Human Bond Communication E-Book

Sudhir Dixit

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 478

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

This book approaches the topic area of the Internet of Things (IoT) from the perspective of the five types of human communication. Through this perspective on the human communication types, the book aims to specifically address how IoT technologies can support humans and their endeavors. The book explores the fields of sensors, wireless, physiology, biology, wearables, and the Internet. This book is organized with five sections, each covering a central theme; Section 1: The basics of human bond communication Section 2: Relevance IoT, BAN and PAN Section 3: Applications of HBC Section 4: Security, Privacy and Regulatory Challenges Section 5: The Big Picture (Where do we go from here?)

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

List of Contributors

About the Editors

Preface

Abbreviations

1 Introduction to Human Bond Communication

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Human Bond Communication (HBC) Architecture

1.3 About the Book

Reference

2 General Concepts Behind Human Bond Communications

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Definition of Human Bond Communication

2.3 HBC Architecture and Convergence with ICT

2.4 Human Emotional Messaging

2.5 Replication and Translation of Human Senses to Electronic Messages for Communication

2.6 Physical World Augmentation

2.7 Human Umwelt Expansion through Environmental Signals and Context

2.8 Integration of HBC with Wearables and Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)

2.9 Conclusions

References

3 Advanced Reconfigurable 5G Architectures for Human Bond Communication

3.1 Introduction

3.2 HBC Communication Network Requirements

3.3 5G Architecture‐Based SDN‐NFV and Edge Computing for Human Bond Communication

3.4 HBC Security Issues and Potential Solutions

3.5 Conclusions

References

4 Data Mining of the Human Being

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Data Mining in Molecular Biology

4.3 Data Mining in Cytology and Histology

4.4 Medical Data Mining

4.5 Opinion Mining

4.6 Conclusions

References

5 Human‐Centric IoT Networks

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Overview of State of the Art in HCS Internet of Things

5.3 Modeling of HCS‐Ns and HCS‐NFs

5.4 Conclusions

References

6 Body as a Network Node: Key is the Oral Cavity

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Body as a Node Approach

6.3 Oral Cavity as a Node

6.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

7 Human Bond Communication Using Cognitive Radio Approach for Efficient Spectrum Utilization

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Human Bond Communication Using Cognitive Radio Approach for Efficient Spectrum Utilization

7.3 Conclusions

References

8 Technology Advancement and Integration in the Context of Wildlife Conservation

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Technology‐Based Wildlife Conservation

8.3 Challenges: Technology‐Based Wildlife Conservation

8.4 Possibilities in Future: Technology‐Based Wildlife Conservation

8.5 Role of Conservationists in Wildlife Conservation

8.6 Conclusions

References

9 An Investigation of Security and Privacy for Human Bond Communications

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Fundamental Assumptions, Premises, and Issues

9.3 Human Bond Communications

9.4 Brains and Minds

9.5 Security and Privacy for HBC

9.6 The Adversary

9.7 Impacts

9.8 Conclusions

References

10 The Internet of Everything and Beyond

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The Anticipated Future of the IoE

10.3 The Anticipated Impact of the IoE

10.4 Conclusions

Further Reading

11 Human Bond Communications in Health: Ethical and Legal Issues

11.1 Introduction

11.2 ICT in Health

11.3 Ethical and Legal Issues

11.4 Conclusions

References

12 Human Bond Communication: A New and Unexplored Frontier for Intellectual Property and Information and Communication Technology Law

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Legal Applications of HBC

12.3 HBC and IoT

12.4 Patents and HBC

12.5 Conclusions

References

13 Predicting the Future of ICT: A Historical Perspective

13.1 Introduction

13.2 A Short Run‐Through Technology Evolution

13.3 Telecommunication Evolution in the Digital Era

13.4 Telecommunication Evolution: From Technology to Applications

13.5 Conclusions

References

14 Human Bond Communication Beyond 2050

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Origin of Communication

14.3 Technology as Enabler for Communication Improvement

14.4 Building a Basket of Communication Platforms

14.5 Psychological Influence on Communication

14.6 Platform Consumption

14.7 What Is Next?

14.8 Conclusions

Reference

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02

Table 2.1 Human senses and information rates.

Table 2.2 Comparison of transduction techniques for human tactile sensing.

Table 2.3 Sixth Sense technology enablers.

Table 2.4 Existing and potential Sixth Sense applications.

Table 2.5 Comparison of sensory stimulation approaches.

Chapter 03

Table 3.1 General requirements for HBC.

Table 3.2 Network requirements for HBC.

Table 3.3 Quality of service requirements for HBC.

Table 3.4 Security requirements for HBC.

Chapter 08

Table 8.1 Summary of radio telemetry studies conducted in India from 1983 to 2013.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Industry‐wide impact of the IoE.

Table 10.2 The impact of the IoE on the public sector.

Table 10.3 The development of smart products.

Table 10.4 Gender dimensions in 2050?

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Psychological aspects of communication.

Table 14.2 Domestic telco infrastructure and high‐level communication patterns (Danmarks Statistik Telerapport 1H 2014).

Table 14.3 Take‐up rates of social media.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 An illustration of human bond communication (HBC) concept. CTP, communication technology platform.

Figure 1.2 A proposed HBC architecture.

Figure 1.3 Key concepts and technology enablers for HBC.

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Communication of sensory information between humans and machines.

Figure 2.2 A systems level representation of the scope of human bond communication (HBC) system.

Figure 2.3 Steps to successful implementation of an HBC system.

Figure 2.4 A proposed HBC platform with a multisensory user application or a machine.

Figure 2.5 Brain‐to‐brain communication.

Figure 2.6 High‐level operation description of the remote hugging system [3].

Figure 2.7 Mobile scent actuator. Side view (top left), top view (top right), and separated top view of main unit and scent cartridge (bottom) [4].

Figure 2.8 The Sixth Sense device: (a) physical topology and (b) communication architecture.

