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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY
A foundation-level guide to chemistry for physical, life sciences and engineering students
Foundations of Chemistry: An Introductory Course for Science Students fills a gap in the literature to provide a basic chemistry text aimed at physical sciences, life sciences and engineering students. The authors, noted experts on the topic, offer concise explanations of chemistry theory and the principles that are typically reviewed in most one year foundation chemistry courses and first year degree-level chemistry courses for non-chemists.
The authors also include illustrative examples and information on the most recent applications in the field. Foundations of Chemistry is an important text that outlines the basic principles in each area of chemistry - physical, inorganic and organic - building on prior knowledge to quickly expand and develop a student's knowledge and understanding.
Key features include:
- Worked examples showcase core concepts and practice questions.
- Margin comments signpost students to knowledge covered elsewhere and are used to highlight key learning objectives.
- Chapter summaries list the main concepts and learning points.
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Seitenzahl: 949
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contributors
About the companion website
0 Fundamentals
0.1 Introduction to chemistry
0.2 Measurement in chemistry and science – SI units
0.3 Expressing large and small numbers using scientific notation
0.4 Using metric prefixes
0.5 Significant figures
0.6 Calculations using scientific notation
0.7 Writing chemical formulae and equations
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
1 Atomic structure
1.1 Atomic structure
1.2 Electronic structure
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
2 Chemical bonding
2.1 Bonding
2.2 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
2.3 Polar bonds and polar molecules
2.4 Intermolecular forces
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
3 Amount of Substance
3.1 Masses of atoms and molecules
3.2 Amount of substance
3.3 Calculations with moles
3.4 Solutions; concentrations and dilutions
3.5 Titration calculations
3.6 Calculations with gas volumes
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
4 States of matter
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Solids
4.3 Liquids
4.4 Gases
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
5 Oxidation‐reduction (redox) reactions
5.1 Redox reactions
5.2 Disproportionation reactions
5.3 Redox titrations
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
6 Energy, enthalpy, and entropy
6.1 Enthalpy changes
6.2 Entropy and Gibbs free energy
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
7 Chemical equilibrium and acid‐base equilibrium
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Equilibrium and reversible reactions
7.3 Acid‐base equilibria
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
8 Chemical kinetics – the rates of chemical reactions
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The rate of reaction
8.3 Determining the rate of a chemical reaction
8.4 The rate expression
8.5 The half‐life of a reaction
8.6 Reaction mechanisms
8.7 Effect of temperature on reaction rate
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
9 Electrochemistry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Using redox reactions
9.3 Using redox reactions – galvanic cells
9.4 Using redox reactions – electrolytic cells
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
10 Group trends and periodicity
10.1 The periodic table: periods, groups, and periodicity
10.2 Trends in properties of elements in the same vertical group of the periodic table
10.3 Trends in properties of elements in the same horizontal period
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
11 The periodic table – chemistry of Groups 1, 2, 7 (17), and transition elements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Group 1 – the alkali metals
11.3 Group 2 – the alkaline earth metals
11.4 Group 7 (17) – the halogens
11.5 The transition elements
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
12 Core concepts and ideas within organic chemistry
12.1 Types of molecular formulae
12.2 Nomenclature of simple alkanes
12.3 Isomers
12.4 Drawing reaction mechanisms
12.5 Types of reactions
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
13 Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
13.1 Alkanes: an outline
13.2 Alkenes: an outline
13.3 Alkynes: an outline
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
14 Reactivity of selected homologous series
14.1 Alcohols
14.2 Aldehydes and ketones
14.3 Carboxylic acids
14.4 Esters
14.5 Amides
14.6 Amines
14.7 Nitriles
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
15 The chemistry of aromatic compounds
15.1 Benzene
15.2 Reactions of benzene with electrophiles
15.3 Aniline
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
16 Substitution and elimination reactions
16.1 Substitution reactions
16.2 Elimination reactions
16.3 Comparison of substitution and elimination reactions
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
17 Bringing it all together
17.1 Functional group interconversion
17.2 Bringing it all together
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
18 Polymerisation
18.1 Polymerisation
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
19 Spectroscopy
19.1 Mass spectrometry
19.2 Infrared spectroscopy (IR)
19.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)
19.4 Bringing it all together
Quick‐check summary
End‐of‐chapter questions
Appendix
Short end-of-chapter answers
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 0
Table 0.1 Base SI quantities used in chemistry with symbols and units.
