Y

8

Induction Machines

Y

9

Surface‐Permanent‐Magnet AC Machines

Y

10

Interior‐Permanent‐Magnet AC Machines

Y

11

Power Electronics

DC‐DC Converters

Y

12

Isolated DC‐DC Converters

Y

13

Traction Drives and Three‐Phase Inverters

Y

14

Battery Charging

Y

15

Control of the Electric Drive

Y

16

Basics

Introduction to Electromagnetism, Ferromagnetism, and Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Y

The first third of the book (Chapters 1 to 6), plus parts of Chapters 14 and 16, can be taught to the general science or engineering student in the second or third year. It covers the introductory automotive material using basic concepts from mechanical, electrical, environmental, and electrochemical engineering. Chapter 14 on electrical charging and Chapter 16 on electromagnetism can also be used as a general introduction to electrical engineering.

The basics of electromagnetism, ferromagnetism and electromechanical energy conversion (Chapter 16) and dc machines (Chapter 7) are taught to second year (sophomore) engineering students who have completed introductory electrical circuits and physics.

The third year (junior) students typically have covered ac circuit analysis, and so we cover ac machines, such as the induction machine (Chapter 8) and the surface permanent‐magnet machine (Chapter 9). As the students typically have studied control theory, we investigate the control of the speed and torque loops of the motor drive (Chapter 15). Power electronics, featuring non‐isolated buck and boost converters (Chapter 11), is also introduced in the third year.

The final‐year (senior) students then go on to cover the more advanced technologies of the interior‐permanent‐magnet machine (Chapter 10). Isolated power converters (Chapter 12), such as the full‐bridge and resonant converters, inverters (Chapter 13), and power‐factor‐corrected battery chargers (Chapter 14), are covered in the power electronics section. This material can also be covered at the introductory postgraduate level.

Various homework, simulation, and research exercises are presented throughout the textbook. The reader is encouraged to attempt these exercises as part of the learning experience.

About the Companion Web Site

Don’t forget to visit the companion web site for this book:

www.wiley.com/go/hayes/electricpowertrain

There you will find valuable material designed to enhance your learning, including:

Solutions manual

References

Slides

Simulations

Scan this QR code to visit the companion web site:

Part 1Vehicles and Energy Sources

1Electromobility and the Environment

“My first customer was a lunatic. My second had a death wish.” Karl Friedrich Benz (1844–1929) is generally credited with pioneering the modern vehicle.

“Practically no one had the remotest notion of the future of the internal‐combustion engine, while we were just on the edge of the great electrical development. As with every comparatively new idea, electricity was expected to do much more than we even now have any indication that it can do. I did not see the use of experimenting with electricity for my purposes. A road car could not run on a trolley even if trolley wires had been less expensive; no storage battery was in sight of a weight that was practical … That is not to say that I held or now hold electricity cheaply; we have not yet begun to use electricity. But it has its place, and the internal‐combustion engine has its place. Neither can substitute for the other – which is exceedingly fortunate.” Henry Ford in 1923, reflecting on 1899.

“Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black.” Henry Ford (1863–1947) was influenced by slaughterhouse practices when he developed his assembly line for the mass production of the automobile.

“The world hates change, yet it is the only thing that has brought progress.” Charles Kettering (1876–1958) invented the electric starter and effectively killed the electric car of that era.

“The spread of civilization may be likened to a fire: first, a feeble spark, next a flickering flame, then a mighty blaze, ever increasing in speed and power.” Nikola Tesla (1856–1943).

“Dum spiro, spero.” (Latin for “As long as I breathe, I hope.”) Marcus Cicero (106–43 BC). A noble aspiration from ancient times … but what if we can’t breathe the air?

“It was during that period that I made public my findings on the nature of the eye‐irritating, plant‐damaging smog. I attributed it to the petrochemical oxidation of organic materials originating with the petroleum industry and automobiles.” Aries Jan Haagen‐Smit (1900–1977), a pioneer of air‐quality control, reflecting in 1970 on his pioneering work from 1952 to explain the Los Angeles smog.

“Tesla’s mission is to accelerate the world’s transition to sustainable energy.” The 2016 mission statement of Tesla, Inc.

In this chapter, the reader is introduced to the factors motivating the development of the electric powertrain. The chapter begins with a brief history of the automobile from an electric vehicle perspective, the various energy sources, and the resulting emissions. Standardized vehicle drive cycles are discussed as drive cycles are used to provide a uniform testing approach to measure the emissions and the fuel economy of a vehicle, both of which are related to the efficiency of the energy conversion from the stored energy to kinetic energy. Government regulations and the marketplace have resulted in strong global trends to reduce these potentially harmful emissions and to increase the fuel economy. These factors of reduced emissions and improved efficiency combine with a greater consumer market appreciation for green technology to motivate the development of the electric powertrain. The competing automotive powertrains are briefly reviewed and discussed in terms of efficiency. The chapter concludes with a brief look at heavy‐duty commercial vehicles and other modes of transport.

1.1 A Brief History of the Electric Powertrain

There are three evolutionary eras of electric cars, and we shall now discuss the bigger historical picture.