Figure 2.9 Wireless body area network with various medical sensors and human sensory interfaces.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 HBC baseline system architecture [3].

Figure 3.2 METIS 5G network architecture [17].

Figure 3.3 F‐RAN HBC.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 S‐BAN as the smallest unit of an HCS‐N.

Figure 5.2 S‐BANs coexisting in a smart‐home scenario.

Figure 5.3 HCS‐NF scenario.

Figure 5.4 HCS‐N supporting platform.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 Function partitioning for ByN implementation.

Figure 6.2 Network with all technical T nodes.

Figure 6.3 Network with a PH node in the implementation of the ByN approach.

Figure 6.4 Body contribution to the ByN implementation, with focus on the OC.

Figure 6.5 OCN approach.

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Cognition cycle for the CR system.

Figure 7.2 Dynamic spectrum leasing methodology/model (DSLM).

Figure 7.3 Utility function versus the number of active secondary users, parameterized by the number of spectrum bands.

Figure 7.4 Seven‐phased cognition cycle model and architecture.

Chapter 08

Figure 8.1 (a) Male Great Indian Bustard without PTT tracked in Maharashtra, India. (b) Male Great Indian Bustard with PTT tracked in Maharashtra, India.

Figure 8.2 Satellite tracking of male great Indian bustard in Maharashtra, India, and its dispersal in human‐dominated landscape over a period of 9 months (locations on different dates and routes adopted are shown in sequential numbers).

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 An illustration of the possibilities for sensors/wearables.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Origins of communication among humans.

Figure 14.2 Mehrabian’s 1971 study on face‐to‐face communication.

Figure 14.3 Model for telephone communication.

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

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Human Bond Communication

The Holy Grail of Holistic Communication and Immersive Experience

Edited by

Sudhir DixitRamjee Prasad

This edition first published 2017© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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The publisher and the authors make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties; including without limitation any implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of on‐going research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this works was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising here from.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Dixit, Sudhir, editor. | Prasad, Ramjee, editor.Title: Human bond communication : the holy grail of holistic communication and immersive experience / edited by Sudhir Dixit, Ramjee Prasad.Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016046268 (print) | LCCN 2017002987 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119341338 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119341468 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119341413 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Telecommunication systems. | Human‐computer interaction. | Digital communications. | Information technology.Classification: LCC TK5102.5 .H86 2017 (print) | LCC TK5102.5 (ebook) | DDC 621.38201–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016046268

Cover design by WileyCover image: © dem10/gettyimages

Naiva kinchit karmiti yukto manyeta tattvit‐vitPashyan shunvan sparshan jigrhrann asnan gacchan svapan svasan

Pralapan visrijan grihnann unmishan nimishann apiindriyaanindriyaarthesu vartanta iti dhaaryan

One who knows the truth is always certain that it is the senses that are engaged in observations, like seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting and is the involuntary participant of the actions happening around, just like opening and closing of eyelids. Such observations are not the part of the ultimate knowledge, but, when a seeker looks beyond them, finds the ultimate truth.

—The Bhagavad Gita (5.8 and 5.9)

List of Contributors

Ernestina CiancaCenter for Teleinfrastructures (I‐CTIF), University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome, Italy

Maurizia De BellisCenter for Teleinfrastructures (I‐CTIF), University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome, Italy

Enrico Del ReDepartment of Information Engineering, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

Mauro De SanctisInterdepartmental Center for Teleinfrastructures (I‐CTIF), University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome, Italy

Edoardo Di MaggioI‐CTIF Steering Board (LAW‐Intellectual Property), Rome, Italy

Sudhir DixitCTIF Global Capsule (CGC), Rome, Italy Basic Internet Foundation, Oslo, Norway

Liljana GavrilovskaSs. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia

Bilal HabibWildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India

Flemming HynkemejerRTX A/S, Wireless Wisdom, Norresundby, Denmark

Sara JayousiDepartment of Information Engineering, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

Geir M. KøienFaculty of Engineering and Science, Department of ICT, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway

Pierpaolo Loreti Interdepartmental Center for Teleinfrastructures (I‐CTIF), University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome, Italy

Pradeep K. MathurWildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India

Prateek Mathur CTIF, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Helga E. Melcherts Varias BVBA, Antwerp, Belgium

Albena Mihovska Department of Electronic Systems CTIF, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Seshadri Mohan Systems Engineering, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, AR, USA

Simone Morosi Department of Information Engineering, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

Lorenzo Mucchi Department of Information Engineering, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

Federica Paganelli CNIT, Research Unit of Florence, Florence, Italy

Milica Pejanovic Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro

Ramjee Prasad CTIF Global Capsule (CGC), Rome, Italy; School of Business and Social Sciences, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Silvano Pupolin Department of Information Engineering, University of Padua, Padua, Italy

Valentin Rakovic Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia

Luca Simone Ronga CNIT, Research Unit of Florence, Florence, Italy

Marina Ruggieri Center for Teleinfrastructures (I‐CTIF), University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome, Italy

Gianpaolo Sannino Center for Teleinfrastructures (I‐CTIF), University of Rome “Tor Vergata,” Rome, Italy

Sachin Sharma Systems Engineering, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, AR, USA

Domenico Siciliano Themis Law Firm, Rome, Italy

About the Editors

Dr. Sudhir Dixit recently joined the CTIF Global Capsule (CGC) as the Director of Home for Mind and Body, an international centre for peace, located in Rome, Italy. Additionally, he is a Fellow and Evangelist of basic Internet at the Basic Internet Foundation in Norway. He has also been the CEO and Cofounder of Skydoot, Inc., a start‐up at San Francisco Bay area in the content sharing and collaboration space. From December 2013 to April 2015, he was a Distinguished Chief Technologist and CTO of the Communications & Media Services for the Americas region of Hewlett Packard Enterprise Services in Palo Alto, CA, and prior to this he was the Director of Hewlett Packard Labs India from September 2009. From June 2009 to August 2009, he was a Director at HP Labs in Palo Alto. Prior to joining HP Labs Palo Alto, Dixit held a joint appointment with the Centre for Internet Excellence (CIE) and the Centre for Wireless Communications (CWC) at the University of Oulu, Finland. From 1996 to 2008, he held various positions with leading companies, such as with BlackBerry as Senior Director (2008), with Nokia and Nokia Networks in the United States as Senior Research Manager, Nokia Research Fellow, Head of Nokia Research Center (Boston), and Head of Network Technology (USA) (1996–2008). From 1987 to 1996, he was at NYNEX Science and Technology and GTE Laboratories (both now Verizon Communications) as a Staff Director and Principal Research Scientist.

