Histories of the Unexpected: The Romans E-Book

Sam Willis

• Herausgeber: Atlantic Books
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

Histories of the Unexpected not only presents a new way of thinking about the past, but also reveals the world around us as never before. Traditionally, the Romans have been understood in a straightforward way but the period really comes alive if you take an unexpected approach to its history. Yes, emperors, the development of civilisation and armies all have a fascinating history... but so too do tattoos, collecting, fattening, recycling, walking, poison, fish, inkwells and wicked stepmothers! Each of these subjects is equally fascinating in its own right, and each sheds new light on the traditional subjects and themes that we think we know so well.

Leseprobe

By the same authors

Histories of the Unexpected

In the same series

Histories of the Unexpected: The Tudors

Histories of the Unexpected: The Vikings

Histories of the Unexpected: World War II

First published in Great Britain in 2019 by Atlantic Books,an imprint of Atlantic Books Ltd.Copyright © Sam Willis and James Daybell, 2019

The moral right of Sam Willis and James Daybell to be identified asthe authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordancewith the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of both thecopyright owner and the above publisher of this book.

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A CIP catalogue record for this book is available fromthe British Library.

Hardback ISBN: 978-1-78649-773-4

E-book ISBN: 978-1-78649-774-1

Printed in Great Britain

Atlantic Books

An Imprint of Atlantic Books Ltd

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For

Kate & Alice

Felix & Bea

CONTENTS

A Personal Note

Acknowledgements

The Romans: An Introduction

1. Walls

2. Tattoos

3. Posture

4. Taming

5. Recycling

6. Walking

7. Poison

8. The Kiss

9. Collecting Art

10. Solar Power

11. Fish

12. Benches

13. Weaving

14. Fattening

15. Shopping

16. Wicked Stepmothers

17. Feet

18. Inkwells

19. Demonic Possession

20. The Seven Number

Selected Further Reading

Illustration Credits

Index

A PERSONAL NOTE

At Histories of the Unexpected, we believe that everything has a history – even the most unexpected of subjects – and that everything links together in unexpected ways.

We believe that the itch, crawling, clouds, lightning, zombies and zebras and holes and perfume and rubbish and mustard – each has a fascinating history of its own.

In this book we take this approach into the Roman world. You will find out here how the history of graffiti is all to do with imperial domination; how the history of benches is all to do with public service; and how the history of inkwells is all to do with power.

To explore and enjoy subjects in this way will change not only the way that you think about the past, but also the present. It is enormously rewarding and we encourage you all to join in! Find us online at www.historiesoftheunexpected.com and on Twitter @UnexpectedPod – and do please get in touch.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This series of books is about sharing great research and new approaches to history. Our first acknowledgement, therefore, must go to all of those brilliant historians – professional and amateur – who are writing today and who are changing the way that we think about the past. You are all doing a fabulous job and one which often goes unremarked and unrewarded. Thank you for your time, effort, energy and insight. We could not have written this book without you.

Since this book is intended for a wide and general audience, we have chosen not to publish with extensive footnotes. We acknowledge our indebtedness to fellow historians in the Selected Further Reading section at the end of the book, which is also intended as a spur to further research for our readers.

We would like to thank the many colleagues and friends who have generously offered ideas, guidance, support and sustenance, intellectual and otherwise: Anthony Caleshu, John Daybell (for classical inspiration from a very young age), Bob Higham, Val Maxfield and Derek Gore (for inspiring Sam with the Romans at university), Lee Jane Giles, Beth Robertson, Karen Stears, Jim Holland, Matt Doyne-Ditmas, the Lord John Russell; and among the twitterati, @HunterSJones, @RedLunaPixie, @KittNoir and @Kazza2014.

Collective thanks are also due to Dan Snow, Tom Clifford and the fabulous History Hit team for all their support and encouragement; as well as to Will Atkinson, James Nightingale, Kate Straker, Jamie Forrest, Gemma Wain and everyone at Atlantic Books.

