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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
This third edition is a thoroughly revised and updated version of the bestselling text for undergraduate leadership courses. This book is designed for college students to help them understand that they are capable of being effective leaders and guide them in developing their leadership potential. The Relational Leadership Model (RLM) continues as the major focus in this edition, and the book includes stronger connections between the RLM dimensions and related concepts, as well as visual applications of the model. The third edition includes new student vignettes that demonstrate how the major concepts and theories can be applied. It also contains new material on social justice, conflict management, positive psychology, appreciative inquiry, emotional intelligence, and new self-assessment and reflection questionnaires. For those focused on the practice of leadership development, the third edition is part of a complete set that includes a Student Workbook, a Facilitation and Activity Guide for educators, and free downloadable instructional PowerPoint® slides. The Workbook is a student-focused companion to the book and the Facilitation and Activity Guide is designed for use by program leaders and educators.
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Seitenzahl: 719
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013
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Table of Contents
Important Information About Clifton StrengthsQuest
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Purpose of This Book
Scope of the Book and Treatment of Topics
Summary of the Contents
Leadership Can Be Learned
Acknowledgments
The Authors
Part I : Leadership for a Changing World
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Leadership
Book Overview
Chapter Overview
Foundational Principles
Rapidly Changing Times
Understanding Paradigms
Examining the Paradigms
The Search for a New Conceptualization of Followers
A Word About Leaders
Purposes of Leadership
Leadership Viewed from Different Frames
Leadership Requires Openness to Learning
Relational Leadership
The Real World
Chapter Summary
About This Book
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 2: The Changing Nature of Leadership
Chapter Overview
The Complexities of Leadership
Myths About Leadership
Truths About Leadership
Definitions of Leadership
Metaphorical Definitions of Leadership
Generations of Leadership Theories
Influence Theories
Reciprocal Leadership Theories
Leadership Maps for a Rapidly Changing World
Relationships, Connections, and “Anding”
Authentic Leadership
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 3: The Relational Leadership Model
Chapter Overview
Relational Leadership
Knowing-Being-Doing
Relational Leadership Is Purposeful
Working for Positive Change
Relational Leadership Is Inclusive
Involving Those External to the Group
Relational Leadership Is Empowering
Relational Leadership Is Ethical
Relational Leadership Is About Process
What Would This Look Like?
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Part II : Exploring Your Potential for Leadership
Chapter 4: Understanding Yourself
Chapter Overview
Understanding Yourself
Self-Leadership Development
Esteem and Confidence
Finding Your Ideal Self Through Mindfulness
Emotional Intelligence
Developing Your Talents and Strengths
Factors That Shape Your Leadership Identity
Values, Beliefs, Ethics, and Character
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 5: Understanding Others
Chapter Overview
Individuality and Commonality
Understanding Gender Diversity
Understanding Cultural Diversity
Understanding International Diversity
Your Cultural Heritage
Attitudes Toward Differences
Microaggressions
Communication
Conflict Resolution and Decision Making
Leadership and Communication
Assertive Communication
Difficult Dialogues
Relational Empathy
Cultural Influences on Leadership Behavior
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 6: Leading with Integrity
Chapter Overview
Creating and Sustaining an Ethical Organizational Environment
Moral Purpose as an Act of Courage
Assumptions about Ethical Leadership
Cultural Assumptions
Ethical Theories and Moral Purposes
Transforming Leadership Theory
Modeling a Moral Purpose
Moral Talk
Ethical Decision-Making Models
Practical Applications
Kidder's Ethical Decision Making Model
Ethical Principles and Standards
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Part III : Context for the Practice of Leadership
Chapter 7: Being in Communities
Chapter Overview
The Importance of Community
Elements of Community
The Development of Community
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 8: Interacting in Teams and Groups
Chapter Overview
Understanding Groups
Group Development
Dynamics in Groups
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 9: Understanding and Renewing Complex Organizations
Chapter Overview
Groups and Organizations
Organizations as Complex Systems
Virtuality and the Impact of Technology
New Paradigm Leadership in Conventional Paradigm Cultures
Organizational Renewal
When Things Go Wrong
Chapter Summary
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Part IV : Making a Difference with Leadership
Chapter 10: Understanding Change
Chapter Overview
Understanding Change
Facilitating Change
Social Entrepreneurship and Social Innovation
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 11: Strategies for Change
Chapter Overview
Reflections on Change
Students as Change Leaders
The Social Change Model of Leadership Development
Comparison of the Relational Leadership Model and Social Change Model
Building Coalitions for Community Action
Civic Engagement
Service as Change-Making
Identifying Critical Issues
Joining with Others
Conflict
Navigating Environments
Appreciative Inquiry
Change and Cyberspace
Conclusion
What's Next?
Chapter Activities
Chapter 12: Thriving Together
Intersection of Leadership and Positive Psychology
Positivity and the Tipping Point
Positive Leadership
PERMA Model of Well-Being
The Cycle of Renewal in Leadership Development
Resonant Leaders and Renewal
Spirituality and Renewal
Chapter Summary
Chapter Activities
A Final Reflection
References
Author Index
Subject Index
Cover design: Michael Cook
Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Komives, Susan R., 1946-
Exploring leadership : for college students who want to make a difference / Susan R. Komives, Nance Lucas, Timothy R. McMahon.— Third edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-39947-7 (pbk.), ISBN: 978-1-118-41748-5 (ebk.), ISBN: 978-1-118-42181-9 (ebk.), ISBN: 978-1-118-44356-9 (ebk.)