Sudhir Dixit has 21 patents granted by the US PTO and has published over 200 papers and edited, coedited, or authored seven books (Wireless World in 2050 and Beyond: A Window into the Future (2016), Wi‐Fi, WiMAX and LTE Multi‐hop Mesh Networks by Wiley (2013), Globalization of Mobile and Wireless Communications by Springer (2011), Technologies for Home Networking by Wiley (2008), Content Networking in the Mobile Internet by Wiley (2004), IP over WDM by Wiley (2003), and Wireless IP and Building the Mobile Internet by Artech House (2002)). He is presently on the editorial boards of IEEE Spectrum Magazine, Cambridge University Press Wireless Series, and Springer’s Wireless Personal Communications Journal and Central European Journal of Computer Science (CEJS). He was a Technical Editor of IEEE Communications Magazine (2000–2002 and 2006–2012). He is a two‐time winner of the MIT’s Technology Review India Grand Challenge Award (2010).

From 2010 to 2012, he was an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the University of California, Davis, and, since 2010, he has been a Docent of Broadband Mobile Communications for Emerging Economies at the University of Oulu, Finland. A Life Fellow of the IEEE, and a Fellow of IET and IETE, Dixit received a Ph.D. degree in electronic science and telecommunications from the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK and an M.B.A. from the Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida. He received his M.E. degree in Electronics Engineering from Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India, and B.E. degree from Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India.

Dr. Ramjee Prasad is a Professor in multibusiness model and technology innovation in the School of Business and Social Sciences, Aarhus University, Denmark. He is the Founder President of the CTIF Global Capsule (CGC). He has been a Founder Director of Center for TeleInFrastruktur (CTIF) since 2004. He is also the Founder Chairman of the Global ICT Standardisation Forum for India, established in 2009. GISFI has the purpose of increasing the collaboration between European, Indian, Japanese, North‐American and other worldwide standardization activities in the area of information and communications technology (ICT) and related application areas.

He was the Founder Chairman of the HERMES Partnership —a network of leading independent European research centers established in 1997, of which he is now the Honorary Chair. He is a Fellow of IEEE (USA), IETE (India), IET (UK), and Wireless World Research Forum (WWRF) and a member of the Netherlands Electronics and Radio Society (NERG) and the Danish Engineering Society (IDA).

He has received Ridderkorset af Dannebrogordenen (Knight of the Dannebrog) in 2010 from the Danish Queen for the internationalization of top‐class telecommunication research and education. He has been honored by the University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy, as a Distinguished Professor of the Department of Clinical Sciences and Translational Medicine on March 15, 2016.

He has received several international awards such as IEEE Communications Society Wireless Communications Technical Committee Recognition Award in 2003 for making contribution in the field of “Personal, Wireless and Mobile Systems and Networks”; Telenor's Research Award in 2005 for impressive merits, both academic and organizational within the field of wireless and personal communication; 2014 IEEE AESS Outstanding Organizational Leadership Award for “Organizational Leadership in developing and globalizing the CTIF (Center for TeleInFrastruktur) Research Network”; and so on.

He is the Founder Editor in Chief of the Springer International Journal on Wireless Personal Communications. He is a member of the editorial board of other renowned international journals including those of River Publishers. Ramjee Prasad is Founder Cochair of the steering committees of many renowned annual international conferences, for example, Wireless Personal Multimedia Communications Symposium (WPMC) and Wireless VITAE and Global Wireless Summit (GWS).

He has published more than 30 books, 1000 plus journal and conference publications, and more than 15 patents and over 100 PhD graduates and a larger number of master’s students (over 250). Several of his students are today worldwide telecommunication leaders themselves.

Preface

Applications today have been enriched with multimedia content consisting of audio, video, augmented reality and consistently progressing toward multidimensional rendering, such as stereo, 3D, ultrahigh definition, and fidelity. In parallel, the user interaction with the devices and applications is delivering engaging experience through voice, gestures, gaze, touch, and so on. Wearable devices and body sensors are continually being integrated with applications and user devices, such as a smartphone, remote control, and finding useful applications in healthcare and remote monitoring. Humans interact with applications and consume content through optical and auditory senses. But the understanding is incomplete in the absence of information from and about the other three sensory inputs, namely, olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), and tactile (touch). This is because all five senses interestingly interact among themselves and the environment, such that being able to sense them, transmit them, and render them at the receiver can potentially deliver powerful experiences. This book on human bond communication (HBC) is about utilizing all five senses to allow more expressive and holistic sensory information exchange through communication techniques for more human sentiment centric communication. The overall outcome is for the human brain to be holistically cognitive of the subject of interest. This complete perceptive information is well exchanged among humans through these senses and, when collectively agreed, becomes knowledge. This is the first book of its kind to motivate research and innovation in holistic communication and to launch a new era of novel products and services to disrupt the status quo of contemporary applications and services that only deal with aural and optical capture, transmission, and rendering of information.

This book focuses on all technologies and issues related to HBC. It also includes the use cases and business opportunities emanating from human‐to‐machine and machine‐to‐machine applications, interactions, and communication. The chapters have been authored by the experts in the various fields, which collectively would make HBC possible.

This book is intended for graduate students, academic teachers, scholars, researchers, industry professionals, and software developers interested in the design and development of more engaging and holistic interaction experiences. This book will also be of great interest to casual readers not necessarily familiar with sensor and communication technologies. Therefore, the content is more descriptive and qualitative than theoretical in style of writing.