We would also like to thank everyone (and there are hundreds of thousands of you) who has listened to the podcast or come to see one of our live events and been so charming and enthusiastic.

Most of all, however, we would like to thank our families, young and old, for everything they have done and continue to do, to cope with – of all things – a historian in their lives.

But we have created this book for you.

Sam and James

Isca – Escanceaster – Exeter

The Feast of St Benedict – 8-Dhū al-Qa‘dah 1440 – I.VII.MMXIX – 11 July 2019

THE ROMANS:AN INTRODUCTION

Fresco in the Villa dei Misteri, Pompeii, before 79 CE

WHO WERE THEY?

‘The Romans’ is a term that is used to describe an enormous number of people who lived in different locations, at different times, under different laws and with different beliefs. As a label, ‘Roman’ extended well beyond those who were born in or lived in the city of Rome itself. At its height during the second century, under the emperor Trajan (who reigned from 98 to 117 CE), the Roman empire stretched from England in the far north, to modern-day Iraq and the Persian Gulf in the east, to North Africa and Egypt in the south, and Spain in the west. During this period, the empire’s population topped 50 million – living within a geographical territory that measured some 2 million square miles, and was around 3,000 miles from east to west. It also encircled the Mediterranean Sea, which the Romans referred to as mare internum (‘inner sea’) or mare nostrum (quite literally, ‘our sea’).

The history of ancient Rome, however, can be divided into several distinct stages. There is the city’s birth in the eighth century BCE, related to the founding myth of Romulus and Remus, twin sons of the god Mars; the subsequent ‘Time of the Kings’ when Rome was ruled by a succession of seven kings from 753 BCE until 509 BCE; and the Roman republic (509–27 BCE), which followed the overthrow of the last king and greatly extended the territory under Roman control. The republic was replaced by an empire in the years 27 BCE–285 CE, during which period it was ruled by emperors. In 285 CE, the empire was split in two, with separate emperors ruling from the capitals of Constantinople in the east and Rome in the west.

From the fourth century, both empires experienced protracted decline lasting for several centuries more. The last recognized emperor of the western Roman empire was overthrown by a Germanic warrior in 476 CE, leaving Rome to a period of barbarian rule which lasted for three centuries, until Charlemagne was crowned king of the Romans in the year 800; but the last recognized emperor of the eastern Roman empire was killed almost a millennium later, when the Ottomans sacked Constantinople in 1453 CE.

The scale of the Roman world – both geographical and chronological – meant that a ‘Roman’ living in London in 200 CE was very different from a ‘Roman’ living at the same time in Syracuse or Cologne, or Rome itself, or Alexandria in Egypt; but so too was that ‘Roman’ living in London in 200 CE different from one living in the same city 153 years earlier, shortly after it was founded in 47 CE, or one living 200 years later when the empire in Britain was still extant, but crumbling. Nonetheless, those who lived under Roman rule at different times and in different locations shared many things, literally and figuratively, as their lives were bound together by Roman government, administration and authority, and were profoundly influenced by Roman technology, culture and trade.

It was an empire based on major cities as well as smaller provincial settlements – built in the Roman style, with local elites governing, issuing laws and edicts, and collecting taxes. The economy was based on trade, taxes and agriculture. Government was based on a unique system of representation, albeit restricted to particular groups – a profoundly new concept for many of the locations that were Romanized.

This all meant that the same Roman living in London in 200 CE, for example, might well know what an amphitheatre, bathhouse and forum were; what a toga was; what garum (the Mediterranean fish sauce that flavoured almost all Roman food) tasted like; what a Roman soldier or government official looked like, or even an emperor (from the coins in his or her purse); and might know the value of a good pair of Roman sandals. All of this was knowledge and experience that was shared and replicated for centuries, right across the empire – spread by Roman institutions and classical culture.

CREATING THE EMPIRE

The empire did not simply fall into the lap of Rome, but rather was hard-won through hundreds of years of ferocious fighting and bloody conquest, in which failure was tasted alongside success; the growth of Rome was by no means inevitable. Over several centuries, Rome transformed from a relatively insignificant city to a regional power in central Italy, and by the middle of the third century BCE they had taken over most of the Italian peninsula.