Table 0.2 Commonly used derived units.
Table 0.3 Some common prefixes and their values with quantities and symbols.
Table 0.4 Symbols and charges for some common cations and anions.
Table 0.5 State symbols commonly used in chemical equations.
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Properties of subatomic particles.
Table 1.2 The maximum number of electrons in the first four energy levels.
Table 1.3 Arrangement of electrons in the first 11 elements of the periodic t...
Table 1.4 Electron configurations for the first 36 elements.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The names, molecular formulae, dot‐and‐cross diagrams, and display ...
Table 2.2 Approximate strengths of different types of bonds and intermolecula...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 A summary of the properties of ionic, covalent, and metallic compou...
Table 4.2 Physical properties of the halogens.
Table 4.3 Properties of noble gases.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Values of mean bond energies.
Table 6.2 Calculation of enthalpy of reaction using mean bond energies.
Table 6.3 Standard molar entropy values for selected elements and compounds.
Table 6.4 Combinations of possible enthalpy and entropy changes for a reactio...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Summary of the effect of changes in reaction conditions upon the eq...
Table 7.2 Some common acids and the ions they form when dissolved in water.
Table 7.3 Some common bases and the ions they form when dissolved in water.
Table 7.4 Some weak acids and their
K
a
and
pK
a
values.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Concentration, rate, and time data for the reaction of bromine with...
Table 8.2 Some chemical reactions and their related rate expressions and over...
Table 8.3 Initial rates data for the reaction 2NO(g) + O
2
(g) → 2NO
2
(g).
Table 8.4 Kinetics data for the decomposition of NO
2
at varying temperatures....
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Standard reduction potentials for metal/metal ion half‐cells.
Table 9.2 List of some common standard reduction potentials in numerical orde...
Table 9.3 Comparison of galvanic and electrolytic cells.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Electron affinity values for Group 7 (17) elements.
Table 10.2 The electronic configurations and number of protons for selected e...
Table 10.3 Names and charges of monatomic anions.
Table 10.4 The bonding, structures, and melting and boiling points of the Per...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Physical properties of Group 1 metals.
Table 11.2 Electron configurations of the elements of Group 1.
Table 11.3 Physical properties of the Group 2 elements.
Table 11.4 Electron configurations of Group 2 elements.
Table 11.5 The solubilities of Group 2 metal hydroxides increase down the gro...
Table 11.6 Electron configurations of the halogen elements.
Table 11.7 Colours of elemental halogens in polar and non‐polar solvents.
Table 11.8 Standard reduction potentials of the halogens.
Table 11.9 Displacement reactions of halogens.
Table 11.10 Oxyanions of chlorine.
Table 11.11 Results from tests to identify halide ions.
Table 11.12 The electron configurations of Period 4 elements and stable ions....
Table 11.13 Maximum stable oxidation states and most common oxidation states ...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Some commonly encountered homologous series and examples. Note: R ...
Table 12.2 The names and structures of the first five hydrocarbon chains.
Table 12.3 The name, structural formulae, and prefixes of the first 10 hydroc...
Table 12.4 The hierarchy of some commonly encountered functional groups.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 A comparison of boiling points between alkanes and the correspondi...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Characteristic absorptions of some functional groups commonly enco...
Table 19.2 The chemical shifts for different
1
H environments.
Table 19.3 A table summarising the most commonly encountered peak (resonance)...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 0
Figure 0.1 The shape of a water molecule, H
2
O.
Figure 0.2 (a) 25 cm
3
measuring cylinder; (b) 25 cm
3
pipette; (c) 50 cm
3
bur...
Figure 0.3 (a) Cube of volume 1 m
3
. (b) Flask of volume 1 L.(c) Cube of ...
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Simplified structure of the atom (not to scale).
Figure 1.2 (a) General representation of mass number and atomic number for t...
Figure 1.3 The standard modern form of the periodic table.
Source:
Universit...
Figure 1.4 The energy levels (EL) in an atom. The integers represent the pri...
Figure 1.5 The structure of neon.
Figure 1.6 (a) The 1s orbital; (b) the 2s orbital; (c) the 3s orbital.