We thank the contributors of this book for their time and effort to make this book possible in a short period of time. We particularly acknowledge their patience and for always responding promptly to numerous requests for revising their chapters.

Sudhir DixitWoodside, CaliforniaJanuary 2017

Ramjee PrasadAalborg, Denmark

Abbreviations

AAA

Anytime, anywhere, anything

AAL

Ambient Assisted Living

AD

Auxiliary data

AI

Artificial intelligences

ANN

Artificial neural networks

App

Application software to perform tasks for computer/terminal

APT

Advanced persistent threat

APs

Access points

ARPA

Advanced Research Project Agency

ARPANET

Advanced Research Project Agency Network

B2B

Brain to brain

BBI

Brain‐to‐brain interface

BBU

Broadband unit

BCC

Body channel communication

BCI

Brain‐to‐computer interface

BIRCH

Balanced iterative reducing and clustering using hierarchies

BMI

Brain–machine interface

ByN

Body as a node

CBD

Convention on Biological Diversity

CBI

Computer‐to‐brain interface

CCI

Capture, communicate, and instantiate

CDR

Computing device recognition

CERN

Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European Council for Nuclear Research)

CPS

Calculations per second

CR

Cognitive radio

CRN

Cognitive radio networks

CRNSP

Cognitive radio network service provider

CTIF

Center for TeleInFrastruktur

DARPA

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DBSCAN

Density‐based spatial clustering of applications with noise

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

DoD

Department of Defense

DOI

Dolev–Yao intruder

DoS

Denial‐of‐service

DR

Dead reckoning

DSP

Digital signal processor

DSS

Decision support system

DSLM

Dynamic spectrum leasing methodology/Model

E&Y

Ernst and Young

ECG

Electrocardiogram

EEG

Electroencephalogram/electroencephalography

eHealth

Electronic health

EHR

Electronic health record

EMG

Electromyography

EMR

Electronic medical record

EPC

European Patent Convention

EPO

European Patent Office

EPR

Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen

ETSI

European Telecommunication Standards Institute

FCN

Fog computing node(s)

FDM

Frequency division multiplexing

fNIRS

Functional near‐infrared spectroscopy

FP7

Framework program

FP‐growth

Frequent pattern growth

F‐RAN

Fog computing‐based radio access network

FRAND rates

Friendly, reasonable, and nondiscriminatory rates

F‐UE

Fog‐capable user equipment

FUS

Focused ultrasound

GDPR

General Data Protection Regulation

GIS

Geographical information system

GPS

Global Positioning System

GSP

Generalized Sequential Pattern

H2H

Human‐to‐human

H2M

Human‐to‐machine

HBC

Human bond communication(s)

HBCI

Human bond communication(s) interface

HBP

Human Brain Project

HBS

Human bond sensorium

HCS

Human‐centric sensing

HCS‐N

Human‐centric sensing‐network

HCS‐NF

Human‐centric sensing‐network federation

HGP

Human Genome Project

HMI

Human–machine interface

GNSS

Global Navigation Satellite System

HPN

High power node

HPT

Human perceivable transposer

HTML

Hypertext Markup Language

HTTP

Hypertext Transfer Protocol

IAF

Interdisciplinary analysis of functions

IBM

International Business Machines

IC

Integrated circuit

ICN

Information‐centric networking

ICT

Information and communication technologies

IdM

Identity management

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IGW

Internet gateways

IOD

Intraoral device

IoE

Internet of everything

IoH

Internet of humans

IoT

Internet of things

IP

Internet Protocol, intellectual property

IPR

Intellectual property right

IR

Information retrieval

ISDN

Integrated Service Digital Network

KDD

Knowledge Discovery in Databases

k‐NN

k‐nearest neighbors

LAN

Local area network

LDA

Linear discriminant analysis

LSI

Large‐scale integration

METIS

Mobile and wireless communications Enablers for the Twenty‐twenty Information Society