1. Student activities— United States. 2. Leadership— Study and teaching (Higher)— United States. 3. Interpersonal relations— United States. I. Title.
LB3605.K64 2013
378.1′980973— dc23
201300101
What comes to mind when you hear the word leadership? Do you think of international or national figures like Mark Zuckerberg, Marissa Mayer, Hillary Clinton, Jan Brewer, Cory Booker, Barack Obama, Kofi Annan, Aung San Suu Kyi, Mohandas Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Elaine Chao, Bud Selig, or Harry Potter? Our brains somehow immediately translate the word “leadership” to mean “leader.” You probably just did the same thing. You probably imagined a company president, a prime minister, your professor, your supervisor at work, or the person standing at a podium with a gavel. However, the premise of this book is that leadership is a relational and ethical process of people together attempting to accomplish positive change. In other words, leadership is about relationships. And you can be part of the leadership process, whether as a formal leader or as an active, committed group member.
Purpose of This Book
Chances are that you are reading this book because you want to learn more about leadership. You may be taking a leadership course, attending a workshop, learning to be a resident assistant, or just reading for your own development. Somehow, you want to be more effective in accomplishing change, making a difference, or working with others. Perhaps you have just accepted a new leadership role, selected a career in which you will be called on to assume leadership responsibilities, or will be working on a team making complex decisions. Maybe you have had many leadership experiences, or maybe you have never thought of yourself as a leader at all. Indeed, you may have thought of leadership as emphasizing leaders—not followers or group members.
A popular sentiment wisely reminds us that all of us are smarter than one of us. The wisdom, common purpose, inclusivity, sense of community, and personal empowerment embedded in that statement are profound. Leadership is not something possessed by only a select few people in high positions. We are all involved in the leadership process, and we are all capable of being effective leaders. Through collaboration with others, you can make a difference from any place within a group or organization, whether as the titled leader or as an active member.
Scope of the Book and Treatment of Topics
Our rapidly changing world needs each of us to do what we can to make a difference in our own communities. Each of us is a member of many communities—our family, neighborhood, religious group, workplace, classroom, residence hall floor, or sports team. In this book, we will ask you to examine yourself and your communities: where you live, where you work, whom you care for, what interests you, and how you want to develop. Together, we will explore how you see yourself in relation to others and how you prefer to interact with others in various group settings. Our aim in this book is to help you use your own college context and your experience as a college student as the frame within which to understand leadership. The students who helped us with this book said, “Most students skip the preface!” We are glad you did not do that. You will understand the book better for having read this section.
The three of us have, for many years, taught leadership courses, advised students in formal leadership roles, mentored student leaders and group members, supervised student workers, sought to bring students into campus governance, served as leaders ourselves both in formal positions and as members of teams and groups, and read and researched leadership. When we developed the first edition of this book, we were keenly aware that when we taught a leadership course, we shared a frustration that the scholarship and literature in leadership studies did not connect with most students. Business majors often find themselves in the literature because so much of it comes from their major. Psychology and sociology majors usually relate to it because the leadership field is interdisciplinary and draws heavily from their fields of study. But many students have trouble relating to the leadership literature, much of which is written for corporate chief executive officers (CEOs). Some students find the leader-focused approaches to be self-centered, and some say, “I'm not a leader. I just want to make a difference.”
Leadership can be viewed from various frames: political science addresses power and influence, business management sees leadership as good management and effectiveness in outcomes or emphasizes supervisor-subordinate relationships, anthropology views cultural influences and such factors as symbols and norms, history looks to the influence and experience of key figures during significant times or when leading major social movements, and psychology or sociology looks at individuals and groups as they interact, including social status and social capital. One book cannot do justice to all these diverse perspectives, but we challenge you to explore how your field or fields of study approach leadership.
The primary perspectives or frames we use in this book are a combination of psychological and educational approaches; we emphasize learning about yourself and understanding yourself in the context of others. Being aware of your personal values, beliefs, strengths, and commitments builds a strong foundation for your position as a member in the world's many communities. Self-awareness is central to being able to understand others and interact effectively in groups, organizations, and communities.
We believe that you can learn to understand yourself and others, that organizations are most effective when they are learning environments and function as caring communities, and that our rapidly changing world will require people leading together toward meaningful change. The belief that leadership is grounded in learning together must be modeled in our educational environments. Yet the world does not always work this way. You constantly will be challenged to understand how things are, see how they could be, and be a part of change if necessary.
Throughout the book, you will find essays and stories from students from across the country. We think you will find their thoughts and experiences interesting. We encourage you to explore the philosophy of leadership these students may hold by what they share in their stories.
Summary of the Contents
Because personal awareness and personal development are central to learning leadership, the focus of this book is as much on you, others, and your relationships with others as it is on understanding leadership theory, styles, practices, and applications.
We organized the book around four major themes: leadership for a changing world (Part One), with an emphasis on the Relational Leadership Model; relationships as the foundation of leadership (Part Two); the context of leadership in communities, groups, and organizations (Part Three); understanding change and how to make a difference using leadership while thriving personally and with others (Part Four). This third edition includes a number of revisions and updates to the original chapters from previous editions focusing on lessons from positive psychology, including self-assessments embedded in this edition.
In Chapter One, we introduce the concepts in this book with specific attention to the variety among groups of students with different experiences who learn leadership for different purposes and practice it in various settings. In Chapter Two, we show how the study and understanding of leadership has evolved through recent times and how rapidly changing times lead to new leadership approaches. In Chapter Three, we present the Relational Leadership Model (RLM). This model emphasizes the nature of relationships that are the building blocks in working with others to make a difference and accomplish change.