The Punic Wars, a series of three long and protracted wars against the North African city of Carthage, brought significant gains in territory. During these campaigns, the Romans faced fierce opposition – not least in the guise of the commander Hannibal, who during May of 217 BCE attacked the Roman army at Lake Trasimene in Umbria, killing more than 15,000 Roman troops, and in the following year all but destroyed the Roman army, in one battle alone killing more than 50,000 men. After this victory, Hannibal occupied Italy for fifteen years. It was not until the Third Punic War (149–146 BCE) that Carthage was finally defeated, its walls and buildings razed to the ground, its citizens either put to the sword or enslaved. This led to Roman expansion into North Africa and Spain.

During the next century and a half, this expansion in the west was matched in the east as Balkan cities became subject to Rome, and Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt were defeated. In the same period, much of modern-day northern Europe was invaded and conquered to varying degrees.

This impressive territorial empire was built on the back of the Roman army, which was superbly disciplined, well-equipped and well-led, and which fought with awesome ferocity, clever strategy and utter ruthlessness. The historian Tacitus (56–120 CE) described a Roman campaign in Germania: ‘The country was wasted by fire and sword fifty miles round; nor sex nor age found mercy; places sacred and profane had the equal lot of destruction, all razed to the ground.’

This perpetual war machine consumed immense resources, not least humans. During the period of the Roman republic, an estimated half of the male population would have been expected to serve in the army until their mid-twenties – in the later years, before the establishment of the empire, volunteers signed up for sixteen years of service. This system of conscription was replaced by a professional standing army of imperial troops who served for twenty years, with five in the reserves. These extraordinarily high levels of conscription were demanded in order to field the 300,000–500,000 soldiers that guarded the far-flung imperial frontiers through the empire’s superb system of paved roads, as well as the sailors that crewed ships patrolling the Mediterranean, Black Sea, English Channel, and Atlantic coasts of Spain and France.

THE EVIDENCE

The vastness of the Roman period has left a bewildering amount of evidence – literary, visual, architectural and archaeological – which has allowed historians to study innumerable aspects of its civilization.

The literary evidence survives in various forms. We have a body of often fragmentary handwritten documents: laws, censuses, tax assessments, lists and even letters, written on papyrus and wooden tablets. One excellent example is a collection of over 750 wooden tablets, some with letters on them, uncovered at the fort of Vindolanda on the northerly frontiers of Roman Britain, which sheds important light on everyday life in that part of the empire.

Alongside such handwritten documents is an impressive collection of Latin literary texts – histories, essays, poems, plays, manuals and other writings – by giants of Roman literature such as Ovid, Horace, Virgil, Cicero, Martial and Juvenal, almost all of them men. Informative, humorous, cynical and satirical, they offer a vibrant impression of Roman society across the age and of its norms and expectations, as well as anomalies and absurdities of human behaviour.

One of the clearest strands of evidence which both unites these written sources and demonstrates to us a shared Roman culture was their language: Latin. It was the predominant language of the empire, the bureaucratic lingua franca that enforced Roman rule on all provinces, through administration and local law courts. It was expected that all who were freeborn and were enfranchised into the empire should have at least a working knowledge of Latin.

Greek was the other official language, and predominated in the eastern Roman empire and around the Mediterranean as a language of diplomacy. While other languages have left little written record, a wealth of local languages and dialects would have been spoken and written throughout the empire, including Celtic, Punic, Syriac and Egyptian. It was through these languages that an individual living in the empire who did not feel Roman might forge a sense of their own identity.

The physical remains of people as well as objects and artefacts are also powerful evidence of shared culture, revealing what the Romans wore, ate and used. So too are the magnificent examples of art and architecture that litter the former Roman territories. Paintings, funerary reliefs, sculptures, statues, triumphal arches, civic buildings, temples, villas, roads, walls, aqueducts and fortifications survive as testimony to the reach, technological advancement and cultural sophistication of the Roman civilization.