ML

Machine learning

M2M

Machine‐to‐machine

MALDI

Matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization

MEG

Magnetoencephalography

MEMS

Microelectromechanical systems

mHealth

Mobile health

MMS

Multimedia message(ing) service

MOS

Metal–oxide–semiconductor

MPEG

Moving Picture Experts Group

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging

mRNA

Messenger RNA

MVNO

Mobile virtual network operator

NFC

Near‐field communication

NFV

Network Function Virtualization

NIRS

Near‐infrared spectroscopy

NSA

National Security Agency

NLP

Natural language processing

OC

Oral cavity

OCN

Oral cavity as a node

OPTICS

Ordering points to identify the clustering structure

OTO

Old telecom operator

PA

Protected area

PAN

Personal area network

PbD

Privacy by design

PC

Personal computer

PCM

Pulse‐code modulation

PH

Partial human

PHR

Personal health record

PI

Pseudoidentifiers

PN

Personal network

PN‐F

Personal Network Federation

POTS

Plain old telephone service

POV

Point of view

PrefixSpan

Prefix‐projected sequential pattern mining

PU

Primary user

PWA

Physical world augmentation

PWS

Partial wave spectroscopy

QoS

Quality of service

R&D

Research & development

RET

Rare, Endangered, and threatened species

RFID

Radio frequency identification

RNA

Ribonucleic acid

SAR

Structure–activity relationship

S‐BAN

Smart body area network

SDN

Software‐defined networking

SELDI

Surface‐enhanced laser desorption/ionization

SEP

Standard‐essential patent

SF

Science fiction

SMS

Short message service

SoC

System on chip

SPADE

Sequential PAttern Discovery using Equivalent Class

STEM

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

Stethics

Standardization and ethics

SU

Secondary user

SVM

Support Vector Machine

TCP

Transmission Control Protocol

TFEU

Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

TMS

Transcranial magnetic stimulation

TPMs

Technological protection measures

TRIPS

(Agreement on) Trade‐Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

UHF

Ultrahigh frequency

URI

Uniform Resource Identifier

URL

Uniform Resource Locators

UWB

Ultra‐wideband

VANETs

Vehicular Ad‐hoc Networks

V2V

Vehicle‐to‐vehicle

VHF

Very high frequency

VLC

Visible light communications

VM

Virtual machine

VR

Virtual reality

WBAN

Wireless body area network

WSP

Wireless service provider

WWII

World War II

1Introduction to Human Bond Communication

Sudhir Dixit1,3 and Ramjee Prasad1,2

1 CTIF Global Capsule (CGC), Rome, Italy

2 School of Business and Social Sciences, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

3 Basic Internet Foundation, Oslo, Norway

1.1 Introduction

Information and communications technologies (ICT) have progressed rapidly in this millennium for people to communicate and exchange information using multimedia (speech, video/image, text), and the same has extended to Internet of things (IoT) and machine‐to‐machine and machine‐to‐human communication. This trend is only going to accelerate in the years to come with powerful human–computer interaction technologies to deliver engaging and intuitive experiences. But these developments have remained confined to only the sensing and transmission of aural and optical information in the digital domain through the use of microphone, camera, speaker, and display devices. However, the ability to integrate the other three sensory features, namely, olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), and tactile (touch) in information transfer and replication to deliver “being there in‐person” experience, are still far from reality. Human bond communication (HBC) is a novel concept that incorporates all five sensory information from sensing, to digitization, to transmission and replication at the receiver to allow more expressive, engaging, realistic, and holistic information between humans [1] and in some cases between humans and machines such as in remote sensing and robotic control. Lack of inclusion of the other three senses in the digital world of ICT limits the full exploitation of the cognitive ability of the human mind for a fuller perceptive information experience. The five senses and the environment interact in interesting ways to become complete knowledge for human species as its brain has developed and evolved naturally from the time it came into existence on this planet. The profoundness of perceiving an object depends on the incisiveness and extensity of the sense organs. Incisiveness refers to the granularity and minute details or variations an organ can detect, and extensity refers to the range of the physical property that it can detect.

In the traditional world of digital information exchange, the subject is described and presented partially via its aural and optical rendering, which gives a sense of incompleteness and dissatisfaction in fully understanding the subject. In the present era of ever increasing competition through innovation, inclusion of all five senses to deliver complete experience is the holy grail of the research community. Products have begun to appear through wearables and other embedded sensors in the body, but sensors exploiting touch, taste, and smell and embedding them into products remains a distant reality and is an area of intense research today as would become evident from the chapters included in this book.

Auditory and optical sensing is wave based. In audio sound travels through waves and can be sensed and digitized. Similarly, light shining on an object is reflected in electromagnetic radiation, and a part of this spectrum (called visible light in the range of wavelength 390–700 nm) is visible to the human eye and when rendered on the retina becomes a visual formulation of the object in the nervous system. The camera does this nicely to capture an object visually and digitize it for transmission. When rendered remotely on a display device in 2‐D or 3‐D, a person can see the object as though he or she was seeing it by being physically present at a location where the camera was located. Other human senses (tactile, olfactory, gustatory) utilize particle‐based sensing and rely on smearing the object with the sensors. Building such sensors remains a technological challenge for the research community because each type of sensor must deal with large range of parameters and their wide spectrum. Digitization of these parameters is also a major challenge, and even if some finite widely prevalent values can be captured and digitized, their replication from the digital domain to the analog domain and their sensing by a person in an unobtrusive manner is a complex human‐sensor interface issue. Figure 1.1 illustrates the HBC system and depicts what is possible today and what is not.

Figure 1.1 An illustration of human bond communication (HBC) concept. CTP, communication technology platform.

Prasad [1]. Reproduced with the permission of Springer.

HBC is about understanding the human sensory functionality and works similar to human sensory system, which includes providing a perceptually holistic understanding of an object combining all five senses while incorporating the object’s environment.

1.2 Human Bond Communication (HBC) Architecture

The HBS architecture extrapolates the contemporary communications architecture to include the missing three senses (or types of sensors): tactile, olfactory, and gustatory, not in use today along with the aural and optic sensors. Nevertheless, some limited deployments are happening in machine‐to‐machine and machine‐to‐human communication use cases where robots are being used, such as in industry, law enforcement, hazardous material handling, and surveillance. A proposed architecture is shown in Figure 1.2 [1]. It should be noted that the architecture goes beyond capturing just a person’s senses to also deploying all five types of sensors in any environment to capture smell (e.g., types of smoke, air pollutants), tactile information (e.g., surface roughness, temperature, wind speed), and taste (e.g., liquids, dirt, waste) and learning about an object or its surroundings.

Figure 1.2 A proposed HBC architecture.

Prasad [1]. Reproduced with the permission of Springer.

The system consists of the three key building blocks: (i) senducers that sense the characteristic parameters through stimuli and transform those analog values to electrical and digital domain for further processing and transmission, (ii) human bond sensorium (HBS) that collects the data from the senducers, processes them to make them consumable for the human perceptive system (i.e., human consumption) by removing a large amount of nonusable and redundant data and information, transmits it to the far end to the receiver gateway, and (iii) human perceivable transposer (HPT) that transforms the received digital data to human consumable format, which includes replication of the senses to a form that one would expect if the person was physically present at the site where the sensory data were collected through senducers. Until such time the replication solutions are not available, the HPT may prefer to render the non‐audio–visual sense data through digital means (such as colors, emoticons, text, other gestures like vibration, pressure, temperature, etc.).