In Part Two (Chapters Four, Five, and Six), we ask you to explore yourself, others, yourself in relation to others, and the nature of leading with integrity. Understanding self includes understanding your values, character, and the strengths you use in interacting, deciding, and learning. Self-awareness is an essential foundation for understanding leadership and helps you respond to the differences and commonalties you have with others. This chapter focuses on the concept of leading from your strengths and talents. We recommend you wait until reading Chapter Four to use the Clifton StrengthsQuest code to explore your strengths further. Please note that although we have a dedicated chapter on leading with integrity, the treatment of values, ethics, and character is a theme throughout this book.
Part Three (Chapters Seven, Eight, and Nine) examines the various settings in which leadership is needed; for example, in groups and teams. It explores the core elements of communities and emphasizes collaborative processes. It also examines aspects of complex organizations and how these may raise distinct issues for the practice of relational leadership, and it presents the need for organizational renewal in all the contexts of leadership.
Part Four (Chapters Ten, Eleven, and Twelve) presents material on the nature of change, the change process, the immunity to change, and being change agents. It explores such applications and strategies as service learning, coalition building, Appreciative Inquiry, and activism. This part also contains another widely used model of leadership development, the Social Change Model of Leadership Development. Chapter Twelve closes the circle and brings you back to where you started, with the most foundational aspects of self-awareness and the importance of staying renewed in the leadership process so that you might thrive personally and nurture thriving in groups and teams.
Leadership Can Be Learned
This book (and perhaps the course you are taking as well) is designed to expose you to key concepts of leadership and to provide activities that will encourage you to learn leadership. You will need to practice these new concepts and skills and help your classmates and peers practice them as well. If you want to learn to play the piano, you might imagine playing with gusto, but you know it will take practice to do that. If you want to learn to play tennis, you can imagine hitting a cross-court backhand, but you know you have to hit many of them to perfect that stroke. Likewise, if you imagine a group coming to agreement after much conflict and going forward with shared vision and a sense of respectful community, then you have to learn a lot about yourself and practice the skills of listening and collaborating. You would not drop piano lessons when the first scale you learn gets boring or sell your tennis racket when you develop a sore muscle. Likewise, you do not give up on practicing leadership because you find it hard or challenging. Practicing together will help each person learn leadership.
If you are using this book, along with the Facilitation and Activity Guide and The Student Workbook, as a textbook for a class, you will find it is designed to help your class become a learning community. After an introduction to leadership, the book focuses on you. Learning activities are designed to help you reflect on yourself and show you how to listen to and learn from others. This will not always be easy or painless. Research shows that the frequency with which you talk with others about sociocultural issues like politics, religion, and complex issues outside of the classroom also enhances your leadership, since you are actively practicing listening, understanding others, and clarifying your own perspectives (Dugan & Komives, 2010). The classroom provides an opportunity to practice the difficult skills of building learning communities in which to experience collaborative leadership.
Many students tell us they dislike group projects, but unless you learn the skills required for working effectively with others and building common purpose with others, including handling frustration when things do not go well, you have not practiced collaborative leadership. Most great things were not accomplished by an individual acting alone. Even when one person is singled out for credit, there were usually many others who contributed or collaborated to make that accomplishment possible.
As you read and discuss this book, we encourage you to think about yourself. Do not distance yourself from the pages, but connect with the concepts and ask yourself: In what ways could this help me be more effective? Not everything will resonate with you all the time, but think about your life right now and the many roles and responsibilities you anticipate acquiring as you go forward. We invite you to deepen your leadership journey as you explore yourself in various contexts. Each step of the way will enhance your sense of self-awareness and help you realize that you are leading when you are actively working with others toward a shared purpose. You do make a difference.
We are still on our own leadership journey and know this is a lifelong activity. As we change and as times change, we will always need to be sensitive to the relational process of leadership. We hope you will enhance your own abilities to be effective in this leadership journey.
Susan, Nance, and Tim acknowledge our co-authorship and, more important, our friendship that has endured and even transcended the writing processes in all three editions of Exploring Leadership. We began our journey as colleagues with ideas for a book scribbled on a notepad, and we landed as authors who discovered how to play to our unique strengths in making these three editions of our book possible. In applying the Relational Leadership Model in our work together, we used the components to guide us through the trials and tribulations of writing collaboratively. We are proud to have started this journey as colleagues and to have experienced our transformation as enduring friends. We treasure each other and we have learned from each other. We also learned from the many people who assisted us along the way.
During the first two editions of the book we have been gratified to see the growth in campus efforts on student leadership development and in the plethora of leadership education resources (Komives, 2011). We are proud to have contributed to the movement to challenge college students to take an active role in their communities.
We recognize the tremendous support we have received from others and feel truly blessed to have such an array of loving and giving families, friends, and colleagues. This edition stands on the shoulders of those who assisted in previous editions. For the first edition of Exploring Leadership we continue to offer special appreciation to Marcy Levy Shankman, Elizabeth McGovern, Mike Sarich, Reena Meltzer, Carrie Goldstein, Mary Campbell, and Alice Faron. The second edition was greatly shaped by Julie Owen and other colleagues who worked with the instructor manual, including Jennifer Armstrong, Kristan Cilente Skendall, Krystal Clark, Keith Edwards, Jeff Grim, Paige Haber-Curran, Anthony Kraft, Karol Martinez, Jim Neumeister, Darren Pierre, Jessica Porras, Terry Zacker, and Seth Zolin. We also thank Jen Edwards Serra and Paige Haber-Curran, both Maryland master's students at the time. For this edition we are again grateful to Julie Owen, who is an exceptionally informed critic and wise leadership visionary. Special thanks to talented leadership educators Wendy Wagner and Daniel Ostick, who assembled a marvelous team to develop our student workbook and a fine instructor and activities manual. Appreciation to Craig Slack and Josh Hiscock, whose guidance of the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs continued to promote the Relational Leadership Model and nurture a new generation of leadership educators. We are all grateful to Denny Roberts, whose contributions to student leadership development are legendary and has most recently helped all leadership educators explore global dimensions of learning leadership.