Figure 1.7 (a) The 2p
x
orbital; (b) the 2p
y
orbital; (c) the 2p
z
orbital.
Figure 1.8 (a) The d
xy
orbital; (b) the d
xz
orbital; (c) the d
yz
orbital; (d...
Figure 1.9 The relative energies of the orbitals in an atom. Relative energi...
Figure 1.10 Electron arrangements in lithium, oxygen, and chlorine. Outer sh...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 (a) Eight hydrogen atoms; (b) four hydrogen molecules.
Figure 2.2 Bonding in sodium metal.
Figure 2.3 Addition of an electron to a fluorine atom to generate a fluoride...
Figure 2.4 Arrangement of electrons in (a) a sodium atom; (b) a sodium ion....
Figure 2.5 Bonding in NaCl. Note: only outer‐shell electrons are shown for c...
Figure 2.6 The sodium chloride lattice.
Source:
Based on https://www.chemgui...
Figure 2.7 Salt, sodium chloride.
Figure 2.8 (a) Formation of a single bond in hydrogen, H
2
; (b) an alternativ...
Figure 2.9 (a) Formation of a double bond in oxygen, O
2
; (b) an alternative ...
Figure 2.10 (a) Bonding in the ammonium ion, NH
4
+
. Note: only outer‐shell el...
Figure 2.11 (a) Bonding in diamond; (b) bonding in silicon dioxide; (c) two‐...
Figure 2.12 Dot‐and‐cross diagram for beryllium chloride, BeCl
2
showing two ...
Figure 2.13 A linear centre in carbon dioxide, CO
2
.
Figure 2.14 (a) Bonding in boron trichloride, BCl
3
with a trigonal planar ce...
Figure 2.15 (a) Bonding in C
2
H
4
, ethene with trigonal planar centre; (b) sho...
Figure 2.16 (a) Bonding angles in a tetrahedral bonding centre; (b) bonding ...
Figure 2.17 (a) Bonding angles in a trigonal bipyramidal molecule; (b) phosp...
Figure 2.18 (a) Bonding angles in an octahedral molecule; (b) sulfur hexaflu...
Figure 2.19 Common shapes of simple covalent molecules.
Figure 2.20 Periodic table showing Pauling electronegativity of most of the ...
Figure 2.21 (a) A pair of electrons shared evenly between two atoms with the...
Figure 2.22 (a) A pair of electrons shared unevenly between two atoms with d...
Figure 2.23 Polar covalent bonds in (a) hydrogen chloride, HCl and (b) carbo...
Figure 2.24 Hydrogen chloride molecule showing the charge separation and dir...
Figure 2.25 Chloromethane, CH
3
Cl, is a polar molecule.
Figure 2.26 Carbon dioxide has polar bonds but no overall dipole moment.
Figure 2.27 (a) Overall molecular dipole in fluoromethane; (b) overall molec...
Figure 2.28 Comparison of inter‐ and intramolecular forces.
Figure 2.29 Permanent dipoles in the hydrogen chloride molecule and resultan...
Figure 2.30 (a) Chlorine molecule with even distribution of charge; (b) Chlo...
Figure 2.31 (a) Helium atom (
Z
= 2) showing even distribution of electrons; ...
Figure 2.32 (a) Formation of a hydrogen bond between two molecules of water ...
Figure 2.33 (a) Hydrogen bonding between two ethanol, C
2
H
5
OH, molecules; (b)...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 The same number of different types of fruit have different masses...
Figure 3.2 A solute and a solvent are combined to form a solution.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Molecules of water in the solid, liquid, and gas states.
Figure 4.2 The change in state from solid to liquid and then to gas for wate...
Figure 4.3 Metallic bonding in sodium.
Figure 4.4 Ionic lattices. (a) Sodium chloride, NaCl.(b) Calcium fluorid...
Figure 4.5 Space‐filling diagram for sodium chloride showing space occupied ...
Figure 4.6 (a) The structure of graphite.(b) The structure of diamond. (...
Figure 4.7 Movement of molecules from a liquid in a closed container. (a) Th...
Figure 4.8 Comparison of boiling points in (
Z)
‐ and (
E
)‐dichloroethene.
Figure 4.9 Comparison of boiling points of
n
‐hexane and 2,2‐dimethylbutane....
Figure 4.10 Hydrogen bonding between water molecules.