1.3 About the Book

Our journey into the world of intuitive and rich communication begins with the vision of extending the contemporary form of digital communication to more natural human‐to‐human communication through the novel concept of HBC. This chapter has introduced that grand vision. HBC closely embraces the advances in the fields of sensors and wireless distributed computing, physiology, biology, wearables, chemistry, medicine, analytics, Internet, and so on that will be required to bring that vision closer to reality. Therefore, this book has included invited chapters from the experts in the various fields who look at the HBC through their perspectives and delve into the technical challenges that are before the research community. They also discuss the numerous business opportunities that are unlocked due to the intersection of the innovations emanating from interdisciplinary research and entrepreneurship. Whenever appropriate the authors have looked at the historical trends to present their ideas and invoke discourse. Figure 1.3 illustrates some of the key concepts and technologies that will have a profound impact on HBC. These are discussed in the various chapters of the book.

Figure 1.3 Key concepts and technology enablers for HBC.

Chapter 1 is an introduction of the book and lays the foundation of the grand vision for the HBC concept.

Chapter 2 presents the basic concepts behind HBC and provides an insight in the ongoing research related to the concepts of human sensory and emotional replication, physical world augmentation, and human umwelt expansion. This chapter then describes an HBC architecture and discusses its convergence with ICT. Additionally, the chapter discusses the potentials of HBC and gives a vision of possible future applications and services.

In Chapter 3, the authors postulate that the provision of enhanced augmented reality services to mobile users based on the HBC paradigm will rely on the definition of a high performance, high efficiency, and highly reconfigurable network architecture for the exchange of all the five sensory features. The objective of this chapter is to propose a novel HBC communication network architecture that is able to support the provision of such novel services incorporating all five senses. Starting from the definition of the main network, security, and quality of service requirements for HBC, a 5G network architecture based on software‐defined networking, network function virtualization, and Fog–Edge computing paradigms is presented. The main enabling technologies, including WBAN, localization techniques, and content‐oriented networking, are described together with some possible solutions to be adopted to cope with the security threats that may affect the success of HBC services.

Chapter 4 is about data mining of the human being. After describing the definition of data mining (also known as knowledge discovery in databases (KDD)) as the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and extracting hidden information and identifying patterns or relationships among the data, the author describes the various models and thereafter focuses on data mining of the human being, where the data is any fact, number, or text regarding a human being. The data can describe the human being at any level, from atoms to cells, to organs, to social level.

Chapter 5 provides an overview of ongoing research on the proposed models for IoT and summarizes their advantages and disadvantages in the context of human centric IoT. After describing potential human centric sensing (HCS) scenarios that require changes in how HCS‐based IoT should be modeled, the chapter proposes a macro‐level model and describes how it can help to achieve simplicity in the complex IoT world by understanding how to get from micro‐complexity to macro‐simplicity. It also describes HCS networks and federations and their modeling and later goes into end‐to‐end security and privacy issues. This chapter also touches upon the concept of tactile Internet as the enabler for HCS IoT.

Chapter 6 describes human body (i.e., body as a node (ByN)) as the main actor in the ICT systems, which plays an active role as a node of the ICT network, as well as part of the ICT user terminal. In addition, “intrusion” with technological ICT devices in the body provides to the body itself a great opportunity for the early monitoring and the daily cure of critical pathologies. After describing the ByN approach, this chapter delves into applying the underlying concept to oral cavity and presents an overview of the research in this field with its implications and perspectives for the future.

Chapter 7 explores the novel machine learning‐based approaches to cognitive radio (CR) systems developed that will lead to innovative HBC applications to serve the needs of a community. This chapter formulates novel algorithms to share spectrum through dynamic spectrum leasing methodologies and adaptive policy decision, making processes that seek to maximize the utilization of available scarce spectrum.

Chapter 8 is about the application of ICT for wildlife preservation. It is well known that various governments and nongovernmental organizations have launched diverse technology‐driven programs to arrest unprecedented decline and wherever possible successfully restore and rehabilitate wild animal species. While timely integration of technology into wildlife research, monitoring, and conservation in the last couple of decades have definitely yielded positive results, future technology solutions are likely to cater relevant information for decision making and sound management based on application of five human senses instead of just two most common human senses (seeing and hearing). This chapter describes how the sensors for all five senses can be utilized in the solutions for wildlife preservation and concludes that there is an urgent need of sharing mental models between the stakeholders, specifically between the conservationists and technologists.

Chapter 9 investigates the security and privacy issues in HBC. Three different HBC levels are defined and analyzed what these really mean. The approach is to extrapolate and speculate about future progress but to put effort into keeping the extrapolations plausible. Many different fields are involved. Therefore, this chapter serves as a survey about possible future advances in the various fields that will have an impact on HBC. The security and privacy challenges are enormous and they need to be resolved. Thus, this chapter also serves as an urgent call for research in security and privacy issues.

Chapter 10 describes how the Internet of everything (IoE) is the networked connection of people, processes, data, and things. It contains the IoT and the Internet of humans (IoH). The stream of data the IoE will produce can be turned into actionable information and will provide numerous opportunities and will be omnipresent. This chapter attempts to answer the question: Will HBC, the novel concept that incorporates smell, taste, and touch in the exchange of information, be feasible? If the technology to create an HBC ecosystem succeeds, it will bring transformational changes and a paradigm shift. This chapter fast forwards to year 2050 to envision the evolution of the IoE and to predict the anticipated impact and opportunities.

Chapter 11 focuses on the use of HBC for health applications and in particular on the ethical and legal issues that arise. For many years, the use of ICT in medicine was limited to allowing communications between remote patients and doctors (telemedicine). In the recent years, there has been a rapid evolution in the use of ICT in health. The IoT framework allows a pervasive monitoring of anything around and eventually inside us, and this could really open the way to novel diagnostic and therapeutic methods. This rapid evolution has also posed several challenges as many things are not regulated yet. This chapter attempts to address several key questions: What will happen when HBC will be a reality? Would HBC really enable novel applications in health? And if so, would that require new regulations?

Chapter 12 delves into the challenges in intellectual property (IP) and ICT law that will potentially come with the introduction of HBC. From a legal point of view, HBC means that attorneys and legal professionals should be able to conceive in short time the framework of a smart regulation, in order to provide the principles that will be governing the interaction between human beings, machines, and human umwelt expansion. The opportunities that will be unlocked with HBC will undoubtedly trigger the evolution of IP and ICT regulations in several areas. Because of the need for coherency, a multidisciplinary approach will be the key for reaching consensus among different experts and realize full implementation of the legal and general aspects of HBC.

