The Handbook for Student Leadership Development E-Book

Susan R. Komives

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 696

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Praise for the Second Edition of The Handbook for Student Leadership Development "This is a must-have book for leadership educators and all student affairs professionals who want to develop impactful leadership programs and the leadership capacity of students. Buy it. Read it. Use it to develop the needed leadership for our collective future." -- CYNTHIA CHERREY, vice president for campus life, Princeton University, and president, the International Leadership Association "As we continue to encourage leadership behavior in young people, it is very easy to get lost in a forest of new theories, programs, and definitions. This handbook serves as the compass to guide us, and it grounds the field of student leadership development in principles and best practices. Our challenge is to put this work into action." --PAUL PYRZ, president, LeaderShape " Comprehensive in design and scope, the second edition of The Handbook is a theory and practice resource manual for every leadership educator--inside and outside of the classroom." --LAURA OSTEEN, director, the Center for Leadership and Civic Education, Florida State University " Every college administrator responsible for coordinating student leadership programming should have this book. The Handbook for Student Leadership Development takes the guesswork out of leadership program design, content, and delivery." --AINSLEY CARRY, vice president for student affairs, Auburn University " I recommend without hesitation the Handbook for Student Leadership Development to student affairs professionals who desire to enhance the leadership experiences for all their students as well as teachers who are seeking ways to bolster their students' classroom experiences." -- Dr. WILLIAM SMEDICK, director, Leadership Programs and Assessment, Office of the Dean of Student Life, and lecturer, Center for Leadership Education, Johns Hopkins University

Leseprobe

Contents

About the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs

Foreword

Preface

About the Authors and Editors

Chapter 1: Advancing Leadership Education

Professionalization of Leadership Education

Themes in the Development of Leadership Education

Current Issues and Needs

References

Part One: Foundations of Leadership Education

Chapter 2: Leadership Theories

The Role of Theory in Leadership Education

Evolution of Leadership Theory

Themes and Critiques in Interpreting Leadership Theory

Application of Theory to Practice

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3: Research on College Student Leadership Development

Reading and Understanding Leadership Research

What Is Known About College Student Leadership

Building an Evidence-Based Program

Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Considerations of Student Development in Leadership

Creating Environments That Influence Leadership Development

General Guidelines for Using Student Development Theory

Understanding the Individual

Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: Considerations of Student Learning in Leadership

Socialization to the Role of Leadership Educator

Creating Educationally Purposeful Leadership Learning Environments

Implications of Learning Theories for Leadership Development

Developing Learning Outcomes for Leadership

Assessing Leadership Learning

Conclusion

Learning Associations and Additional Resources

References

Part Two: Program Design

Chapter 6: Establishing and Advancing a Leadership Program

Connect to the Institution’s Mission

Create a Coalition and Vision Statement

Remove Barriers

Conclusion

Additional Resources

References

Chapter 7: Inclusive Design

What Is Inclusive Design?

What Is Inclusive Design in the Context of Leadership Development?

Special Considerations

Considerations for the Long Haul

Additional Resources

References

Chapter 8: Assessment and Evaluation

Issues and Tensions in Assessing Leadership

Assessing Leadership

Definitions

Approaches to Assessment

Levels of Assessment: Examples and Resources

Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Funding Leadership Programs

Internal Funding Sources

External Sources of Funding

Seeking External Funding

Conclusion

References

Part Three: Program Context

Chapter 10: Formal Leadership Program Models

Student Leadership Programs

Formal Leadership Program Model

Considerations for Diverse Student Populations

Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Curricular Programs

Determining Type of Curricular Offering and Academic Home

Course Design

Program Design

Course Instructors

Assessment

Conclusion

References

Appendix 11.1: Rollins College Course Proposal

2004–2005 New Course Proposal Form

References

Chapter 12: Cocurricular Programs

Foundation for Cocurricular Programs

Cocurricular Collaborations Within Student Affairs and Academic Affairs

Considerations in Program Design

Program Formats

Conclusion

Additional Resources

References

Part Four: Program Delivery

Chapter 13: Powerful Pedagogies

Pedagogy: Origin and Evolution

Practical Applications and Dimensions of Pedagogy

From Pedagogy to Practice

Conclusion

Additional Resources

References

Chapter 14: Considerations for Culture and Social Identity Dimensions

Overview of the Topic

Fostering Environments Responsive to Cultural Considerations in Leadership Development

Fostering Positive Leadership Experiences Across Student Populations

College Student Populations

Conclusion

References

Chapter 15: Contemporary Topics in Leadership

Civic and Community Engagement

References

Emotional Intelligence

References

Ethics

References

Integrative and Interdisciplinary Learning

References

Global Leadership

References

Positive Psychology

References

Spirituality

References

Conclusion

Epilogue

Name Index

Subject Index

Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The handbook for student leadership development/Susan R. Komives . . . [et al.].—2nd ed.

p. cm.—(The Jossey-Bass Higher and adult education series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-53107-5 (pbk.)

ISBN 978-1-118-00091-5 (ebk)

ISBN 978-1-118-00092-2 (ebk)

ISBN 978-1-118-00093-9 (ebk)

1. Student affairs services—United States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. College student development programs—United States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Counseling in higher education—United States—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Komives, Susan R., 1946-

LB2342.92.K65 2011

378.1'98—dc22

2010046964

The Jossey-Bass Higher and

Adult Education Series

About the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs

The national clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (NCLP) provides a central clearinghouse of leadership materials, resources, and assistance for leadership educators. NCLP members receive publications, access to Web resources, consultation assistance, and networking opportunities with other professionals engaged in leadership education with a focus on college students. The NCLP supports cutting-edge research on leadership development and the dissemination of knowledge through a member listserv, Web site, institutes, symposia, and high-quality publications. The diversity of leadership programs in higher education and the dynamic nature of the subject challenges student affairs educators and faculty to continually create and refine programs, training techniques, and contemporary models to fit the changing context of leadership education. The NCLP exists to help meet that challenge.

The NCLP is also excited about recent products associated with the Social Change Model of Leadership Development, including the SRLSonline, the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership, and the student textbook, Leadership for a Better World. Various activities to advance student leadership are shared on an NCLP wiki site. For more information on these and other resources, visit www.socialchangemodel.org.

The NCLP is proud of this publication, The Handbook for Student Leadership Development (second edition), as it complements other NCLP resources related to leadership education. The development and implementation of leadership programs on campus enriches communities and changes the world. Thank you for using this book as a resource as you embark on that endeavor. Visit www.nclp.umd.edu for more information on the NCLP and leadership education products.