Figure 4.11 Group 6 (16) hydrides.
Figure 4.12 Boiling points of hydrides of Groups 4 (14), 5 (15), 6 (16), and...
Figure 4.13 Ice crystals.
Figure 4.14 Coastal regions are kept cool by the high heat capacity of water...
Figure 4.15 Hydrogen bonding between base pairs in DNA.
Figure 4.16 Boyle's law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proport...
Figure 4.17 Charles's law states that as the temperature of a fixed number o...
Figure 4.18 The large cube has a volume of 1 m
3
. The sides of the small cube...
Figure 4.19 The Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Electron arrangements in a Mg atom and Mg
2+
ion.
Figure 5.2 Electron arrangements in an O atom and O
2−
ion.
Figure 5.3 (a) The international pictogram for an oxidising agent; (b) safet...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Fireworks release energy in the form of heat, light, and sound....
Figure 6.2 Energy flow in exothermic and endothermic reactions.
Figure 6.3 Reaction pathways for (a) an exothermic reaction; (b) an endother...
Figure 6.4 A polystyrene cup and lid used as a calorimeter.
Figure 6.5 Plot of temperature against time for a simple calorimeter, showin...
Figure 6.6 Sodium chloride lattice dissolving in water.
Figure 6.7 A simple flame calorimeter.
Figure 6.8 A bomb calorimeter.
Figure 6.9 Graphical representation of Hess's law. The enthalpy change for d...
Figure 6.10 Hess's law cycle to determine the enthalpy of formation of C
2
H
5
O...
Figure 6.11 Representation of the reaction between oxygen (1 mole) and hydro...
Figure 6.12 Reaction pathway showing the energy of intermediates in the tran...
Figure 6.13 General energy triangle used to calculate lattice enthalpy for a...
Figure 6.14 General Born–Haber diagram for the calculation of lattice enthal...
Figure 6.15 A Hess's law cycle to calculate the lattice enthalpy of formatio...
Figure 6.16 Born–Haber diagram for calculating the lattice enthalpy of forma...
Figure 6.17 Born–Haber cycle for calculating the lattice enthalpy of formati...
Figure 6.18 The charge density on a Li
+
ion is greater than that on a larger...
Figure 6.19 (a) Lattice enthalpy of formation for Group 1 chlorides; (b) lat...
Figure 6.20 Polarisation of an anion (−ve) by a small, highly charged cation...
Figure 6.21 Sherbet Fountain is composed of citric acid and sodium hydrogen ...
Figure 6.22 A student bedroom tends to a maximum state of disorder and maxim...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal once th...
Figure 7.2 Plot of concentrations of reactants (A and B) and products (C and...
Figure 7.3 Effect of changing the external pressure on the dinitrogen tetrox...
Figure 7.4 The N
2
O
4
⇌ 2NO
2
equilibrium at different temperatures. An increas...
Figure 7.5 The pH scale showing the typical colour of universal indicator in...
Figure 7.6 Using a pH meter to measure hydrogen ion concentration.
Figure 7.7 Titration apparatus.
Figure 7.8 Plot of pH change in the titration of a strong acid against a str...
Figure 7.9 Colour changes of some common indicators.
Figure 7.10 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a strong aci...
Figure 7.11 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a weak acid ...
Figure 7.12 Plot of pH against volume of base in a titration of a strong aci...
Figure 7.13 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a weak acid ...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Plot of the concentration of A and B against time for the reactio...
Figure 8.2 Apparatus to measure the amount of gas produced in a reaction ove...
Figure 8.3 The reaction of NO
2
with F
2
: (a) successful collision leading to ...
Figure 8.4 Energy profile for an exothermic reaction.
Figure 8.5 Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies.
Figure 8.6 Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies at two different tem...
Figure 8.7 Energy profile for a catalysed (red) and uncatalysed (blue) react...
Figure 8.8 Plot of concentration of reactant A against time.
Figure 8.9 Plot of [Br
2
] against time with a tangent drawn at
t
= 150 second...
Figure 8.10 Plot of rate against concentration of Br
2
.
Figure 8.11 Plots of concentration against time for a zero‐, first‐, and sec...
Figure 8.12 (a) Plot of rate against concentration for a zero‐order reaction...
Figure 8.13 Integrated rate expression plots: (a) plot of [A]
t
against time ...