Susan: I offer special thanks to my husband, Ralph, for his unfailing support and phenomenal Macintosh graphics skills. I am particularly grateful to my two University of Maryland leadership teams: leadership identity research team (Julie Owen, Susan Longerbeam, Felicia Mainella, and Laura Osteen—then Maryland doctoral students), for our amazing leadership identity development project (LID); and co-researcher, John Dugan, and the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership team (MSL), whose research guides the principles and emphases in this edition.
Nance: I am grateful to family members and mentors who taught me about leadership through their example, especially my late Aunt Dee, who has the most profound influence on my life. And thanks to the late Don Clifton for his scholarly contributions on understanding and practicing leadership using talents and strengths. I am indebted to the late Don and Nancy de Laski, who inspired me to continue on a path for greater meaning and purpose in life through their own examples and through their generosity. It was through their gifts that the Center for Consciousness and Transformation (CCT) was founded in New Century College, providing opportunities for students and others to learn about and embody many of the principles, practices, and concepts found in Exploring Leadership. I would like to acknowledge an early career mentor, Joel Rudy, who encouraged me to pursue a scholarly path in leadership, and one of my current mentors, Jack Censer at George Mason University, who provided me with recent numerous opportunities to expand my work and reach in leadership. Special appreciation goes to New Century College faculty and staff at George Mason University for their encouragement of my involvement in this book-writing venture and to the CCT faculty and staff for their inspiration, passion, and dedication to the mission. A special thank you to Martha Souder for assisting the authors in the important behind-the-scenes tasks that were critical to completing our manuscript. A heartfelt thank you goes out to my many undergraduate and graduate students for influencing my philosophy of leadership. I recognize a constant thought partner and sister of choice in Karen Silien, who was my inspiration in all editions of our book and who provided inspiration and guidance since cofounding the National Leadership Symposium with me in 1989 and through years of best friendship. And finally, deep-felt gratitude and love to my partner Pam Patterson for her unyielding encouragement, collaborations, wisdom, and love that provided anchoring and centering throughout the writing process and beyond.
Tim: I thank my father, Jim, and brother, Tom, for their ongoing support, while remembering my late mother, Irene. I especially thank Curt Kochner for sharing ideas, laughter, and experiences over many years in the last, best place—notably the memorable trek along the Beaten Path Trail; and longtime friend and college roommate Rick Howser for all the great times at Wrigley and in Chicago. Thanks to all those who helped shape my ideas about leadership over the years—especially Kathy Allen, Gary Althen, Steve Axley, George Bettas, Laura Blake-Jones, Pam Boersig, Bruce Clemetsen, John Duncan, Pat Enos, Chris Esparza, Tina Gutierez-Schmich, Will Keim, Barbara Maxwell, Laurie Jones-Neighbors, Richard Preuhs, Denny Roberts, Larry Roper, Karen Roth, Dave Strang, and Mia Tuan. I want to thank all of my Oregon friends and colleagues in CoDaC and the Holden Center for their ongoing collegiality and support and my friends, on Facebook and otherwise, who have encouraged my photography of migratory waterfowl. Your kind words have kept me going.
We are all grateful to Jossey-Bass's student leadership team, particularly our editor, Erin Null, and team leader, Paul Foster, whose support of student leadership has led to major contributions since the last edition. Their vision to move into more books, workbooks, assessments for students. and online seminars for leadership educators supports this work. Special appreciation to our editorial team for their work on establishing the Gallup partnership on the Clifton StrengthsQuest.
Susan R. Komives is professor emerita and former director of the student affairs graduate program at the University of Maryland, College Park. She is former president of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS) as well as the American College Personnel Association (ACPA); and former vice president for student development at Stephens College and the University of Tampa. She is author or coauthor of 11 books or monographs and over 50 articles or book chapters, and she has delivered more than 400 keynote speeches. She was cofounder and publications editor of the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs, a senior scholar with the James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership, and a member of the Board of Directors of the International Leadership Association. She was a member of the ensemble that developed The Social Change Model of Leadership Development and was principal investigator (PI) of a team whose research resulted in a grounded theory of Leadership Identity Development. She is co-PI of the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership. She is the 2011 recipient of the University of Maryland Board of Regent's Award for Faculty Teaching and the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) Shaffer Award for Academic Excellence as a graduate faculty member. A 2006 recipient of both the ACPA and NASPA outstanding research and scholarship awards, she is the 2012 recipient of the ACPA Life Time Achievement Award. Komives received her bachelor of science degree (1968) in mathematics and chemistry from Florida State University, as well as her master of science degree (1969) in higher education administration. Her doctorate in educational administration and supervision (1973) is from the University of Tennessee.