Craig Slack

NCLP Director

Dr. Susan R. Komives

NCLP Research and Scholarship Editor

Foreword

Dennis C. Roberts

The Handbook forStudent Leadership Development (second edition) comes at an important moment in the history of higher education. It punctuates our consideration of leadership at a time learning as we know it is being recalibrated through the use of more effective pedagogies of teaching and as our awareness of the diversity of the human experience deepens. This recalibration will help leadership educators as they seek to be more effective in serving the needs of prospective employers and communities and as our world continues to shrink. Susan Komives and her collaborating editors and authors capture a vast array of information that can be read as background when designing or revising student leadership programs, and the Handbook is likely to become a resource that will be consulted when questions arise about how your effectiveness in cultivating leadership among your students can be enhanced.

Details flooded my memory as I read the chapters included here. The memories began with the group formed by the American College Personnel Association’s (ACPA) Commission IV Leadership Task Force in 1976 to explore what was happening in cocurricular leadership programs of that day. The work of the task force and publication of its recommendations on how to formulate comprehensive leadership strategies in Student Leadership Programs in Higher Education (Roberts, 1981) started by challenging the “star” system of leadership identification and support. The 1960s and 1970s were a time when many systems were being challenged, especially in relation to broadening participation in education and fostering more democratic forms of learning in the academy and society at large. To its credit, the ACPA Commission IV Task Force recognized that the star system had to change, and it took on the challenge of describing how that might be done.

Student Leadership Programs in Higher Education (Roberts, 1981) and the second edition of the Handbook are synchronous and evolutionary. Both propose that there are three broad areas where multiple approaches are required in order to achieve comprehensiveness: purposes, strategies, and populations. So much more detail is possible in 2010, primarily because of the seriousness with which so many leadership educators have taken their work in the years between 1981 and now. But the point is still the same: moving from a “star” or privileged leader perspective can be accomplished only if the multiple purposes of training, education, and development are reflected in our work; multiple strategies as varied as student organization experiences, courses, living groups, service, study abroad, and more are available; and the breadth of multiple student populations and their special needs are addressed in the comprehensive program.

Some of the notable additions that the second edition of the Handbook makes to the core assumptions of comprehensive leadership programs advocated in 1981 include the importance of coupling student engagement and leadership, blurring the distinctions among various types of leadership educators, using the exploration of diversity to enhance leadership insight, assessing progress and outcomes in leadership learning, and seeing the power of the institutional environment as a source of learning about leadership. The blind spot of those of us who worked during the early days of leadership learning was that we didn’t realize that this work had to include both in- and out-of-class opportunities. It’s hard to say why the broader emphasis on leadership throughout all students’ experiences was neglected. It was probably the result of student affairs practice that differentiated the roles and purposes of faculty in the classroom and student affairs staff in residence halls, student organizations, sports, and leadership. As considerable research has now confirmed, and professional association statements have articulated, there is too much to be gained by reintegrating students’ in- and out-of-class experiences; the second edition Handbook makes this clear, as do my own updated perspectives recently published in Deeper Learning in Leadership: Helping College Students Find the Potential Within (Roberts, 2007).

As you delve into the important ideas in the following pages, perhaps acknowledging areas where your work in the future could help drive leadership learning even deeper would be useful. I start with an assumption that all the authors represented here have contributed their best thinking and that they have given nothing but the highest quality in their effort. However, there are always opportunities to push further, and three specific areas that I propose could benefit from additional attention and critical analysis follow. The first area is building full, complete, and mutual partnerships. As I’ve indicated, faculty and student affairs partnerships are critical; while significant advances are offered in the new Handbook, more ideas and strategies will be required in order to reach our full potential. And the partnerships need to broaden to include communities outside higher education; most specifically, prospective employers have to be embraced as major stakeholders.

The second area relates to inclusivity. Inclusive practice is advocated throughout the chapters; however, most of these references are confined to the North American context. One of the more debilitating outcomes of the “post–September 11, 2001” and 2007 recession era has been the inner-focused attention of some U.S. citizens. If higher education’s focus on engaged learning and leadership began including the broader diversity of our world, perhaps a new globally inclusive, integrated, and mutually beneficial perspective would emerge.

The third gap area is in the critical role of collaborators. Most leadership research and theory, even if focused primarily on positional leaders, recognizes that leaders have to have others who are willing to work with them or follow them. The question is, have we looked carefully enough into honoring the critical importance of collaborators and have we especially considered the vulnerability that we frequently have when followers and collaborators lack the strength to contradict, stand up against, and to offer alternatives to toxic and manipulative leadership? Partnerships, inclusivity, and collaborators who counter bad leaders—perhaps these are the scaffolding for the future as the many wonderful ideas documented in the second edition Handbook find a place in the important work of leadership learning.

“Leadership development—a challenge for the future” (Roberts, 1981) described conditions of the day that would require “a leader who knows self well; can analyze and diagnose environments; is able to be flexible and appropriately adapt to the situation; and who, in the end, has the foresight and imagination to see what the organization can be” (p. 212).

Little has changed from this perspective, other than the crushing realization that the world in which we live in 2010 is even more complex than in 1981. With the dedication of leadership educators around the globe, the complexity of the 21st century can be addressed, and I have overwhelming confidence that we have the conviction to do what needs to be done. To be effective, we need only act on our conviction in ways that communicate to others that we value their inclusion, remain open to other emerging possibilities, and model the integrative learning that we know our students will have to exhibit in order to be successful in their work.

The Handbook for Student Leadership Development (second edition) provides a substantive and potentially transforming compilation of resources for your use. In some ways it is remarkable that higher education’s focus on leadership in and out of class has come so far that this compilation is even possible. As several of the authors of these chapters have noted, our knowledge is still incomplete. If the graduates of colleges and universities around the world are to recognize their capability and be willing to serve in leadership roles far, wide, and deep, leadership educators must continue to exhibit critical thought about the content of leadership and must be role models of growing self-awareness that will allow new horizons to be broken in the coming years.

References

Roberts, D. C. (Ed.). (1981). Student leadership programs in higher education. Carbondale, IL: American College Personnel Association.