Figure 8.14 Determination of the half‐life of a first‐order reaction.
Figure 8.15 The half‐life of a zero‐order reaction decreases through the rea...
Figure 8.16 The half‐life of a second‐order reaction increases through the r...
Figure 8.17 An Arrhenius plot for the decomposition of nitrogen dioxide, NO
2
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The Cu
2+
/Cu half‐cell.
Figure 9.2 Two half‐cells connected together to form an electrochemical cell...
Figure 9.3 Standard hydrogen electrode.
Figure 9.4 Measuring the standard reduction potential of a Cu
2+
(aq)/Cu(s) ha...
Figure 9.5 A Cl
2
(g)/Cl
−
(aq) and Fe
2+
(aq)/Fe(s) electrochemical cell.
Figure 9.6 A variety of alkaline batteries that are examples of galvanic cel...
Figure 9.7 Sections through (a) a carbon–zinc battery; (b) a zinc–manganese(...
Figure 9.8 Lithium‐ion batteries.
Figure 9.9 Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell.
Figure 9.10 Schematic diagram of an electrolytic cell.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Periodic table showing periods and groups with different areas s...
Figure 10.2 Electron filling of shells in magnesium and calcium.
Figure 10.3 The atomic radius (
r
) of an atom is defined as half the distance...
Figure 10.4 The atomic radii of Group 2 elements.
Figure 10.5 First ionisation energy of Group 2 elements.
Figure 10.6 Electronegativity values of Group 7 (17) elements (Pauling scale...
Figure 10.7 Atomic radii of the elements in Period 2.
Figure 10.8 Trends in atomic radius across and down the periodic table.
Figure 10.9 First ionisation energy of the elements in Periods 2 and 3.
Figure 10.10 Electronegativity values (Pauling) for Period 2 and Period 3 el...
Figure 10.11 Trends in electronegativity across the periodic table. Note tha...
Figure 10.12 Comparative sizes of Na and Na
+
(not to scale).
Figure 10.13 Comparative sizes of F and F
−
(not to scale).
Figure 10.14 Variation in the radius of stable ions of Period 3 elements.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 The periodic table with the different areas shaded.
Figure 11.2 The elements (a) lithium (freshly cut), (b) sodium (under minera...
Figure 11.3 Atomic radii for the Group 1 metals, showing increase down the g...
Figure 11.4 First ionisation energies of the Group 1 metals showing decrease...
Figure 11.5 Melting points of the Group 1 metals.
Figure 11.6 Comparison of the atomic radii of Group 1 and Group 2 metals.
Figure 11.7 Sum of the first and second ionisation energies of Group 2 eleme...
Figure 11.8 Melting points of the Group 2 elements.
Figure 11.9 Enthalpy changes occurring when an ionic solid dissolves in wate...
Figure 11.10 Hydrated sodium and chloride ions, as in an aqueous solution of...
Figure 11.11 (a) Pure ionic bonding between a metal cation and anion; (b) an...
Figure 11.12 (a) Delocalisation in the carbonate ion makes all C—O bonds equ...
Figure 11.13 Sharing of electrons in Cl
2
and covalent bond formation.
Figure 11.14 Electronegativities of the Group 7(17) elements.
Figure 11.15 Bond enthalpies of the Group 7(17) elements.
Figure 11.16 (a) Lone pairs in a F
2
molecule; (b) repulsion between lone pai...
Figure 11.17 Atomic radii of the elements in Period 4.
Figure 11.18 First ionisation energy of the elements in Period 4.
Figure 11.19 Coordination complexes: (a) TiCl
4
; (b) Cl
−
donating a lon...
Figure 11.20 (a) A complex containing a central metal atom with six ligands;...
Figure 11.21 (a) A complex containing a central metal atom with four ligands...
Figure 11.22 A complex containing a central metal atom with four ligands in ...
Figure 11.23 (a) [Ag(NH
3
)
2
]
+
a linear coordination complex with coordination...
Figure 11.24 Colours of some first‐row transition metal complexes in aqueous...
Figure 11.25 Absorption of red wavelengths from visible light by a solution....
Figure 11.26 (a) Five d orbitals have equal energy in a free ion. (b) When s...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 The different ways that ethanoic acid is represented by each typ...
Figure 12.2 Display and skeletal formulae for some simple organic compounds....