1.1.1 Part I – The Birth of the Electric Car

The first self‐propelled vehicles were powered by steam. Steam vehicles were fueled by coal and wood and took a relatively long time to generate the steam to power the pistons by heating the furnace of an external combustion engine. The modern vehicle, first developed by Karl Benz in the 1880s, is based on the internal‐combustion (IC) engine. The early vehicles were unreliable, noisy, polluting, and difficult to start. Meanwhile, modern electrical technologies were being invented as Nikola Tesla, partnering with George Westinghouse, and Thomas Edison battled to invent and establish supremacy for their respective alternating‐current (ac) and direct‐current (dc) power systems. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), energized by lead‐acid batteries and using a dc power system, competed with IC engine vehicles in the 1890s. Electric vehicles (EVs) did not have the starting problems of the IC engine and had no tailpipe emissions. The low range of the BEVs was not necessarily a problem at the time as the road system was not developed, and so comfortable roads were not available for long driving. In 1900, the sales of gasoline vehicles and EVs in the United States were comparable in quantity, but EV sales were to collapse over the next decade [1–4]. Interestingly, EV sales were poor in the Europe of this period as the French and German auto manufacturers, such as Renault, Peugeot, Daimler, and Benz, were leading the world in the development of the IC engine.

The dominance of the IC engine was to be established with two major developments. First, Henry Ford mass‐produced the Model T and drove down the sales price of the gasoline vehicle to significantly below that of both his competitors and of the EVs [5]. However, the gasoline vehicle still needed a manual crank in order to start the engine.

The second major development was the elimination of the manual crank by Charles Kettering’s invention of the electric ignition and start. These electric technologies were introduced by Cadillac in 1912 and, ironically, effectively consigned the BEV to history. As the electrically started gasoline cars proliferated, so did road systems. The mobility delivered by the car fostered the development of modern society as it stimulated individualized transportation and suburbanization. California became the poster child for these trends, which have spread globally. Given their low range and high costs, BEVs could no longer compete and the market died, expect for niche applications such as delivery trucks.

1.1.2 Part II – The Resurgent Electric Powertrain

The diesel engine was introduced for vehicles in 1922, 32 years after it was invented by Rudolf Diesel in 1890 as a more efficient compression‐ignition (CI) IC engine compared to the spark‐ignition (SI) IC engine fueled by gasoline. The first commercial diesel engines were actually developed by a spin‐off company of the US brewer Anheuser Busch. The high‐torque‐at‐low‐speed characteristic has made the diesel engine the engine of choice for medium and heavy‐duty vehicles worldwide. In recent times, the diesel engine became a choice for light vehicles, especially in Europe, due to its reduced carbon emissions compared to gasoline.

Of course, burning fossil fuels in the engine does not come without an environmental cost. A Dutch scientist, Aries Jan Haagen‐Smit, had moved to California and was perplexed by the pollution and smog in rapidly urbanizing Southern California. Smog is a portmanteau word combining smoke and fog to describe the hazy air pollution common in urban areas. London‐type smog is a term commonly used to describe the smog due to coal, while Los Angeles–type smog is used to describe the smog due to vehicle emissions. Haagen‐Smit demonstrated that California smog is the product of a photochemical reaction between IC engine emissions and sunlight to create ozone [6,7]. He is now known as the father of air pollution control and mitigation. The geography of Southern California features valleys, which tend to trap the pollutants for much of the year until the winds from the desert blow through the valleys in the fall. Similar geographic issues worsen the smog situations in other cities, such as Beijing – where the Gobi winds bring dust from the desert to combine with the city’s smog.

In the late 1980s, General Motors (GM) decided to develop an all‐electric car. The motivations were many. For example, urban pollution in American cities, especially Los Angeles, was severe. An additional significant motivating factor was the success of the solar‐powered Sunraycer electric car in the Solar Challenge, a 3000 km race across Australia in 1987. The Sunraycer was engineered by AeroVironment, General Motors‚ and Hughes Aircraft, who pushed the boundaries to develop the lightweight, low‐drag, solar‐powered electric car.

The initial GM prototype BEV, known as the Impact, was developed in Southern California, and GM committed to mass‐producing the car. The production vehicle, which was to become known as the GM EV1, was developed and produced at GM facilities in Michigan and Southern California, and made its debut in 1996. The vehicle was revolutionary as it featured many of the technologies which we regard as commonplace today. The improved traction motor was a high‐power ac induction motor based on the inventions of Nikola Tesla. The car body was built of aluminum in order to reduce vehicle weight. The vehicle aerodynamics were lower than any production vehicle of the day. The vehicle featured advanced silicon technology to control all the electronics in the vehicle and the new IGBT silicon switch to ensure efficient and fast control of the motor. This vehicle introduced electric steering, braking, and cabin heating and cooling. The EV1 featured extensive diagnostics, a feature that is now commonly employed in most vehicles to improve fuel economy and handling. Heavy‐duty vehicle prototypes for transit and school buses were also electrified and deployed in public by GM at this time. It is worth noting that electric powertrains have been commonly deployed by the railroad industry for many decades due to the inherent advantages of fuel economy and performance.

However, the GM EV1 went to market powered by lead‐acid batteries, a technology which had limited progress over the previous century. The second‐generation GM EV1 featured a nickel‐metal hydride (NiMH) battery which almost doubled the range of the first‐generation vehicle. However, a number of realities were to doom this particular effort – the inadequacy of battery technology, a collapse in the price of gasoline, a lack of consumer demand for energy‐efficient and green technologies, a lack of government support, and the advent of the hybrid electric car.