Roberts, D. C. (2007). Deeper learning in leadership: Helping college students find the potential within. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Preface

Since the early 1990s, the field of leadership studies has expanded, campus leadership programs have multiplied across institutional types, standards of practice have been developed, and professional associations and colleges have asserted that leadership is a desirable college outcome. Scholars have developed models of leadership, and researchers have studied developmental processes and the college experiences that contribute to increasing complexity in capacities and the internal belief systems that inform them. Leadership educators, however, continue to seek useful materials to inform the design and implementation of effective campus leadership programs.

In 2006, the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (NCLP) addressed the need for program design materials with the first edition of The Handbook for Student Leadership Programs. This practical handbook addressed the growing emphasis on theory and research, outcomes and assessment, curricular and cocurricular programs, pedagogical strategies with a focus on diverse student populations, as well as funding and evaluating leadership programs.

Building on the positive reception received from the first edition, NCLP has partnered with Jossey-Bass to publish this enhanced version of the Handbook. The editors consulted over a dozen leadership education experts in the redesign of Handbook content. Their contributions are acknowledged at the end of the Preface.

Purpose of the Book

This Handbook was developed to provide a practical and applied approach to the development of leadership programs that are theoretically grounded and evidence based. Our friend and leadership scholar Gil Hickman in the Jepson School of Leadership Studies at the University of Richmond wisely called these leadership educators—”pracademics.” The Handbook redesign supports these scholar-practitioners in their noble work.

We hope our colleagues in student affairs divisions will find this Handbook useful, whether they are beginning a new program, redesigning a targeted program, or enhancing their complex and sophisticated programs. We suggest that new leadership educators read this Handbook front to back to obtain foundational frameworks in leadership and designing leadership programs and then practical applications for those programs. The Handbook also serves as a manual for more seasoned leadership educators who want more information on a vast array of topics linked to program management, such as seeking external funding or assessment. We also encourage all readers to join the NCLP (www.nclp.umd.edu) and share their best practices to continue the evolution of quality leadership programs for students.

Philosophy of the Book

There are a plethora of philosophies and frameworks for teaching leadership. We encourage readers to explore several when they develop new campus programs. This book espouses a distinct philosophy in concert with student affairs principles and perspectives. Although many of the resources in this book could be useful despite the models an individual campus may adopt, our underlying premise includes the beliefs that:

1. Leadership can be learned.

2. Leadership capacity is a developmental process.

3. All students can develop leadership.

4. Institutions must seek to develop leadership capacity in all students.

5. Relational, ethical approaches to leadership should be central to college programs.

6. Diverse strategies and diverse approaches for diverse students are essential.

7. Intentional design and assessment of student leadership programs is critical.

This Handbook focuses on college student leadership education, referring to the scholarship and practices that are applied to the intentional development of leadership capacity in students. The Handbook does not explore the evolution of leadership studies, meaning the academic study of leadership as a discipline or in the various disciplines in which leadership is also situated. The intersections of these domains, however, are noted on occasion throughout the Handbook.

Organization of the Book

This expanded version of the Handbook incorporates the latest scholarship, theory, and research to guide intentional practice in developing college student leadership. Several authors from the first edition have updated their chapters, other chapters have been redesigned, and there are completely new chapters.

Chapter 1 (Advancing Leadership Education) grounds the context of student leadership education in higher education by tracing key historical developments and recent trends that have led to a professionalization of the field of leadership education. The chapter identifies current issues and needs in the field of leadership education. Following the introductory chapter, the Handbook is organized into four parts focusing on foundations of leadership education, program design, program context, and program delivery (see Figure P.1).

Figure P.1: Conceptual Design of the Handbook

Part 1 (Foundations of Leadership Education) is comprised of four chapters. Chapter 2 (Leadership Theory) is a complete revision of the chapter from the first edition and presents an overview of the evolution of leadership theory including the paradigm shift that led to collaborative, postindustrial theories. The chapter takes a social justice approach to examining leadership theory and focuses on theories or models used in the student leadership development context, such as the relational leadership model (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007), the social change model of leadership development (Higher Education Research Institute, 1996; Komives & Wagner, 2009), the leadership challenge (Kouzes & Posner, 2007), and others. Chapter 3 (Research on College Student Leadership Development) is a chapter new to this edition that complements the theory chapter by exploring what is empirically known about college student leadership development. The chapter draws on a wide range of research (e.g., Kellogg studies, Cooperative Institutional Research Program [CIRP] databases, the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership, and the Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education) to identify patterns of influence that emerge across studies and represent the most potent variables in shaping college student leadership development. This includes an examination of how key demographic characteristics may influence the ways students perceive leadership and what contributes to their leadership development. Significant attention is directed at exploring how dimensions of the college environment (e.g., institutional characteristics, programs, services) influence leadership development, including recommendations for research and practice. Chapter 4 (Considerations of Student Development in Leadership) is a new chapter that describes how the scholarship and literature on student development theory should ground the leadership educator’s work in designing leadership programs. Using the leadership identity development model as a unifying theme, the intersections of interpersonal and intrapersonal development, identity development, and cognitive development are described. The chapter also addresses the appropriate use of developmental theory in creating learning environments that meet students at their current levels of readiness for thinking about and involvement in leadership, prepare them for more complex thinking and engagement, and challenge them to reach more complex levels of leadership practice. Chapter 5 (Considerations of Student Learning in Leadership) is the final chapter in the foundations part of the Handbook. This chapter is a major reframing from that in the first edition of the book and presents overviews and key models on how students learn, including Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning model and Baxter Magolda’s (2002) learning partnership model. It sets the foundation for structuring leadership programs characterized by deep learning and developmental outcomes.

Part 2 (Program Design) includes four chapters that draw upon content from the foundations chapters to examine contextual applications in building a cohesive, evidence-based, and effective leadership program. Chapter 6 (Establishing and Advancing a Leadership Program) is a critical new chapter that serves as a practical guide to using strategic planning processes and the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education resources to establish and sustain a leadership program. The chapter emphasizes the significant role of mission and shared purpose in program design. It also explores dimensions of change processes to guide campus adoption of new leadership initiatives. It addresses institutional type differences (e.g., historically Black colleges and universities, community colleges) and provides examples of the processes and outcomes through which various campuses chose models or philosophies as building blocks for their leadership programs. Chapter 7 (Inclusive Design) is a new chapter that supports the premise that the increasingly diverse context of higher education and student affairs practice requires leadership educators to consider principals of universal design that allow for the greatest degree of access to programs and services. The chapter addresses ways in which social justice, application of multicultural design principals, and knowledge of social identities can be used as framing tools to increase the accessibility of leadership content to the broadest possible cross-section of students. Chapter 8 (Assessment and Evaluation) is a revision of the chapter in the first edition, exploring resources for both individual and programmatic assessments. The chapter presents assessment models and practical, uncomplicated strategies for using both quantitative and qualitative methods to enhance the quality and effectiveness of educational interventions and trainings. Chapter 9 (Funding Leadership Programs) is a revision from the first edition that examines the process of grant acquisition to support leadership programs. It presents sources of funding with a focus on foundation grants. It also includes internal funding sources such as student fees, fundraisers, and cosponsorship of programs. The chapter from the first edition is updated to include a grant proposal that users can use as a template for the development of their own proposals.