Figure 12.3 Some members of the alcohol homologous series.
Figure 12.4 (a) The structure of morphine; (b) the structure of propan‐2‐one...
Figure 12.5 The structure and names of some commonly encountered functional ...
Figure 12.6 The two component parts of an ester. The ester group itself is h...
Figure 12.7 Chain isomers of C
4
H
10
.
Figure 12.8 (a) Butane molecules; (b) 2‐methylpropane molecules.
Figure 12.9 Positional isomers of butanol, C
4
H
10
O.
Figure 12.10 Functional groups isomers of C
2
H
6
O.
Figure 12.11 The difference
E
and
Z
(
trans
and
cis
) isomers.
Figure 12.12 A brief summary of the hierarchy of priority when using Cahn–In...
Figure 12.13 The
R
and
S
forms of valine.
Figure 12.14 The
R
and
S
forms of thalidomide.
Figure 12.15 A scheme to summarise the different types of isomerism discusse...
Figure 12.16 A figure depicting the different types of arrows used within or...
Figure 12.17 (a) Curly arrows showing the attack of iodide to a positive car...
Figure 12.18 Examples of some electrophiles. (a) A carbocation: in this case...
Figure 12.19 Examples of some nucleophiles. (a) A carbanion: in this case, t...
Figure 12.20 Examples of radical species. Note that the radical is always sh...
Figure 12.21 Electrophilic addition of bromine to pent‐1‐ene.
Figure 12.22 Nucleophilic addition of hydride to pentanal.
Figure 12.23 Electrophilic aromatic substitution of benzene with chlorine.
Figure 12.24 Nucleophilic substitution of 1‐chloropropane with iodide to giv...
Figure 12.25 Elimination of HCl in 1‐chloropropane to give prop‐1‐ene.
Figure 12.26 Condensation of water with ethanoyl chloride to give ethanoic a...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 (a) A fractionating column.(b) The fractions.
Figure 13.2 (a) The bonding between two atoms of chlorine in the molecule Cl
Figure 13.3 Curly arrows showing the movement of electrons in radical substi...
Figure 13.4 Naturally occurring alkenes linoleic acid and limonene.
Figure 13.5 (a) A sigma (σ) bond and an electron cloud; (b) the structure of...
Figure 13.6 The electron clouds in chloromethane and how they are distended ...
Figure 13.7 (a) The p orbitals on ethene and their overlap to form a π bond;...
Figure 13.8 (a) Two test tubes, the left containing a mixture of bromine wat...
Figure 13.9 Reaction of bromine with ethene.
Figure 13.10 Reaction of bromine water with ethene.
Figure 13.11 Reaction of prop‐1‐ene with HBr.
Figure 13.12 Curly arrows to show the reaction of prop‐1‐ene with HBr.
Figure 13.13 Curly arrows to show an alternative reaction of prop‐1‐ene with...
Figure 13.14 Stability of carbocations.
Figure 13.15 Reaction between prop‐1‐ene, phosphoric acid, and water.
Figure 13.16 Reaction of an alkene with hydrogen in the presence of a metal ...
Figure 13.17 (a) A molecule of ethyne; (b) the p orbitals on ethyne and how ...
Figure 13.18 (a) Reduction of but‐2‐yne to propane with hydrogen and palladi...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 (a) Hydrogen bonding between two ethanol molecules; (b) hydrogen...
Figure 14.2 Structure of the primary alcohols ethanol, propan‐1‐ol, butan‐1‐...
Figure 14.3 Structure of a secondary alcohol, propan‐2‐ol. Note that in a sk...
Figure 14.4 Structure of a tertiary alcohol, 2‐methylpropan‐2‐ol.
Figure 14.5 Possible oxidation states of primary alcohols.
Figure 14.6 Oxidation of ethanol to ethanal or ethanoic acid using acidified...
Figure 14.7 The dichromate(VI) ion is reduced to chromium(III) when it is us...
Figure 14.8 Oxidation of a secondary alcohol.
Figure 14.9 Nucleophilic addition into an aldehyde with KCN.
Figure 14.10 Test for an aldehyde with Brady's reagent (2,4‐DNPH).
Figure 14.11 Test for an aldehyde with Tollen's reagent (silver mirror test)...
Figure 14.12 Hydrogen bonding between a carboxylic acid and water.