Nance Lucas is the associate dean and associate professor of New Century College at George Mason University and executive director of the Center for Consciousness & Transformation. Her teaching and scholarship interests focus on positive psychology and leadership, well-being, ethics, and character development. She is coauthor of Exploring Leadership: For College Students Who Want To Make A Difference (1st and 2nd editions) and contributing author of Leadership Reconsidered and The Social Change Model of Leadership Development and past coeditor of the Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies for special issues and a member of the journal's editorial board. Nance served as the creator and convener of the 1997 Global Leadership Week Program (a worldwide leadership program initiative spanning five continents), cofounder of the National Leadership Symposium, cofounder of the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs, and a past chair of the National InterAssociation Leadership Project. She served on the W. K. Kellogg Foundation Leadership Studies Project Ethics Focus Group, W. K. Kellogg Foundation College Age Youth Leadership Program Review Team, and the Kellogg Forum on Higher Education National Dialogue Series Planning Team. At George Mason University, she is the cofounder of the Mason Institute for Leadership Excellence, the Leadership Legacy Program, and MasonLeads. Dr. Lucas is an affiliate faculty member with The Gallup Organization and the Higher Education Program at George Mason University. Prior to her appointment at Mason, Nance had previous appointments at the University of Maryland and Ohio University. She received a Ph.D. in higher education with a concentration in leadership studies and ethics at the University of Maryland, College Park. Her master's degree in college student personnel and bachelor of arts degree in industrial and organizational psychology are from the Pennsylvania State University.
Timothy R. McMahon is a curriculum transformation specialist in the Center on Diversity and Community and a director of special projects at the Holden Center, both at the University of Oregon. Prior to that he served as a faculty consultant in the Teaching Effectiveness Program at Oregon. He also co-teaches graduate courses in the College of Education at Oregon State University. Prior to coming to Oregon he worked at Western Illinois University as a faculty member in the Department of Counselor Education and College Student Personnel. Tim also has professional experience in student affairs at Western Illinois University, the University of Iowa, Washington State University, Lakeland College, and the University of Wisconsin-River Falls. He has made numerous national presentations on topics related to leadership education and has also taught undergraduate leadership and diversity courses. He is co-author of Exploring Leadership: For College Students Who Want To Make A Difference (1st and 2nd editions). Tim's current professional interests include leadership, chaos and systems theory, diversity, and issues related to teaching and learning. McMahon received a bachelor of science degree (1973) in astronomy and a master of education degree (1975) in higher education administration from the University of Illinois. He received his doctorate (1992) in college student services administration from Oregon State University.
More than ever, today's times demand that diverse people work flexibly and respectfully together. The chapters in this section establish a foundation for understanding how leadership has been perceived over time and how today's rapidly changing, networked world calls for new approaches to leadership. This section ends with exploration of a model of relational leadership and its elements of being purposeful, inclusive, ethical, and empowering. These four elements are embedded within an overall process orientation, which is the fifth component of the Relational Leadership Model.
The leadership process is not about things—it is about people. As you read this section, challenge yourself to think how it relates to you and to those you have worked with in groups or communities. Identify the strengths you bring to engage in this approach and try to see what new awareness or skill you might need to be more effective in working with others.
The writings of the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu are wise guides to understanding yourself and others. In the book Tao of Leadership, Heider (1985) adapts Lao Tzu's proverbs. Lao Tzu advises us:
The superficial leader cannot see how things happen, even though the evidence is everywhere. This leader is swept up by drama, sensation, and excitement. All this confusion is blinding. But the leader who returns again and again to awareness-of-process has a deep sense of how things happen. (p. 69)
The model presented in this section promotes a relational process to leadership.
You will most likely find yourself—your interests and your attitudes—reflected on every page of this book, incorporating such characteristics as your age, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, generational status, social class, ability, or academic major. You can find ideas that apply to your interests whether you are majoring in engineering or English or are planning a career in journalism, agriculture, education, engineering, or law. Any number of other majors pertain to leadership as well.
Your habits are also reflected here. You might like details or you might only focus on the big picture. You might think best by speaking aloud or by turning thoughts over in your head before saying anything. However you work and think best, your perspective is distinctly yours and is represented in these pages.
Your unique experiences have shaped your view of yourself as a leader or member of a group. Think of the various leadership roles you have held or observed. Think about the various ways you have led formally, led informally, or been an active participant in various groups. Think about the leadership exhibited by the people you have admired or abhorred in the national or international news, in your home community, on campus, at work, or in the career field you are choosing. Think ahead to the places and relationships in which you could become more active—your classes, class projects, student employment position, residence hall, honor societies, student government, fraternity or sorority, athletic teams, alternative spring break program, study abroad experience, internship site, PTA meetings, your family, friendship groups, your off-campus work, community service settings, your church or temple—the possibilities are endless.
You draw on your personal characteristics, experiences, and the settings in which you might be involved for different leadership purposes. Some readers may want to further personal development; others may want to enhance a career skill, still others to accomplish social change. Whatever your purpose, your journey through the leadership process will make a difference in all aspects of your life.
Book Overview
As noted in the Preface, Exploring Leadership introduces you to the concepts of leader, follower, and leadership by embracing the philosophy that when engaging others in accomplishing change, everyone can be a leader. In Part One we describe the social construction of leadership over time and present a relational leadership model suitable for contemporary groups. Since the model is based in relationships, in Part Two we explore understanding yourself and others and the critical importance of ethical practices in your engagement with others. Appreciating and applying your strengths and those of others is the basis of those chapters. In Part Three we examine the team, group, and organizational contexts in which leadership is exhibited, using the perspective of those groups being viewed as communities. Part Four examines how leadership is critical to change and the importance of all involved thriving together as they engage each other in healthy, relational approaches.
Chapter Overview
In this chapter, we introduce key concepts and models that will be developed throughout the book, and we provide an overview of what we mean by leader, follower, and leadership. We show that new views on leadership are needed—views that call for ethical collaborations—and we describe ways to understand these new views. We assert our belief that leadership develops best when organizations and the individuals in them are open to learning together.