Part 3 (Program Context) builds upon Parts 2 and 3 by examining how contextual dimensions of campuses should inform the design and delivery of leadership development programs. Chapter 10 (Formal Leadership Program Models) is a revision from the first edition. This chapter includes an updated model to guide program structure and process considerations for implementation that take into account distinctions between comprehensive and integrative approaches. Additional material addresses program design for key audiences (e.g., commuters, transfer students, graduate and professional students, international students, community college students, and adult learners). Chapter 11 (Curricular Programs) is a revision and expansion of the same chapter from the first edition. The chapter includes considerations for the design of an introductory leadership course, including content, elements in a syllabus, and processes for institutional approval. Sample course proposals and syllabi appear as resources. The chapter adds a more thorough treatment of designing and seeking approval for leadership certificates, leadership minors, and leadership majors. Chapter 12 (Cocurricular Programs) is also a revision from the first edition. The chapter explores student involvement and student engagement in the cocurriculum specifically in student organizations. It advocates for academic affairs and student affairs partnerships. The chapter summarizes key cocurricular functions and the ways leadership development can serve as a base for partnerships across campus. It presents key formats used in cocurricular leadership programs such as retreats, conferences, and various approaches to training and includes leadership practices in diverse student affairs functional areas.

Part 4 (Program Delivery) builds upon prior parts through the examination of unique considerations in the delivery of leadership development programs. Chapter 13 (Powerful Pedagogies) is a new chapter that consolidates materials that appeared throughout the first edition. It identifies powerful pedagogies that are defined as high-impact learning strategies proven to make a difference in building students’ leadership capacities. Examining both the pedagogy and platforms for delivering them, the chapter explores topics such as mentoring and advising, peer education, experiential learning, sociocultural conversations, immersion programs, service learning, community-based research, contemplative practice/critical reflection, and opportunities for increasing self-awareness. Chapter 14 (Considerations for Culture and Social Identity Dimensions) is a revision of the same chapter from the first edition. The chapter expands to include additional social identities and a greater breadth of literature and resources related to student subpopulations. It includes a new section on cross-cultural applications and reflects an overarching shift in focus from covering student subpopulations from an essentialist perspective to examining the unique experiences and needs of students using a social justice lens. Part 4 concludes with Chapter 15 (Contemporary Topics in Leadership). In this chapter, the editing team and chapter authors have deliberated and carefully selected topics that are often connected with leadership in current scholarship and practice. These topics include emotional intelligence, ethics, spirituality, civic and community engagement, positive psychology, integrative and interdisciplinary learning, and global leadership. Each topic is presented with an overview, select resources, learning objectives, and suggested assignments. Activities for these topics appear in the NCLP wiki.

The Handbook concludes with an Epilogue. The epilogue addresses the reader as a leadership educator and discusses the importance of modeling and mentoring, self-reflection, and includes tips and resources for teaching.

Acknowledgments

The editors are grateful to the authors of the first edition of this book (Edward Bempong, Susannah Berwager, Mike Doyle, Keith Edwards, Megan Forbes, Sean Gerhke, Paige Haber, Mary Lott, Marlena Martinez, Daniel Ostick, Jeremy Page, John Shertzer, Jen Smist, and Angie Vineyard) published in 2006 by the NCLP. Their conceptualization of key resources in designing campus leadership programs guided the design of this second edition revision.

We are particularly grateful to the many members of the NCLP, American College Personnel Association’s Commission on Student Involvement, and National Association of Student Personnel Administrator’s Student Leadership Knowledge Community who shared their thoughts on needed elements for this second edition. Special thanks to the leadership educators who readily responded to our invitation and reviewed the first edition and sent us such helpful specific feedback, including Aaron Asmundson (University of Minnesota), Richard Couto (Union Institute and University), Beverly Dalrymple (Florida International University), William Faulkner (NOVA Southeastern), Cheryl Jenkins (Meredith College), Jan Lloyd (Florida Southern University), Jessica Manno (Lehigh University), Nancy Mathias (St. Norbert College), June Nobbe (University of Minnesota), Angela Passarelli (Case Western Reserve University), Rueben Perez (University of Kansas), and Kathy Shellogg (Nebraska Wesleyan University). The reviewers assigned by Jossey-Bass were also exceptionally helpful. Our significant gratitude to Loyola University Chicago graduate students Mike Beazley, Michele Mackie, Ana del Castillo, Diana Chavez, and Cori Kodama who assisted us in the management of the project. A very special thanks to University of Maryland doctoral student and NCLP graduate coordinator, Kristan Cilente, who assisted us with every step of the process, as well as Josh Hiscock, who assisted with book production.

A heartfelt thanks goes to the editorial and marketing team at Jossey-Bass. Special thanks to Erin Null, whose support of NCLP becoming a Jossey-Bass partner and her vision for the contribution of the book to the advancement of college student leadership is appreciated.

As an editorial team, we appreciate and acknowledge the truly collaborative work of our team at every stage of the process. We treasure each other. It is comforting to know that the leadership principles we value and advance served us well as we worked together toward the completion of this book.

Susan R. Komives

University of Maryland

John P. Dugan

Loyola University Chicago

Julie E. Owen

George Mason University

Craig Slack

University of Maryland

Wendy Wagner

George Mason University

References

Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2002, January–February). Helping students to make their way to adulthood: Good company for the journey. About Campus, 2–9.