Figure 14.13 (a) The acidic proton in a carboxylic acid; (b) reaction of but...
Figure 14.14 Reduction of butanoic acid to butan-1-ol with lithium aluminium...
Figure 14.15 (a) Identification of the ester group; (b) naming an ester; (c)...
Figure 14.16 (a) Cleavage of an ester under acidic conditions; (b) cleavage ...
Figure 14.17 Reaction of a carboxylic acid and an amine to make a salt.
Figure 14.18 (a) Reaction of an acid chloride and an amine to make an amide;...
Figure 14.19 (a) Cleavage of an amide under acidic conditions; (b) cleavage ...
Figure 14.20 An amide and the different classes of amine.
Figure 14.21 Reaction of ethylamine with hydrochloric acid to give the ethyl...
Figure 14.22 Reaction between chloroethane and ammonia to give ethylamine.
Figure 14.23 (a) A nitrile; (b) reduction of a nitrile to an amine; (c) hydr...
Figure 14.24 Reaction of chloroethane with sodium cyanide to give propanenit...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 (a) Benzene represented using a display formula; (b) benzene rep...
Figure 15.2 Commonly encountered benzene‐containing compounds. Trivial names...
Figure 15.3 Examples of benzene‐containing compounds containing two substitu...
Figure 15.4 Heat of hydrogenation of cyclohexene, benzene, 1,3‐cyclohexadien...
Figure 15.5 (a) Bromination of ethene; (b) bromination of benzene, which req...
Figure 15.6 (a) A double bond represented by two lines; (b) a representation...
Figure 15.7 (a) Curly arrows to show the electrons moving to the extreme for...
Figure 15.8 (a) Electrons pulled towards electronegative fluorine to create ...
Figure 15.9 Commonly encountered activating and deactivating substituents.
Figure 15.10 (a) Reaction of benzene with chlorine in the presence of AlCl
3
;...
Figure 15.11 Reaction of benzene with chlorine in the presence of aluminium(...
Figure 15.12 Reaction of benzene with 2‐chloropropane in the presence of alu...
Figure 15.13 Reaction of benzene with ethanoyl chloride in the presence of a...
Figure 15.14 Reaction of nitric acid with H
+
in sulfuric acid to generate th...
Figure 15.15 Reaction of benzene with the nitronium ion to generate nitroben...
Figure 15.16 (a) The named positions on a benzene ring in relation to a subs...
Figure 15.17 (a) Phenol; (b) donation of a lone pair of electrons on oxygen ...
Figure 15.18 Reaction of nitrobenzene with an alkyl chloride in the presence...
Figure 15.19 (a) Aniline; (b) formation of aniline by reduction of nitrobenz...
Figure 15.20 Reaction of diazobenzene with phenol to give an azo‐dye.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Substitution of 2‐bromopropane with sodium hydroxide to give pro...
Figure 16.2 (a) Overall reaction for substitution of 2‐iodo‐2‐methylpropane ...
Figure 16.3 (a) Overall reaction for substitution of iodoethane with sodium ...
Figure 16.4 An elimination reaction from the treatment of 2‐bromo‐2‐methylpr...
Figure 16.5 The mechanism of an E1 elimination from the treatment of 2-bromo...
Figure 16.6 (a) Overall reaction between 1‐bromopropane and NaOH to give pro...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 (a) Reduction of a ketone to give an alcohol. (b) Conversion of ...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Combination of many monomers to give a polymer.
Figure 18.2 (a) Combination of many ethene monomers to give polyethene. The ...
Figure 18.3 (a) A hypothetical polyester. The repeat unit is highlighted; (b...
Figure 18.4 (a) Combination of a 1,2‐diol and a diacyl chloride to give a po...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 A simple schematic of a mass spectrometer.
Figure 19.2 Stretching and bending vibrations from absorbing infrared radiat...
Figure 19.3 The infrared spectrum of propan‐1‐ol with the characteristic O—H...
Figure 19.4 A illustrative section of the
1
H NMR spectrum for ethyl acetate ...
Figure 19.5 A visual representation of the chemical shifts (δ) of protons in...