The combined written and physical record overwhelmingly privileges the lives and experiences of men, who as civic leaders made so much history and had their deeds commemorated in words and stone. It is possible, however, to reconstruct the worlds of a range of Roman women at all social levels, from goddesses and empresses and the wives of politicians, through citizens and freeborn women, to prostitutes and slaves; and in their various social roles as wives, mothers, daughters, kin, lovers, and mistresses of households. Much more challenging to reconstruct are the histories of children, the elderly and the disabled, and the history of sexuality, although a close reading across the sources uncovers fragmentary evidence of a range of groups and experiences.

Taken together, the evidence shows us that ancient Rome was a world of extremes, which makes it seem very human and easy for us to identify with today. Enough survives in the sources for us to see that it was both funny and cruel, violent and peaceful; that people experienced pleasure and pain, want and excess, justice and injustice, rules and judgement; that the Romans were moral and immoral; that it was a period that saw both rapid change and decades of stasis.

STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

Roman society was rigidly hierarchical. Where you were in the social pecking order affected your everyday life in very tangible ways, from the amount of power and influence you could wield, to who you could marry or the punishments you could receive – as well as what you could wear, eat, and where you could sit in both public and private settings.

The most fundamental legal distinction was between those who were free and those who were slaves. In the Roman world, a slave was either born into slavery or otherwise enslaved through conquest and war. They were the property of their owners, who had the power of life and death over them. Slaves could also be freed, and regularly were.

Those who were free were divided into citizens and non-citizens. Citizens enjoyed legal privileges, including the right to a legal trial and the right to appeal a decision. They could not be tortured or sentenced to death unless found guilty of treason. They could own property and were excluded from certain taxes. They could vote and make contracts. The gift of citizenship was extended throughout the empire as a reward for local families and settlements – sometimes entire cities – and a person could also become a citizen by serving in the army, or be born into it if their parents were citizens. In 212 CE, however, this changed when citizenship was extended to all free inhabitants of the empire by the emperor Caracalla (188–217 CE). Freeborn women were classified as citizens, but although held in high regard they were not allowed to vote or hold public office.

The body of free Roman citizens was broken down further into patricians and plebeians. The former were established landowning families; the latter the rest of the population who were freeborn. The patricians were subdivided into ranks according to property ownership, with the senators at the top and equites below. At the very apex of society were the kings, consuls of the republic, dictators and emperors, who were the political and military leaders of Rome; but from the earliest time of the Roman kings to the thirteenth century in the eastern empire, a varying degree of power lay in the hands of the Senate, the governing body of Rome and a continuous presence and force throughout Roman history.

RELIGION AND BELIEFS

The Roman belief system was polytheistic, which allowed worship of multiple deities, and as the empire’s borders grew, so too did the number of religions that were incorporated into it. This is not to suggest that the Romans simply accepted all religions – as witnessed by their oppression of the Jews and early Christians – but that a range of gods and cults were added to the existing Roman pantheon of gods. Roman mythology included belief in gods such as Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Mars and Minerva among others, and such paganism was dominant within the senatorial aristocracy and the civil service, as well as in the army.

Perhaps most significant was the impact of Christianity on the Roman empire, which some historians have linked to its decline and eventual fall. In its infancy, Christianity was simply one of a number of religions that offered a mystical union between worshippers and a divine being, with the promise of eternal salvation and the forgiveness of sins.

Despite the early persecution of Christians, their simple message – predicated on personal faith and a relationship with a single god – attracted support first among the poor and slaves, and later within towns and cities. By the second and third centuries CE it had become popular among the civil service and army. A monotheistic religion that was intolerant of belief in competing gods, its success was more or less guaranteed in 312 by the conversion of the emperor Constantine (c.272–337) after his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, before which he had seen in the sun a cross with the wording ‘In this sign, you will conquer’. Constantine’s conversion changed the nature of the Roman world forever.