Higher Education Research Institute. (1996). A social change model of leadership development: Guidebook version III. College Park, MD: National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Komives, S. R., Lucas, N., & McMahon, T. R. (2007) Exploring leadership (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Komives, S. R., & Wagner, W. (Eds.). (2009). Leadership for a better world: Understanding the social change model of leadership development. A publication of the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

About the Authors and Editors

Jan Arminio has worked in higher education since 1978, after having completed her master’s degree at Bowling Green State University. Her student affairs practice included work in residence life, student activities, judicial affairs, and multicultural affairs. She earned her doctorate at the University of Maryland, College Park, in 1994 and currently is department chair and teaches in the Department of Counseling and Personnel Services at Shippensburg University, Pennsylvania. She frequently writes, consults, and makes presentations about inclusion and assessment. She served as president of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education from 2004 to 2008 and currently chairs the Senior Scholars of the ACPA: College Student Educators International. In 2007 she was honored with the Thomas M. Magoon Distinguished Alumna Award from the University of Maryland, College Park, Department of Counseling and Student Personnel Services and in 2008 was the recipient of the Founder’s Award for Lifetime Achievement by the National Association of Campus Activities.

Kristan Cilente is a program support assistant for the Advisory Committee on Measures of Student Success at the National Center for Education Statistics in the U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C. She formerly served as the graduate coordinator for the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs and is a doctoral candidate in the College Student Personnel Program at the University of Maryland, College Park. Her research interests include student leadership development and short-term, service immersion programs. She is a chapter author in Leadership for a Better World (Jossey-Bass, 2009) and coauthor of a forthcoming article in the Journal of College Student Development. She is a former member of the ACPA: College Student Educators International Executive Council and former chair of ACPA’s Standing Committee for Graduate Students and New Professionals. She earned her master’s degree in higher education administration from the University of Arizona and her bachelor’s degree in sociology and history from the College of William & Mary.

John P. Dugan currently serves as an assistant professor in the Higher Education graduate program at Loyola University Chicago, where he teaches courses in social justice, leadership development, and student development theory. He previously worked professionally in leadership development at the University of Nevada Las Vegas. He is coeditor of the first edition of the Handbook for Student Leadership Programs (NCLP, 2006) and author of Cross Cultural Leadership, a monograph in the NCLP Insights & Applications Series. He has published research on leadership grounded in the social change model in the Journal of College Student Development, NASPA Journal, Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, and Oracle. He has been co-principal investigator for the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership since 2005. John is a past recipient of the ACPA: College Educators International Burns B. Crookston Doctoral Research Award, Nevitt Sanford Award for Research in Student Affairs, Emerging Professional Annuit Coeptis, and he was named an Emerging Scholar for 2008–2009. He is the first recipient of the Susan R. Komives Student Leadership Researcher Award given by the NASPA Knowledge Community on Student Leadership Programs.

Paige Haber is an instructor for the Department of Leadership Studies at the University of San Diego and the Department of Organizational Leadership at Chapman University as well as a doctoral student in the Leadership Studies Program at the University of San Diego. Her scholarly interests include college student leadership development, the development of formal leadership programs, women’s leadership, and emotional intelligence. Paige’s professional involvements include the International Leadership Association, ACPA: College Student Educators International Commission for Student Involvement, and LeaderShape. Paige is the author of chapters in the Peer Education Sourcebook (Jossey-Bass, in press), Leadership in Nonprofit Organizations (Sage, 2010), Handbook on Leadership (Sage, in press), and The Emotionally Intelligent Leadership Facilitator’s Guide (Jossey-Bass, 2010). Paige earned her master’s degree in College Student Personnel from the University of Maryland and bachelor’s degrees in business management and German studies from the University of Arizona.

Susan R. Komives is a professor of College Student Personnel at the University of Maryland. She is cofounder of the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (NCLP) and serves as research and scholarship editor of the NCLP publication, Concepts & Connections. She is coauthor of Exploring Leadership (Jossey-Bass, 1998, 2007), Management and LeadershipIssues for a New Century (Jossey-Bass, 2000), coeditor of Leadership for a Better World (Jossey-Bass, 2009), and Student Services (Jossey-Bass, 1996, 2003). She was a member of the ensemble that developed the social change model of leadership development. Her leadership research includes serving as principle investigator for a grounded theory on leadership identity development (Journal of College StudentDevelopment, 2005, 2006) and is co-principal investigator for the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership. She is the president of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education. In addition to receiving local and national teaching and mentoring awards, in 2006 Susan was honored with both the ACPA: College Student Educators International’s Contribution to Knowledge Award and the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators’ Outstanding Contribution to Literature or Research Award.

Marlena Martinez Love is the assistant dean and director of Fraternities, Sororities, and Living Groups at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Her scholarly interests include student leadership development, the fraternal movement, and how socioeconomic status relates to the cocurricular involvement of college students. She is the chair of the ACPA: College Student Educators International Commission for Student Involvement and a member of the Association of Fraternity/Sorority Advisors. She earned her masters degree in College Student Personnel at the University of Maryland, College Park, and a bachelor’s degree from the University of Florida.

Felicia Mainella is an associate professor of Leadership Studies and the Leadership Studies’ program coordinator at Peace College. She teaches such courses as Foundations of Leadership, Group Process and Dynamics, Ethics and Leadership, Women and Leadership, and Contexts of Leadership. Felicia received a BS degree in Theatre from the University of Evansville and an MA degree in Higher Education and Student Affairs from Bowling Green State University. She completed a PhD in College Student Personnel with a concentration in leadership development and ethics from the University of Maryland, College Park. Felicia helped develop the Center for Student Leadership and Public Service at Bradley University before pursuing a doctoral degree. Felicia was a member of a research team that completed a grounded theory study on leadership identity development that has resulted in a stage-based leadership development model and several publications.

Cara Meixner is an assistant professor of psychology and assistant director of the Center for Faculty Innovation at James Madison University. Cara’s research focuses on community-based advocacy for individuals with traumatic brain injuries, with a focus on leadership and change at the individual, group, and societal levels. Cara is also interested in how faculty members develop in the context of innovative, experiential course opportunities. Cara earned a PhD in Leadership and Change at Antioch University, an MA in Counseling and Personnel Services at University of Maryland, College Park, and a BS in Health Services Administration at James Madison University. She is a proud member of the LeaderShape Institute’s lead facilitation community and serves on the board of directors of Crossroads to Brain Injury Recovery, Inc.

Art Munin serves higher education in several different roles. At DePaul University he serves as assistant dean of students, working extensively with student advocacy, education, and conduct, in addition to being an adjunct professor in the Counseling Program and Liberal Studies Program. He is also an adjunct professor in Loyola University Chicago’s Higher Education program teaching a course entitled “Social Justice in Higher Education.” Last, he has worked with higher education institutions, not-for-profits, and municipalities all over the country through his company, Art Munin Consulting (www.artmunin.com). He earned a PhD in higher education and an MEd in community counseling at Loyola University Chicago as well as an MA in multicultural communication at DePaul University. Art’s scholarly interests include White privilege, ally development, diversity and justice education methods, leadership, and socially just decision making.

