Latin for Beginners E-Book

Benjamin Leonard D'ooge

• Herausgeber: Benjamin Leonard D'ooge
• Kategorie: Gesellschafts- und Liebesromane
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.
Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials.
Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar.
Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed.

Leseprobe

Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge

Latin for Beginners

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Table of contents

PREFACE

TO THE STUDENT—BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

PART I THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

PART II WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

LESSON II

LESSON III

LESSON IV

LESSON V

LESSON VI

LESSON VII

LESSON VIII

LESSON IX

LESSON X

LESSON XI

LESSON XII

LESSON XIII

LESSON XIV

LESSON XV

LESSON XVI

LESSON XVII

LESSON XVIII

LESSON XIX

LESSON XX

LESSON XXI

LESSON XXII

LESSON XXIII

LESSON XXIV

LESSON XXV

LESSON XXVI

LESSON XXVII

LESSON XXVIII

LESSON XXIX

LESSON XXX

LESSON XXXI

LESSON XXXII

LESSON XXXIII

LESSON XXXIV

LESSON XXXV

LESSON XXXVI

LESSON XXXVII

LESSON XXXVIII

LESSON XXXIX

LESSON XL

LESSON XLI

LESSON XLII

LESSON XLIII

LESSON XLIV

LESSON XLV

LESSON XLVI

LESSON XLVII

LESSON XLVIII

LESSON XLIX

LESSON L

LESSON LI

LESSON LII

LESSON LIII

LESSON LIV

LESSON LV

LESSON LVI

LESSON LVII

LESSON LVIII

LESSON LIX

LESSON LX

PART III CONSTRUCTIONS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

LESSON LXI

LESSON LXII

LESSON LXIII

LESSON LXIV

LESSON LXV

LESSON LXVI

LESSON LXVII

LESSON LXVIII

LESSON LXIX

LESSON LXX

LESSON LXXI

LESSON LXXII

LESSON LXXIII

LESSON LXXIV

LESSON LXXV

LESSON LXXVI

LESSON LXXVII

LESSON LXXVIII

LESSON LXXIX

READING MATTER

LIV. HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYÆ

LV. HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS[1] · HE STRANGLES THE NEME´AN LION

LVI. SLAYING THE LERNE´AN HYDRA

LVII. THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR

LVIII. HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE´AN STABLES AND KILLS THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS

LIX. HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO EURYSTHEUS

LX. THE BELT OF HIPPOL´YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS

LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE´II

LXII. HIS LIFE ON THE FARM

LXIII. MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED · JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM

LXIV. LENTULUS REACHES HOME · PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER

LXV. A DAY AT POMPEII

LXVI. LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON

LXVII. PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION

LXVIII. PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS

LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CÆSAR’S ARMY IN GAUL

LXX. THE RIVAL CENTURIONS

LXXI. THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED

LXXII. PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY · ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS

LXXIII. THE STORMING OF A CITY

LXXIV. THE CITY IS TAKEN · THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED

LXXV. CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA

LXXVI. THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR

APPENDIX I

REGULAR VERBS

APPENDIX II

APPENDIX III

I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII

II. REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII

III. REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI

IV. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI

V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV

VI. REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII

VII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX

VIII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX

LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY

PREFACE

To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons.The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials.Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar.Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed.It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers:The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions.The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge’s “Dictionary of Secondary Latin” and Browne’s “Latin Word List” as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar.The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together.Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course.Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar’s army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation.Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar.The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times.A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout.As an aid to teachers using this book a “Teacher’s Manual” has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson.The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution.

TO THE STUDENT—BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

«What is Latin?» If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.[Footnote 1: Pronounce Lā´shĭ-ŭm.]«The Spread of Latin.» For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin.«The Romans and the Greeks.» In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks—poets, artists, orators, and philosophers—flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art.«Rome and the Modern World.» After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day.«Latin and English.» Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French—which, you remember, is descended from Latin—and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms.«Why study Latin?» The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.«Review Questions.» Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin?