Foundational Principles
We encourage you to critique and analyze the perspectives and frames we present in this book. You will probably agree and connect with some ideas and disagree with others. But try to figure out why you agree or disagree. Go back and read the Preface if you did not already, to more fully understand the approach this book explores. Exercising critical thinking is a key to furthering your understanding about leadership. We encourage you to learn about leadership from different perspectives. To do that, you will need to identify the principles that are important to you and relate those beliefs to these perspectives. Also acknowledge those concepts and ideas that you disagree with and why. The foundational principles in this book are as follows:
Leadership development is greatly enhanced when you understand how important relationships are in leadership; that is, when you see the basic relational foundation of the leadership process. Three basic principles are involved:
Knowing
. You must know—yourself, how change occurs, and how and why others may view things differently than you do.
Being
. You must be—ethical, principled, authentic, open, caring, and inclusive.
Doing
. You must act—in socially responsible ways, consistently and congruently, as a participant in a community, and on your commitments and passions.
It is unrealistic to think that certain traditional leadership behaviors are required if you are to be an effective leader or collaborator in this time of rapid change. Leadership cannot be reduced to a number of easy steps. It is realistic, however, to develop a way of thinking—a personal philosophy of leadership—and identify core values that can help you work with others toward change. In today's complex times, we need a set of principles to guide our actions.
Rapidly Changing Times
At the current speed of change and with the complexity of today's problems, we can easily feel overwhelmed; we gasp for air as we navigate our fast-paced days with our many responsibilities. Your clock radio may awaken you to the news of protestors at US embassies somewhere in the world and the latest horrific crimes in your community. Your new system upgrade on your computer will not support some of your favorite programs. You go to class to learn something you hope you can apply to real life, but you find the material irrelevant. Just as you settle in to write a paper for class, one of your children falls and breaks her leg, changing your plans for days to come. You get to your job in the student activities office and find that the work you left unfinished yesterday is needed in fifteen minutes, instead of in two days as you had thought. You are troubled that student hazing, cheating, date rape, incivility, and other problems exist on campus. And the problems continue.
We no longer have simple problems with right and wrong answers but are increasingly faced with complex dilemmas and paradoxes. For example, we may want to be civil yet affirm freedom of speech, or we may want to find community and common purpose but also value individuality and individual differences.
Developing a personal approach to leadership that joins one person with others in an effort to accomplish a shared goal is difficult. It requires being intentional and thoughtful. A critical process to leading in rapidly changing, complex times is examining our own assumptions and realizing that others might see things differently. Gaining new insight means learning to identify and understand paradigms.
Understanding Paradigms
In every aspect of our lives, change is more rapid, confusing, and unpredictable than ever before. Daily newspapers bring awareness of complex local issues, and the nightly news flashes images of conflict at home and abroad. The conventional ways of thinking about and organizing our shared experiences do not seem helpful anymore. Instead of individual determinism, competition, and predictable structures, we seem to need quickly responding, nimble systems; collaboration; and a new awareness of shared values that honor our diversity.
These different perspectives might be called different worldviews, frames, or paradigms. Paradigms are patterns and ways of looking at things in order to make sense of them. Some paradigms are clear and help us function well. For example, you have fairly clear paradigms about playing baseball, going to class the first day, going to the airport, or attending the first meeting of an organization you wish to join. Consider going to that first class. You may sit in a preferred spot, expect to greet the person sitting beside you, get a syllabus, learn what text to buy, and perhaps even get out a bit early. That paradigm might be shattered if you arrived to find no chairs, or a professor who said, “I have not yet organized this class. What do you want to learn?” It is hard then to figure out what will happen; the rules no longer work; your established paradigms do not help fill in the gaps. Indeed, you might judge this class to be more exciting or more terrifying because it is unpredictable.
Some paradigms change suddenly, but we can adjust to the new paradigm. Following the World Trade Center bombings in 2001, airport security became more complex. You now have to remove your shoes, jacket, jewelry, and place your computer on the conveyer to be screened.
There are widely divergent paradigms for what it means to be a good leader. For some, a good-leader paradigm signals a verbal, self-confident person clearly in charge and directing followers with confidence. Some would see a good leader as someone who delegates and involves others in the group's decisions and actions. Still others think beyond “good leader” to consider “good leadership.” Some imagine a good leadership paradigm as a group of colleagues sharing in leadership, with each contributing to the group outcome and no one dominating others. Deliberately thinking about leadership paradigms may help identify what was previously unclear or even unseen and what now might be very obvious.
As times change, standard approaches to a topic may no longer be effective. An awareness of needing new ways to approach problems may signal a paradigm shift. There was a time in our country's history when the predominant paradigm held that women were not capable of understanding issues sufficiently to vote; at other times, the prevailing paradigm has held that education should be a privilege of only the elite, or that corporations could do anything to enhance their profits, or that smokers could light up anywhere they pleased. A paradigm shift means a shift in the previously held patterns or views. Instead of rushing home to see your favorite 10 p.m. show on television, you know you can grab it off of Netflix or Hulu or record it yourself or watch it “On Demand” when you choose to do so. When your grandfather says, “We had no TV when I was a boy, and all our social life revolved around the church,” he is observing a paradigm shift in how we spend leisure time, brought on by technology and transportation.