Daniel T. Ostick is the coordinator for Leadership Curriculum and Development and Academic Partnerships for the Adele H. Stamp Student Union-Center for Campus Life at the University of Maryland, College Park. He serves on the team coordinating the Counseling and Personnel Services Department’s minor in leadership studies as well. He is a chapter author in Leadership for a Better World (Jossey-Bass, 2009), a coeditor of the Leadership for a Better World Instructors Manual (Jossey-Bass, 2010), and has research interests in LGBT development and leadership theory. He is a doctoral candidate in the College Student Personnel program at the University of Maryland, earned a master’s in College Student Personnel Administration from Indiana University, and obtained a bachelor’s degree from the University of Georgia.

Julie E. Owen is an assistant professor of Leadership and Integrative Studies in New Century College at George Mason University. She is the coeditor of the first edition of the Handbook for Student Leadership Programs (NCLP, 2006) and coauthor of the Instructor’s Guide for Exploring Leadership (Jossey-Bass, 2007); An Examination of Leadership Assessment (Leadership Insights & Applications, 2001); From Competence to Commitment (Leadership Insights & Applications, 2001). Julie is a co-principal investigator for the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership focusing on the institutional survey and is a research team member for the leadership identity development project. She is a member of the Electronic Portfolio Research Coalition Cohort III and received the 2008 Council for the Advancement of Higher Education (CAS) Research Grant. Julie is a cochair and eight-time associate with the National Leadership Symposium. She is a director on CAS representing the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs. She received the 2005 K. Patricia Cross Future Leader Award from American Association for Higher Education and is a frequent presenter, consultant, and keynote speaker on topics related to leadership, social change, and organizational development.

Dave Rosch serves as the assistant director of the Illinois Leadership Center at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. There, he coordinates the assessment of campus-based leadership programs, teaches leadership classes in group dynamics, systems thinking, and leadership ethics and multiculturalism and oversees various cocurricular leadership programs. He has published many articles on pedagogy and leadership and currently serves as the membership chair within the Leadership Education Member Interest Group in the International Leadership Association. He earned a doctorate in Higher Education Administration from Syracuse University, a master’s in Student Affairs in Higher Education from Colorado State University, and a bachelor’s degree from Binghamton University (New York).

Craig Slack is the assistant director for the Stamp Student Union and Campus Programs at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he directs the Leadership, Community Service Learning and Involvement area. He also serves as the director of the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs. Craig is an affiliate instructor in the Counseling and Personnel Services Department. He was a coeditor of the first edition of the Handbook for Student Leadership Programs (NCLP, 2006). Craig formerly served as the director of Student Involvement at the University of Denver and as the coordinator of Student Organizations at Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas. He serves on the board for the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education. He is also member of the planning teams for the National Leadership Symposium and National Leadership Educators Institute, both cosponsored by the NCLP.

Jennifer A. Smist is the assistant director of the Center for Leadership Education and Service at the University of North Carolina-Wilmington (UNCW). She is the chapter author of “Leadership and Citizenship” for UNCW’s freshman seminar textbook, Focus on Success (Kendall-Hunt, 2010). She is a member of the Directorate of the Commission for Student Involvement through ACPA: College Student Educators International and held leadership positions as Resource Fair Chair and Vice Chair for Programs. She earned a master’s degree in College Student Personnel from the University of Maryland, College Park and a bachelor’s degree in psychology from Boston University.

Angie Vineyard is the founder and executive director of Families for All Children, a start-up nonprofit organization devoted to recruiting adoptive parents for children in Washington, D.C., foster care. Prior to her work at Families for All Children, she served as the assistant director of development for the National Council for Adoption and as the grants coordinator for the Division of Student Affairs at the University of Maryland. She received a B.S. in English literature from Samford University. Angie has served at nonprofit organizations in Washington, D.C., as a research fellow and speechwriter focusing on public policy issues.

Vernon A. Wall has accumulated more than 25 years of professional student affairs experience at Iowa State University, the University of Georgia, University of North Carolina–Charlotte, and University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill. He has experience in Greek life, new student orientation, student activities, leadership development, global education, and university housing. Vernon currently lives in Washington, D.C., where he serves as the director of Educational Programs and Publications for ACPA: College Student Educators International. Vernon has received several awards for his contributions to the quality of student life, is a nationally known speaker in the areas of social justice and leadership styles, and is one of the founders and facilitators of the Social Justice Training Institute. Vernon has written several articles and has coedited two books on issues of inclusion for today’s college campus. He received a master’s degree in College Student Personnel Administration from Indiana University and a bachelor’s degree in political science from North Carolina State University. He can be reached at www.vernonwall.org.

Wendy Wagner is a faculty member in integrated studies at George Mason University and director of the George Mason Center for Leadership and Community Engagement. She is coeditor of Leadership for a Better World (Jossey-Bass, 2009), coeditor of the Handbook for Student Leadership Programs (NCLP, 2006), and lead editor of the instructor manual for Leadership for a Better World (2010). She has both served as a consultant and published on the social change model. She is the former coordinator of the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs and former coordinator of the University of Maryland America Reads*America Counts program. She has taught numerous undergraduate and graduate-level leadership courses. She has been a member of the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership research team for the 2006 and 2009 studies. Her current research is a validation study of the leadership identity development model.

Chapter 1

Advancing Leadership Education

Susan R. Komives

Since my first year in higher education more than 45 years ago, I have been fascinated by student leadership development. As an undergraduate positional student leader at Florida State University, I became aware of what I would now call my “leadership identity.” As a new professional at the University of Tennessee, I wove leadership into my resident assistant training course in 1970. It was also at the University of Tennessee that—following the maxim that one’s scholarship is largely autobiographical—my dissertation in 1973 was on leadership. Concurrently, as a young woman professional when the glass ceiling was cracking, I gained tremendous affirmation from numerous professional sessions focused on women’s leadership and career advancement. Gender attributions and difference in leadership fascinated me! Subsequently, at Denison University a colleague and I designed an undergraduate leadership course in 1974 and started offering student leadership workshops, often in trade with colleagues at nearby universities for programs they would do on my campus.