PART I

THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

THE ALPHABET«1.» The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no w and no j.«2.» The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are consonants.«3.» I is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called I consonant.Thus in Iū-li-us the first i is a consonant, the second a vowel.SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1][Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.]«4.» Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below.«5.» The vowels have the following sounds:VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLESā as in father hāc, stās  ă like the first a in aha´,    never as in hat ă´-măt, că-nās  ē as in they tē´-lă, mē´-tă  ĕ as in met tĕ´-nĕt, mĕr´-cēs  ī as in machine sĕr´-tī, prā´-tī  ĭ as in bit sĭ´-tĭs, bĭ´-bī  ō as in holy Rō´-mă, ō´-rĭs  ŏ as in wholly, never as inhot mŏ´-dŏ, bŏ´-nōs  ū as in rude, or as oo inboot ū´-mŏr, tū´-bĕr  ŭ as in full, or as oo infoot ŭt, tū´-tŭsNOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of a, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of quantity but also of quality.[Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ¯, short ones ˘.]«6.» In «diphthongs» (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable.DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES«ae» as ai in aisle tae´-dae  «au» as ou in out gau´-dĕt  «ei» as ei in eight dein´-dĕ  «eu» as ĕ´o͝o (a short e    followed by a short u in    one syllable) seu  «oe» like oi in toil foe´-dŭs  «ui» like o͝o´ĭ (a short u    followed by a short i in one    syllable. Cf. English we) cui, huicNOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.«7.» «Consonants» are pronounced as in English, except thatCONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES«c» is always like c in cat, never as in cent că´-dō, cĭ´-bŭs, cē´-nă «g» is always like g in get, never as in gem gĕ´-mō, gĭg´-nō «i consonant» is always like y in yes iăm, iŏ´-cŭs «n» before c, qu, or g is like ng in sing (compare the sound of n in anchor) ăn´-cŏ-ră (ang´-ko-ra) «qu», «gu», and sometimes «su» before a vowel have the sound of qw, gw, and sw. Here u has the value of consonant v and is not counted a vowel ĭn´-quĭt, quī, lĭn´-guă, săn´-guĭs, suā´-dĕ-ō «s» is like s in sea, never as in ease rŏ´-să, ĭs «t» is always like t in native, never as in nation ră´-tĭ-ō, nā´-tĭ-ō «v» is like w in wine, never as in vine «vī´-nŭm», «vĭr» «x» has the value of two consonants (cs or gs) and is like x in extract, not as in exact «ĕx´-trā», «ĕx-āc´-tŭs» «bs» is like ps and «bt» like pt «ŭrbs», «ŏb-tĭ´-nĕ-ō» «ch», «ph», and «th» are like c, p, t «pŭl´-chĕr», «Phoe´-bē», «thĕ-ā´-trŭm»a. In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce tt as in rat-trap, not as in rattle; pp as in hop-pole, not as in upper. Examples, «mĭt´-tō», «Ăp´pĭ-ŭs», «bĕl´-lŭm.»SYLLABLES«8.» A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus «aes-tā´-tĕ» has three syllables, «au-dĭ-ĕn´-dŭs» has four.a. Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English inside with Latin īn-sī´-dĕ.«9.» Words are divided into syllables as follows:1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus «ă-mā´-bĭ-lĭs», «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ă», «ĭn-tĕ´-rĕ-ā», «ă´-bĕst», «pĕ-rē´-gĭt».[3][Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as «inter-eā», «ab-est», «sub-āctus», «per-ēgit», contrary to the correct phonetic rule.]2. Combinations of two or more consonants:a. A consonant followed by l or r goes with the l or r. Thus «pū´-blĭ-cŭs», «ă´-grī».EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also ll and rr, follow rule b. Thus «ăb´-lŭ-ō», «ăb-rŭm´-pō», «ĭl´-lĕ», «fĕr´-rŭm».b. In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus «măg´-nŭs», «ĕ-gĕs´-tās», «vĭc-tō´-rĭ-ă», «hŏs´-pĕs», «ăn´-nŭs», «sŭ-bāc´-tŭs».[Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fūnc-tŭs, sānc-tŭs.]3. The last syllable of a word is called the ul´-ti-ma; the one next to the last, the pe-nult´; the one before the penult, the an´-te-pe-nult´.«10.» EXERCISEDivide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated:Vā́dĕ ăd fŏrmī́căm, Ō pĭ́gĕr, ĕt cōnsī́dĕrā vĭ́ās ĕ́iŭs ĕt dĭ́scĕ săpĭĕ́ntĭăm: quae cŭm nōn hắbĕăt dŭ́cĕm nĕc praecĕptṓrĕm nĕc prī́ncĭpĕm, pắrăt ĭn aestā́tĕ cĭ́bŭm sĭ́bĭ ĕt cŏ́ngrĕgăt ĭn mĕ́ssĕ quŏd cŏ́mĕdăt.[[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]]QUANTITY«11.» The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity.«12.» «Quantity of Vowels.» Vowels are either long (¯) or short (˘). In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short.1. A vowel is short before another vowel or h; as «pŏ-ē´-ta», «tră´-hō».2. A vowel is short before nt and nd, before final m or t, and, except in words of one syllable, before final l or r. Thus «a´-mănt», «a-măn´-dus», «a-mā´-băm», «a-mā´-băt», «a´-ni-măl», «a´-mŏr».3. A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and nct. Thus «īn´-fe-rō», «re´-gēns», «sān´-xī», «sānc´-tus».4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.«13.» «Quantity of Syllables.» Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.1. «A syllable is short»,a. If it ends in a short vowel; as «ă´-mō», «pĭ´-grĭ».NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ăm» contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant.2. «A syllable is long»,a. If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as «cū´-rō», «poe´-nae», «aes-tā´-te».b. If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as «cor´-pus», «mag´-nus».NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in «ter´-ra», «in´-ter», the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like «saxum» the first syllable is long because x has the value of two consonants (cs or gs).3. In determining quantity h is not counted a consonant.NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say «cŭr´-rō» as it does «cū´-rō», and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare «mŏl´-lis» and «mō´-lis», «ā-mĭs´-sī» and «ā-mi´-sī».ACCENT«14.» Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as «mēn´-sa», «Cae´-sar».«15.» Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus «mo-nē´-mus», «re´-gi-tur», «a-gri´-co-la», «a-man´-dus».NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. §13.2, Note.)«16.» Certain little words called enclit´ics[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are «-que», and; «-ve», or; and «-ne», the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus «populus´que», «dea´que», «rēgna´ve», «audit´ne».[Footnote 5: Enclitic means leaning back, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.]HOW TO READ LATIN«17.» To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. §15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word.«18.» Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter.EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6]The shades of night were falling fast,  As through an Alpine village passed  A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice,  A banner with the strange device,           Excelsior!Cadēbant noctis umbrae, dum      Ibat per vīcum Alpicum      Gelū nivequ(e) adolēscēns,      Vēxillum cum signō ferēns,               Excelsior!His brow was sad; his eye beneath,  Flashed like a falchion from its sheath,  And like a silver clarion rung  The accents of that unknown tongue,           Excelsior!Frōns trīstis, micat oculus      Velut ē vāgīnā gladius;      Sonantque similēs tubae      Accentūs lingu(ae) incognitae,               Excelsior!In happy homes he saw the light  Of household fires gleam warm and bright;  Above, the spectral glaciers shone,  And from his lips escaped a groan,           Excelsior!In domibus videt clārās      Focōrum lūcēs calidās;      Relucet glaciēs ācris,      Et rumpit gemitūs labrīs,               Excelsior!   “Try not the Pass!” the old man said;  “Dark lowers the tempest overhead,  The roaring torrent is deep and wide!”  And loud that clarion voice replied,        Excelsior!Dīcit senex, “Nē trānseās!      Suprā nigrēscit tempestās;      Lātus et altus est torrēns.”      Clāra vēnit vōx respondēns,            Excelsior!At break of day, as heavenward  The pious monks of Saint Bernard  Uttered the oft-repeated prayer,  A voice cried through the startled air,        Excelsior!Iam lūcēscēbat, et frātrēs      Sānctī Bernardī vigilēs      Ōrābant precēs solitās,      Cum vōx clāmāvit per aurās,            Excelsior!A traveler, by the faithful hound,  Half-buried in the snow was found,  Still grasping in his hand of ice  That banner with the strange device,        Excelsior!Sēmi-sepultus viātor      Can(e) ā fīdō reperītur,      Comprēndēns pugnō gelidō      Illud vēxillum cum signō,            Excelsior!There in the twilight cold and gray,  Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay,  And from the sky, serene and far,  A voice fell, like a falling star,        Excelsior!Iacet corpus exanimum      Sed lūce frīgidā pulchrum;      Et caelō procul exiēns      Cadit vōx, ut Stella cadēns,          Excelsior![Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in Praeco Latinus,    October, 1898.]