Chapter 13 presents a historical view of the developments in wireless communication brought about by the changes in paradigm of communications from station to station to person to person and because of technology improvement that made the telephone terminal a multimedia mobile device. This chapter then delves into what is next for wireless communications? While future research could be either on technology or on applications, in reality, the success depends on several other factors such as fashion design, creating user needs, user experience, business models, and so on. These other factors require collaboration among teams in quite different areas that we call for interdisciplinary research and development. This chapter, therefore, focuses on the need for this collaborative approach for innovation and commercial success.

Chapter 14 is a broad overview of how communication among humans originated over the history of mankind and how it has evolved over time with the advances in technology. It discusses the paradox of users that while on the one side they have had choice of platforms and applications to provide enormous opportunities to exchange information in increasingly efficient ways, on the other side they chose the platforms that use only the least significant parts of the messages (i.e., text). This chapter quantifies how much information is included in text, speech, and video/image. Then it discusses technology as an enabler for improving communication over distances and differences between the various platforms, why customers seem not to choose the channel that offers optimum communication, and what are the technical characteristics of the various channels (face to face, letter, telegraph, voice, video, television, SMS/MMS, email, etc.). After presenting the data on how much data the users consume through different channels, this chapter goes into the psychological impact of the various communication channels and finally how the inclusion of the remaining three senses (touch, taste, smell) would further augment the quality of communication.

In summary, the book defines the concept of HBC, sets out its vision, and provides details on the technologies that are driving the realization of the vision and how it would transform the communication experience between humans while also significantly unlock the business opportunities between humans, machines, and their environment. This book also goes into the details of the security, privacy, IP, and regulatory challenges that must be addressed for HBC to be commercially realized.

Reference

1 Prasad, R. (2016). Human bond communication.

Wireless Personal Communications

,

87

(3), 619–627, Springer, New York.

2General Concepts Behind Human Bond Communications

Liljana Gavrilovska1, Valentin Rakovic1, and Sudhir Dixit2,3

1 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, Macedonia

2 CTIF Global Capsule (CGC), Rome, Italy

3 Basic Internet Foundation, Oslo, Norway

2.1 Introduction

The era of aural and visual communication has been with us for quite a long time, and ICT devices and applications have made tremendous strides in past years by exploiting the exchange of the information associated with these two senses between humans and machines. With respect to aural (or speech and sound) communication, not only have humans exchanged information through vocoders, but also machine‐based speech recognition, recording, and synthesis (including through IVRs) are dominating in the present era of digital society. Similarly, visual communication has been growing by leaps and bounds between humans and machines in all forms of combinations. The machines (i.e., robots) are being equipped by voice and video/imaging sensors for machine learning and real‐time actuarial functions or for data gathering and forwarding to the destination nodes. Despite all the advances in aural and visual communication, a complete holistic presence, which mimics the face‐to‐face interaction through ICT, has evaded the technologists so far and constitutes the holy grail of major advances in communication involving human‐to‐human (H2H), human‐to‐machine (H2M), and machine‐to‐machine (M2M) communication and information exchange. Seamless integration of the remaining three senses (touch sensing and haptic feedback commonly referred to tactile system, smell sensing commonly referred to olfactory system, and taste sensing referred to gustatory system) will improve the understanding of the physical object (person, environment, anything else) in a way that we can barely fathom to imagine their impact. The interaction between the five senses enriches the information content tremendously, which is equivalent to being there. Just imagine how immersive the experience would be from looking at something while touching, hearing, smelling, and sensing its environment remotely! Gustatory experience, while requiring somewhat more active participation, can add to complete experience. A very good example when all the five senses are involved is when we go to a restaurant, to a bar, or on a picnic.

Incorporating the ability to sense all the five senses (or a subset of them) is playing a major role in robotics. Analysis of this five‐dimensional data set can provide invaluable information to a robot to learn its environment and how to react, especially in hazardous situations. Alternatively, it can simply pass that information on to its handlers who can then decide on what to do next through that robot remotely or utilize other means to react. Thus, incorporating more than the aural and optical sensory information in the messages is not only limited to H2H communication but also extends to machines and Internet of things (IoT). So far, tactile sensing and feedback (collectively known as haptic or kinesthetic communication) has made significant advances to be implemented in tactile Internet and applications that are remote and based on feel (i.e., cause) and react (control to action) principle [1–3]. Touch conveys such important information as smoothness, texture, shape, pressure, and so on. Examples of such devices are joysticks, data gloves with felt sensors, or other tactile sensors. These are increasingly being used in computer games and remote computer applications, such as remote games and telerobotics. Figure 2.1 illustrates the scope of interactions among five sensory features in H2H, H2M, and M2M communications.

Figure 2.1 Communication of sensory information between humans and machines.

2.2 Definition of Human Bond Communication

The concept of communication of human senses between humans or machines is not necessarily a new concept, but its development and implementation into systems through sensors, how these are packaged for transfer across distances, and how these are rendered are in rather the early stage of implementation and commercialization. It involves interdisciplinary aspects both in theory and implementation in the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, neuroscience, and engineering. The work mainly entails (i) human sensory and emotional sensing and replication, (ii) physical world augmentation (PWA), and (iii) sensory substitution and augmentation through umwelt expansion. These are explained in the following text [5].

Human senses and emotional sensing and replication

. Human sensing and replication typically refers to how humans perceive the world around them through their five senses (including deriving additional intelligence from how these senses interact with each other thereby building a much richer knowledge space in the five‐dimensional space). Replication means mimicking and mirroring human senses at the receiving end through artificial means after they have been transmitted digitally. Traditional communication technologies already accomplish this for speech and video involving microphones, cameras, speakers, and display devices for many applications. Human emotional sensing and replication represent a much more advanced concept whereby the brain of a person communicates with another person’s brain directly through brain‐to‐brain (B2B) interface (BBI) comprising brain‐to‐computer interface (BCI) and computer‐to‐brain interface (CBI). In recent years, there has been significant progress in research in both the BCI and CBI.