There have been numerous shifts in how people acquire information over time. Think of the changes from early, sagelike scholars imparting wisdom to small groups of students sitting at their feet to the volume-filled libraries we could borrow from to the electronic retrieval systems that allow us to acquire information on the Web. Instead of going to the library to borrow a book, we now download articles from a website. How reasonable is it in these changing times to use an old paradigm of measuring the quality of universities by the number of volumes in their libraries when any student can access thousands of volumes through interlibrary loan, buy the e-book in seconds, or enroll in an online class and not have to be present physically in a classroom?
A paradigm shift, however, does not necessarily mean completely abandoning one view for another. The new paradigm or view often emerges “alongside the old. It is appearing inside and around the old paradigm … building on it, amplifying it and extending it … not replacing it” (Nicoll, 1984, p. 5). We encourage you to examine the conventional authority paradigm of command and control as a method of leadership and seek to identify other paradigms that may be emerging, through your own experiences as well as from reading this book. Hierarchical structures, like bureaucracies, will continue to exist and, when done well, identify a division of tasks and labor that helps an organization meet its goals. The method of relating within those structures, however, may change to be more relational and crossfunctional. The “what” may be the same, but the “how” is shifting.
If old patterns or paradigms no longer work well, those who see things differently and hold new paradigms begin to employ new approaches, and paradigm shifts emerge. We are fully engaged now in the current paradigm that values collaborative processes among authentic people in organizations. Yes, there are bad or toxic leaders in some groups (Erickson, Shaw, & Agabe, 2007; Kellerman, 2004; Lipman-Blumen, 2005), but group expectations have largely shifted to expect ethical processes among people of integrity.
Examining the Paradigms
Leadership has long been presented as an elusive, complex phenomenon. Thousands of books and articles have been written about leaders and leadership, seeking to identify traits, characteristics, situations, and behaviors that signal leadership effectiveness. A simple Google search of the word “leadership” identifies more than 515,000,000 sources. We present an overview of several significant leadership approaches in the next chapter so you can see how these paradigms have emerged and how leadership has been socially constructed over time. This impressive number of publications provides some insight, but leadership is perhaps best described as using your personal philosophy of how to work effectively with others toward meaningful change.
Research in leadership studies is largely centered on the individual leader rather than the process of leadership. Most approaches examine what a leader does with followers to accomplish some purpose. Only recently has the literature focused extensively on followers or group members themselves. The conventional way of looking at people in groups (whether work groups or friendship groups) is first to identify a leader (or leaders) and then describe their followers. However, “understanding the relational nature of leadership and followership opens up richer forms of involvement and rewards in groups, organizations, and society at large” (Hollander, 1993, p. 43).
Prior to the 1990s, most leadership literature focused on how managers function in organizational settings and assumes that the manager is also a leader. Therefore, much attention has been focused on the leader's behaviors to get followers to do what the leader wants. This kind of leader usually holds a positional role like chairperson, president, or supervisor. This emphasis on positional leaders frequently promotes a passive approach to followers, often ignoring the role or effect followers have in the organization, including the way followers affect the positional leader. This approach clearly does not adequately describe the leadership relationship among people in groups or teams. Concepts of transforming leadership value how these followers could become leaders themselves (Burns, 1978), how these followers begin to identify as leadership themselves, and how the process of leadership works among these people.
We must reconstruct our view of leadership to see that “leadership is not something a leader possesses so much as a process involving followership” (Hollander, 1993, p. 29). Further, followership is really leadership in action among people in the group. In this book, we view leadership as a relational and ethical process of people together attempting to accomplish positive change.
Some leadership approaches, such as participative leadership, acknowledge that followers must be meaningfully involved in everything from setting goals to decision making. Followers must be active participants. Often, these approaches do not go far enough to genuinely engage followers while sharing power with them. This difference signals a paradigm shift from controlling follower behavior to empowering followers to be central to an organization's outcomes. Indeed, followers quickly see through and reject those leaders who ask for advice and input but rarely change their opinions. Followers usually embrace positional leaders who introduce issues to the group for discussion and decision. And followers are usually willing to self-manage a leadership process where decision making is vested in the group or team.
The Search for a New Conceptualization of Followers
Since childhood, we have heard the lesson “Follow the leader.” You may have been a lunch line leader or a bus patrol in elementary school. We have been taught that someone is in charge, so we let that person take the lead and we follow. The predominant paradigm is that if we are the leader, we expect others to cooperate and follow our lead. The leadership literature includes a range of perspectives on followers, largely based on the role of the leader. On one extreme, if the leader is viewed as hierarchically apart from the group, then followers matter less and are expected to be more compliant with the leader's views. On the other extreme, when the leader is embedded in the group, it is a shared leadership process and followers are perceived as colleagues. In this example, leadership is an outcome of people working together on a common agenda or change initiative.
Followership
Most organizations are hierarchies designed with manager or leader roles and follower or staff roles. In work settings these followers are sometimes referred to as subordinates. To honor and recognize the important role of the follower, the term followership started being used in conjunction with the term leadership (Kelley, 1988, 1992). Followership skills are those skills and processes practiced by members of groups. However, not all followers are alike. One taxonomy, presented in Figure 1.1, presents approaches to being a follower by considering both the individuals' commitment to performing in the group and their interest in group relationships. Imagine Maria, who is passive and unengaged in her group. She will do what is asked of her but is a passive participant; she is a subordinate. James does not engage much with other members of the group, but he is diligent about getting his tasks done and meeting his obligations; he is a contributor. Tonya uses her interpersonal skills and really knows how to network with others, but she does not always get her work done or show commitment to the group's task; she is a politician. Carl both embraces the task and wants to do good work, as well as join others in a successful team effort; he is a partner.