In those early years, Greenleaf’s (1970/1991) servant leadership work came to me as an underground movement. Copies of Greenleaf’s papers and those by such thinkers as Kathy Allen and Parker Palmer were typed on stencils or dittoes, passed around among friends as “must-reads,” and then photocopied so many times they became illegible. Those of us passionate about leadership began finding each other at conferences sponsored by associations like the American College Personnel Association (ACPA), and longtime colleague Denny Roberts and others began coalescing around a movement to focus professionally on college student leadership development. It is truly exciting to see the evolution of these efforts over the years and the many threads that have woven the rich and thick leadership education tapestry we find today.

This chapter sets the context of college student leadership development in higher education by tracing select historical developments and recent trends that have enhanced the field of leadership education. It identifies current issues and needs in leadership education, focusing on college student leadership programs. As noted in the Preface, the focus of this Handbook is on college programs, with a specific emphasis on programs in student affairs. Our thesis is that all leadership educators are responsible for this shared journey of advancing the college student leadership agenda, and readers can situate themselves in areas that need their attention, pique their interests, and use their talents.

Professionalization of Leadership Education

Over the past 30 years, leadership education has evolved from a fragmented set of atheoretical (even antitheoretical), uncoordinated activities with little common language or practices to a field with established theoretical frames, conceptual models, standards of practice, and diverse pedagogical strategies. The field has a body of scholarship, emergent assessment and research, and support systems for practitioners such as professional associations and graduate preparation courses, all evidencing a student-centered focus incorporating and responsive to student diversity (Astin & Astin, 2000; Brungardt, 1996; Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001; Dugan & Komives, 2007; Komives, Dugan, Owen, Slack, & Wagner, 2006; Komives, Longerbeam, Mainella, Osteen, Owen, & Wagner, 2009). The emergent professionalism in the field is encouraging.

Themes in the Development of Leadership Education

The history of leadership education is intertwined with the evolution of leadership studies. This analysis includes select initiatives in leadership studies that propelled the development of leadership education. The analysis that follows benefited from observers of this evolution, including Georgia Sorenson’s (2000) analysis of the leadership studies history with an emphasis on the role of James MacGregor Burns; Mark Troyer’s (1997, 2004) reviews of the field and case studies of several leadership curricular centers; and Renardo Hall’s reflections on Black student leadership programs (personal communication, July 27, 2009).

In the mid-1990s, I began to chronicle influences on the development of college student leadership programs (see Appendix 1.1 at the end of this chapter: Select Chronology of Influences on the Contemporary Development of College Student Leadership Programs and Related Activities). From that first analysis it became clear to me that a coalescence of events from the 1980s and early 1990s palpably shaped the field of college leadership education, resulting in impressive depth and breadth. Denny Roberts’s (2007) overview of the evolution of the field of leadership education woven with student affairs philosophies and values provides additional wisdom and insight into this history. Although informed by many colleagues over the years, with my appreciation, the full responsibility for the chapter’s weaknesses is mine, and I acknowledge it is “the-leadership-world-according-to-Susan” and as such brings the frames and lenses I have to making meaning of this evolution.

APPENDIX 1.1: Select Chronology of Influences on the Contemporary Development of College Student Leadership Programs and Related Activities*

The advancing field of leadership education was informed by the evolution of scholarship, the cross-fertilization of interested professionals in association settings, the growing work of clearinghouses, centers, and institutes, and the blossoming and sharing of diverse pedagogies. The sophistication in those elements led to the establishment of standards of practice, the development of theories and models for the college population, assessment measures, and increased scholarly research. Woven through all these elements was a commitment to student-centered practices that advanced the leadership capacity of diverse students working in diverse contexts. Current developments include the emergence of the “student leadership industry” with contributions from publishers, consultants, professional speakers, and private companies that sponsor student leadership institutes, assessment measures, and training institutes.

Although there is one grand narrative interweaving all these elements (as elements became normative, other dimensions emerged and some developed in tandem), this section of the chapter presents some dimensions in the evolution of each theme so that the reader can see one perspective on the growing complexity and depth of the state of the field. Certainly there are many more contributions and facts that can be included; those stated illustrate the evolution of key themes, often highlighting the first or early contributions to the field.

Associations and Their Support

Professional interest in leadership has existed for generations in student affairs work. In 1974, a number of student affairs professionals dedicated to leadership education expanded their work in ACPA and formed the Inter-Associational Task Force on Leadership Development, reaching out to like-minded professionals in such groups as the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA), the Association of College and University Housing Officers-International (ACUHO-I), and the National Association of Campus Activities (NACA). The fine work of this group led to many initiatives, such as a leadership development model that differentiated leadership training, education, and development (Roberts & Ullom, 1989), a compilation of leadership resources (see 1980 in the Chapter Appendix), and the first book on student leadership programs (Roberts, 1981).

In 1987, I came to the University of Maryland and with the support of the longtime vice president for student affairs, William “Bud” L. Thomas Jr., scanned the higher education environment, and determined that the field would benefit from a clearinghouse that would organize the growing body of resources and be a lightning rod for advancing networking and the scholarship on leadership education. With the support of other entities such as the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) and the Task Force (chaired by Nance Lucas), in 1989 the University of Maryland formed the National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs (NCLP). Lucas came to the University of Maryland and joined me as a cofounder of the NCLP. Concurrently, the Commission on Student Involvement in ACPA continued its interest in leadership, NACA supported similar goals, and in 2002 Ainsley Carry initiated a Knowledge Community for Student Leadership Programs (KCSLP) in NASPA.

On a parallel track, college leadership educators in the agricultural and extension community were re-visioning their youth leadership work and in 1989 founded the Association of Leadership Educators (ALE). The emergence of the International Leadership Association (ILA) in 1998–1999 brought a broad-based group of leadership educators together with leadership faculty and scholars, community leadership activists, and business consultants together in a global context. The Leadership Education Member Interest Group is the largest group within ILA.

Associations provide substantial supports to advance professional work. In addition to the leadership programs at generalist conferences like ACPA and NASPA, the annual conferences for leadership focused-associations like ALE and ILA provide immersion in the best of leadership scholarship and practice. Several associations like ACPA, NACA, and NASPA have joined with NCLP and each other to provide key professional development programs. For example, NACA and NCLP provide the summer, theme-based National Leadership Symposium. In those settings 75–80 leadership educators explore such thematic topics as spirituality and leadership or global leadership with authors of key books and colleagues. Starting in 2004, ACPA, NASPA, and NCLP have cosponsored the popular Leadership Educators Institute that occurs every two years. Other professional development formats have evolved: ILA sponsors webinars, NASPA’s KCSLP sponsors group conference calls, and ACPA has sponsored short-term, online leadership courses. Associations have also advanced standards of practice noted later in this chapter.