PWA

. Interaction with the physical world represented digitally by means of natural human senses represents augmenting the experience that is rich and intuitive. In short, like in the real world, a person utilizes the five natural senses to interact with an object to take appropriate actions and decisions; similarly the same is done in the digital world. The physical world is presented digitally on a device and the user interacts with it through the natural human senses. A good example of this is a wearable device, called “Sixth Sense” device, developed by the researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2009.

Sensory substitution and augmentation through umwelt expansion

. The term “umwelt” was first introduced by Jacob von Uexküll [6] and is explained in much more detail in

Section 2.7

. In brief, they discovered that various organisms in the same ecosystem pick up different signals from the surroundings in the environment they are in. The same applies for the humans as well and thus represents the entire objective reality that goes much beyond the five senses. These environmental signals are fed through unusual sensory channels and together open up interesting interaction possibilities and opportunities between the digital world and the human brain.

Human bond communication (HBC) as a concept and terminology was first introduced by Prasad [7] as a holistic approach to describe and transmit the features of a subject in the way humans perceive it; therefore, all five senses need to be considered and exploited, transmitted, and recreated for complete understanding of the subject to the extent possible by a human and as mutually agreed by the interacting users of HBC. Thus, HBC’s scope is end‐to‐end communication, which includes both humans and machines as end points.

2.3 HBC Architecture and Convergence with ICT

Figure 2.2 illustrates a simplified systems view of an end‐to‐end HBC system. HBC represents the subsystem that multiplexes or demultiplexes the digital data streams corresponding to the various sensory information, network protocols, and network interface to the external world. In H2M HBC systems the communication of information is usually asymmetric with more sense information flowing from a machine to a user but only control information (such as touch, speech) flowing from user to the machine. To be successful in HBC, the system must perform a number of functions with minimum latency to deliver a real‐time immersive experience. These are shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.2 A systems level representation of the scope of human bond communication (HBC) system.

Figure 2.3 Steps to successful implementation of an HBC system.

Schematic representation of an HBC‐enabled user and/or a machine (such as a robotic platform) is depicted in Figure 2.4. A complementary stack is implemented in the receiver subsystem of an end‐to‐end HBC implementation. The communication part of the HBC system remains unchanged as in the conventional multimedia‐enabled applications. The recent advances in virtualization and cloud computing can be extended to multisensory applications involving sensing beyond just audio and visual for signal processing, analytics, measurement, and control.

Figure 2.4 A proposed HBC platform with a multisensory user application or a machine.

2.4 Human Emotional Messaging

One of the main objectives of HBC is to facilitate the possibility to exchange information on how humans perceive the world. The HBC paradigm exploits the emotional messaging concept in order to leverage this process. This section will provide an overview of the key features and technical enablers related to the emotional messaging, highlighting their main research focus and generic issues.

Human emotional messaging represents a technological concept that provides the humans with the possibility to send words, images, and even thoughts directly to the minds of others. The common principle of human information exchange has been supported by the sensory (vision and hear) and motor facets of the human body, which are inept of facilitating the full potential of the emotional messaging. Novel and cutting edge communication concepts, such as the B2B communication, facilitate the emotional messaging. As demonstrated in Refs. [8, 9], a direct B2B communication can be achieved by exploiting a BBI. The BBI is consisted of two distinct interfaces, as illustrated in Figure 2.5:

BCI

. The BCI is designed to read (or decode) useful information from neural activity.

CBI

. The CBI facilitates the writing (or encoding) of digital information back into neural activity.

Figure 2.5 Brain‐to‐brain communication.

Recent research activities have experienced substantial progress in both BCI and CBI communication directions. Specifically several research groups have demonstrated the possibility of decoding motor [9], conceptual [11], and visual [10, 12] information from neural activity via a range of recording techniques such as:

Implanted electrodes

. The implanted electrodes are implanted directly into the grey matter of the brain during neurosurgery. Because they lie in the grey matter, invasive devices produce the highest quality of brain activity signals with respect to the BCI procedures. However, they are prone to scar tissue buildup, causing the signal to become weaker, or even nonexistent, as the body reacts to a foreign object in the brain [13].

Functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

. The fNIRS method exploits the near‐infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for the purpose of functional neuroimaging. By utilizing fNIRS, the brain activity is measured through hemodynamic responses associated with neuron behavior. With respect to the BCI, the fNIRS method provides the possibility for extracting brain information with high spatial resolution [14]. However, the method lacks good temporal resolution and has a bulky design.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

. The EEG method is a noninvasive electrophysiological monitoring method to record electrical activity of the brain. It measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the neurons of the brain. The EEG method can leverage extraction of brain information with high temporal resolution. The EEG devices can be easily designed to be portable and wearable [15]. However, EEG has low spatial resolution and requires a careful placement of electrodes on head.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

. The functional MRI represents a functional neuroimaging method using MRI technology that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This method relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled. Similar to the fNIRS method, the functional MRI facilitates extraction of brain activity and information with high spatial resolution and possesses low temporal resolution and complex hardware design [16].

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

. MEG represents a functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers. The MEG provides significantly improved imaging compared to EEG. However, the method possesses a complex hardware design [17, 18].

Varieties of existing CBI techniques permit users to encode digital information into human neural activity by exploiting the facets of implanted electrodes [13], transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) [19], and focused ultrasound (FUS) [20]. However, all of these CBI techniques are either invasive or still in an experimental phase. The most recent research advancements in the area of B2B communication provide solutions for noninvasive BBI that can be safely applied to humans. The authors in Refs. [21] and [22] have demonstrated a BBI design, where the BCI exploits the EEG technique to decode motor activities from the originating