Figure 19.6 Pascal’s triangle showing the relative intensities of the peaks ...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
About the companion website
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Appendix
Short end‐of‐chapter answers
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Foundations of Chemistry
An Introductory Course for Science Students
Philippa B. Cranwell
University of ReadingReading, UKand
Elizabeth M. Page
University of ReadingReading, UK
This edition first published 2021© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The right of Philippa B. Cranwell and Elizabeth M. Page to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Cranwell, Philippa B., 1985– author. | Page, Elizabeth (Lecturer in Chemistry Education), author.Title: Foundations of chemistry : an introductory course for science students / Philippa B. Cranwell, University of Reading, Reading, UK and Elizabeth M. Page, University of Reading, Reading, UK.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020028483 (print) | LCCN 2020028484 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119513872 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119513919 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119513902 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Chemistry.Classification: LCC QD31.3 .C73 2021 (print) | LCC QD31.3 (ebook) | DDC 540–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020028483LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020028484
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © alice-photo/Shutterstock
This book is dedicated to the joy of a new life, and the passing of a well‐lived and loved one.
Preface
Foundations of Chemistry is a concise course in advanced general chemistry specifically designed for students studying at Level 3 (A level or equivalent). It is especially relevant for students enrolled upon one‐year foundation programmes catering for physical and life sciences provided by UK universities, and is intended to introduce students to the core elements of physical, organic, and inorganic chemistry. The text outlines the basic principles in each area of chemistry and builds on prior knowledge from GCSE (or equivalent) courses to quickly expand and develop students' knowledge and understanding. Each chapter contains worked examples that showcase core concepts, and includes practice questions with fully worked answers available on the Wiley website. Margin comments signpost students to knowledge that is covered elsewhere in the book and are used to highlight key learning objectives when appropriate. A summary is given at the end of each chapter that lists the main concepts and learning points.
The authors recognise that many students on foundation programmes study chemistry as a subsidiary subject. We hope that this text outlines and clearly explains the information and knowledge required at foundation level so that these students can progress smoothly onto their parent programmes.
Students are first introduced to the structure of the atom and how the periodic table is built up. The different types of bonding are then described, followed by the way in which the properties of materials are affected by bonding within and between molecules. The fundamentals of physical chemistry including thermodynamics, equilibria, acids and bases, reaction rates, redox, and electrochemistry are explained. Elements and typical compounds from some key groups in the periodic table are considered in more detail, with specific reference to the underlying principles of periodicity and energetics where relevant. Organic chemistry takes a mechanistic approach, so students are able to rationalise reactivity and chemical behaviour; the intention is not for students to learn by rote, but to be able to apply their knowledge and understanding to derive an answer. This skill can be developed by students in a chapter dedicated to synoptic questions in organic chemistry. Finally, a chapter dedicated to spectroscopy demonstrates how modern analytical techniques are used in organic chemistry to determine structure.
The book is concise and focusses on key ideas, yet points students to areas that they may meet if they continue to study chemistry.
Philippa Cranwell and Elizabeth Page
Reading, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Chris Smith and Dr Jenny Eyley of the University of Reading for patiently reading and commenting on drafts of the manuscript. We are indebted to them for their advice and suggestions for clarification. We would also like to thank our families for the support that they have given us during the preparation of this book, and for their belief that there would be an eventual conclusion!
Contributors
Philippa Cranwell is Associate Professor of Organic Chemistry at the University of Reading. She has extensive experience of teaching students chemistry, ranging from A‐level to Foundation level and higher. She has co‐authored several texts relating to both practical and theoretical organic chemistry. She actively undertakes research in the field of chemistry education and regularly publishes her works. She was awarded a University of Reading Teaching Fellowship in 2016 for her contribution to teaching and learning.
Elizabeth Page is Emeritus Professor of Chemistry Education at the University of Reading. She has over 30 years' experience teaching chemistry at Foundation level and higher. She is author of several textbooks for life‐sciences and chemistry students. Elizabeth has been an examiner for A‐level chemistry and helped in the design of the revised A‐level specifications in chemistry. During her time at Reading she established a strong network of chemistry teachers, providing a forum for discussions and guidance in teaching GCSE and A‐level chemistry.
Elizabeth was awarded the Royal Society of Chemistry Education prize for her work with chemistry teachers and is a National Teaching Fellow.
About the companion website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/Cranwell/Foundations
The website includes:
Extended answers to the end of chapter questions
Digital images of the in-text figures