Centers, Institutes, and the Leadership Industry

The business world of leadership development is surrounded by a plethora of centers that support the advancement of managerial or organizational leadership. Entities such as the CCL, founded in 1970, ventured into higher education leadership in the early 1980s. CCL sponsored faculty symposia and published compendiums supporting leadership education containing course syllabi and training resources. As a result of CCL’s decision to discontinue their higher education thrust, their popular summer institute shifted to the Jepson School of Leadership Studies in 1994, and CCL sent their database of sample course syllabi to the then-new NCLP. The Center for Applied Ethics, founded in 1964 by Robert Greenleaf, substantially broadened its base and renamed itself the Robert K. Greenleaf Center in 1985 and is now known as the Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership. Training materials for diverse leadership contexts emerged in the 1980s (e.g., University Associates’ Pfeiffer and Jones materials); specialty centers and materials now exist for churches, the military, youth programs, and community activists along with education and business.

In 1989, Georgia Sorenson established the Center for Political Leadership and Participation at the University of Maryland. The center expanded in 1996 to become the James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership to sponsor numerous think tanks with grants from the Kellogg Foundation, substantially advancing leadership studies and establishing the International Leadership Association. Numerous annual institutes emerged in the 1990s, including the Rocky Mountain Leadership Institute and the Kravis Institute at Claremont McKenna, resulting in the annual release of books with papers from those theme-based gatherings.

In the 1980s, a number of organizations began to emphasize leadership for targeted groups of college students. In 1984, the National Association of Women in Education (NAWE) sponsored the National Women Student Leaders conference that was subsequently sponsored by NASPA and the American Association of University Women (AAUW) after NAWE’s closure. Conferences for Black student leaders emerged in the 1980s, including a series of conferences at Bowie State University for student leaders in historically Black colleges and universities.

The industry surrounding student leadership development has emerged since the mid-1990s. It now includes a plethora of consultants, motivational speakers, and student conferences sponsored by entities such as PaperClip Communications and Magna Publications. Magna’s National Conference on Student Leadership has included a competency-based certificate process since 1994. The first magazine focusing on student leadership was the Student Leader in 1992. Numerous publishers’ holdings (e.g., Sage, Jossey-Bass) now offer a variety of books and other products targeting student leadership development. Jossey-Bass, who acquired the Pfeiffer and Jones materials, also publish The Leadership Challenge and The Student Leadership Challenge materials, Exploring Leadership, the NCLP’s social change model book (Leadership for a Better World), and Emotionally Intelligent Leadership for Students by Shankman and Allen.

Scholarship

The scholarship about leadership has always been substantial. When I became a graduate faculty member and began a serious focus on leadership scholarship in the late 1980s, a colleague aptly described that many of us felt “lost in the leadership forest” and were looking for pathways out of the glut of confusing scholarship. Those pathways have become more clear, thanks in great part to the work of the University of San Diego’s Joseph Rost (1991), who published Leadership for the 21st Century. This thoughtful book sorted through the classic models of leadership, which the author referred to as “managerial” or “industrial” models, and brought awareness to the relational, ethical, process models of leadership, which he referred to as “postindustrial.”

Largely focused on managerial leadership and political leadership until the 1980s, Burns’s (1978) publication of Leadership motivated many leadership educators to embrace a transforming, ethical approach to leadership development. This emphasis elevated the role of the follower and shifted the focus to all people involved in the leadership process. The new growing body of organizational behavior literature informed leadership education programs in the early 1980s as well (see Kolb, Rubin, & McIntyre, 1983). Kouzes and Posner’s (1987) research that led to their book The Leadership Challenge and five exemplary practices provided a framework that captured the attention of campus leadership educators. Not since Hersey and Blanchard’s (1969) situational leadership models of the early 1970s had a framework proved so applicable to student affairs practice. Kouzes and Posner (2008) went on to develop other resources including a student version of their survey instrument (the Student Leadership Practices Inventory) and a student version of The Leadership Challenge. The body of scholarship continues to expand. Leadership educators will find nearly 100 useful essays in Couto’s (2010) two-volume Political and Civic Leadership: A Reference Handbook.

Despite the wide range of leadership publications, there were few books suitable as a text for college students until the 1990s (see Daft, 1999; Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 1993). Specialized materials such as the Hartwick Classics (Brown, 1994) offered leadership resources in the humanities using film and other literary works. In the late 1990s, a number of textbooks emerged that promoted a specific perspective on leadership. In 1996, the guidebook for the social change model of leadership development (Higher Education Research Institute [HERI], 1996) was published. NCLP became the guardian of the social change model guidebook and in conjunction with Jossey-Bass published a student textbook, Leadership for a Better World: Understanding the Social Change Model of Leadership Development (Komives, Wagner, & Associates, 2009). In 1997, Peter Northouse published his first edition of Leadership (a general overview text), and in 1998, Nance Lucas, Tim McMahon, and I (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 1998, 2007) published Exploring Leadership: For College Students Who Want to Make a Difference, which presented the relational leadership model. Following several editions of his popular text, in 2008 Northouse published a student workbook (Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice) to accompany his text, and Kouzes and Posner (2008) framed their work for students with The Student Leadership Challenge: Five Practices for Exemplary Leaders. Scholarly books abound, and leadership educators have a dizzying array of choices in formal leadership curricula (e.g., Daft, 2002; Heifetz, 1994).

Leadership Journals

Specialty journals about leadership research began to appear as scholarly thinking expanded. This includes the 1989 debut of the highly respected Leadership Quarterly, followed by the 1993 Journal of Leadership Studies published by Baker College and focusing exclusively on leadership education; it has since shifted in focus and is now known as the Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies. In 1991, NCLP began issuing three theme-based publications annually. NCLP’s Concepts & Connections has served a clearinghouse function for scholarly content, campus program spotlights, book reviews, and research updates. NCLP added a theme-based monograph series, Insights & Applications, in 2000 and in 2006 published the first edition of the Handbook for Leadership Programs. ALE debuted the first issue of their free online journal, the Journal of Leadership Education, in 2002. Dozens of leadership journals now exist.

Theories and Conceptual Models