Figure 1.1 Follower Types
Source: Adapted from Porter, Rosenbach, & Pittman (2005), p. 149. Used with permission.
USAF Lieutenant Colonels Sharon Latour and Vicki Rast (2004) summarize their review of followership research and define effective followers as “individuals with high organizational commitment who are able to function well in a change-oriented team environment. Additionally, they are independent, critical thinkers with highly developed integrity and competency” (p. 6). They posit that dynamic followership is a prerequisite for effective leadership. (Chaleff, 1995; Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen, 2008) went a step further and encouraged followers to be courageous. Followers have special responsibilities to speak truth to leaders and to take risks when the leadership practices being used are not effective for the organization. The child abuse scandal of 2011 at Pennsylvania State University has many lessons for leadership and, for one, illustrated how important people in all levels of the organization were to bring needed information to those in control. For another, the case shows how hard it can be to speak truth to power. We explore this situation further in Chapter Six.
Just as there are skills or capacities to develop in leadership, many assert there are skills and capacities to develop to be an effective follower. Clearly there is a reciprocal relationship between the leader and the follower. Some authors advise followers how to be effective with their positional leaders. Lussier and Achua (2004) suggest that as a follower you should
Offer support to the leader
Take initiative
Play counseling and coaching roles to the leader, when appropriate
Raise issues and/or concerns when necessary
Seek and encourage honest feedback from the leader
Clarify your role and expectations
Show appreciation
Keep the leader informed
Resist inappropriate influence of the leader (p. 237)
Latour and Rast (2004) promote several categories of important follower competencies (see Table 1.1). These authors clarify that followership skills help develop leadership skills and are essential perspectives for teamwork.
Table 1.1 Follower Competencies
Competency
Description
Displays loyalty
Shows deep commitment to the organization, adheres to the boss's vision and priorities, disagrees agreeably, aligns personal and organizational goals
Functions well in change-oriented environments
Serves as a change agent, demonstrates agility, moves fluidly between leading and following
Functions well on teams
Collaborates, shares credit, acts responsibly toward others
Thinks independently and critically
Dissents courageously, takes the initiative, practices self-management
Considers integrity of paramount importance
Remains trustworthy, tells the truth, maintains the highest performance standards, admits mistakes
Source: Latour & Rast (2004), p. 111. Used with permission.
Because most of the followership models are presented in the context of a hierarchical authority figure interacting in some way to influence followers, these models may not transfer well to nonhierarchical groups or community contexts in which public leadership seeks to address shared issues (Luke, 1998). Nonhierarchical groups are groups that function as colleagues such a project groups, often without a designated leader, using processes of shared authority and power. Using public leadership as the context, Luke (1998) illustrates how the leader-follower dynamic differs in the public sector:
In an interconnected world, this model is simply inaccurate. One individual may be the leader who galvanizes and stimulates initial action. Then other leaders and autonomous stakeholders will refine the initial burst of vision, agree on directions for action, and pursue specific initiatives aimed at solving the program. Public leadership does not engage followers; rather, it involves collaborations, audiences, and other self-organizing groups … effective leaders are forced to become “leader-followers” simultaneously. Public leadership shifts, changes, and is shared at different times by different people in different organizations. (pp. 32–33)
We need to reconceptualize how we view followers and the nature of relationships in groups. It seems woefully inadequate to call group members by the term followers, implying they are following someone or something, unable to think for themselves, or remaining indifferent to the group's goals, when actually they are creating and shaping the context themselves.
What New Term for Followers?
Leadership scholars have been searching for a new term to more adequately describe followers for many years. Followers have been called members, employees, associates, or subordinates. Addressing this topic in the early years of relational leadership, Kouzes and Posner (1993) suggest calling them the constituents. “A constituent is someone who has an active part in the process of running an organization and who authorizes another to act on his or her behalf. A constituent confers authority on the leader, not the other way around” (p. xix). Although the concept is usually found in describing how constituents from their voting districts authorize political leaders, it is useful in other situations as well.
Imagine the senior class council discussing changes the provost's office is planning in the commencement ceremony; the president of the senior class is likely to be empowered by her constituents and expected to carry the wishes of the council to the provost for consideration. She would be speaking on behalf of others, not just carrying a personal opinion forward.
Crum (1987) likes the term co-creator, elevating the empowered, collaborative, transformational role of group members. “When we choose co-creation, we end separation, the root cause of conflict … They know through responsible participation that they can empower each other and ultimately their institutions and society, thereby creating a life that is meaningful and satisfying for everyone” (p. 175). Positional leaders who see group members as co-creators will take important decisions to the group and ask, “What do we want to do about this?”
Rost (1991) believes that the traditional meaning of the word follower is too embedded in all of our minds to adequately shift to a new meaning. He implores us to see that we have moved from an industrial worldview to a postindustrial era. In the industrial view, people in the organization are merely resources—like steel or other raw materials—whereas in the postindustrial view, people are essential because they bring information and wisdom and the capacity to adapt. Rost now encourages use of the term collaborator for the role of people in this new way of working together. He clarifies, “I now use the word followers when I write about leadership in the industrial paradigm. I use the word collaborators when I write about leadership in the postindustrial paradigm … no amount of reconstruction is going to salvage the word [follower]” (Rost, 1993, p. 109).
In this book, we use the term participant to refer to people involved in groups in this new paradigm. Participants are involved in the leadership process, actively sharing leadership with other group members, including with the titled leader. Participants include the informal or formal positional leader in a group, as well as all active group members who seek to be involved in group change. Participants are active, engaged, and intentional.
A Word About Leaders
The word leader