PART II

WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES«19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,Galba is a farmer    «Galba est agricola»The sailor fights    «Nauta pugnat»In each of these sentences there are two parts:SUBJECT PREDICATEGalba is a farmer      «Galba»The sailor fights      «Nauta» «pugnat»2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a noun or some word which can serve the same purpose.a. Pronouns, as their name implies (pro, “instead of,” and noun), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow.3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers.a. A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing.«20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, The boy hit the ball and The ball hit the boy, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. The boy hit the ball is therefore analyzed as follows:SUBJECT PREDICATE                 /—————-\The boy hit the ball               (verb) (direct object)a. A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, I walk, he comes.«21.» «The Copula.» The verb to be in its different forms—are, is, was, etc.—does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, the joiner or link.«22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas:1. «America est patria mea»America is fatherland my2. «Agricola fīliam amat»(The) farmer (his) daughter loves3. «Fīlia est Iūlia»(His) daughter is Julia4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā»Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island5. «Iūlia aquam portat»Julia water carries6. «Rosam in comīs habet»(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra»Julia is (a) girl pretty8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet»(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful hasa. The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, Latin has no article «the» or «a»; thus «agricola» may mean the farmer, a farmer, or simply farmer. Then, too, the personal pronouns, I, you, he, she, etc., and the possessive pronouns, my, your, his, her, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)«23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation».«24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare«Naut-a pugnat»The sailor fights  «Naut-ae pugnant»The sailors fight«25.» RULE. Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural.«26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.«agri´cola», farmer (agriculture)[1] «aqua», water (aquarium) «causa», cause, reason «do´mina», lady of the house, mistress (dominate) «filia», daughter (filial) «fortū´na», fortune «fuga», flight (fugitive) «iniū´ria», wrong, injury «lūna», moon (lunar) «nauta», sailor (nautical) «puel´la», girl «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», land (terrace)[Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», cause, no comparison is needed.]«27.» Compare again the sentences«Nauta pugna-t»The sailor fights  «Nautae pugna-nt»The sailors fightIn the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural.«28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.«29.» RULE. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings».«30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns he, she, it, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated the sailor fights, not the sailor he fights.«ama-t» he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love (amity, amiable) «labō´ra-t» “ “ “ labors, is laboring, does labor «nūntia-t»[2] “ “ “ announces, is announcing, does announce «porta-t» “ “ “ carries, is carrying, does carry (porter) «pugna-t» “ “ “ fights, is fighting, does fight (pugnacious)[Footnote 2: The u in «nūntiō» is long by exception.    (Cf. §12.2.)]«31.» EXERCISESI. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat.[Illustration: DOMINA]

LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)«32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence The lady her daughter loves might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences:«Domina fīliam amat»  «Fīliam domina amat»  «Amat fīliam domina»  «Domina amat fīliam»The lady loves her daughter«Fīlia dominam amat»  «Dominam fīlia amat»  «Amat dominam fīlia»  «Fīlia amat dominam»The daughter loves the ladya. Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in «-a» and the object in «-am». The form of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning.2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called «declension», and each different ending produces what is called a «case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,—nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding ’s or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, who? whose? whom?«33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:ENGLISH CASES LATIN CASES +—-+——————-+———————+—————————+————————+ | | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case | | | of who? | and use | «domina» | and use | | | | | and translation | | +—-+——————-+———————+—————————+————————+ | | Who? | Nominative— | «do´min-a» | Nominative— | | S | | case of the | the lady | case of the | | I | | subject | | subject | | N | | | | | | G | Whose? | Possessive— | «domin-ae» | Genitive— | | U | | case of the | the lady’s | case of the | | L | | possessor | of the lady | possessor | | A | | | | | | R | Whom? | Objective— | «domin-am» | Accusative— | | | | case of the | the lady | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +—-+——————-+———————+—————————+————————+ | | Who? | Nominative— | «domin-ae» | Nominative— | | | | case of the | the ladies | case of the | | P | | subject | | subject | | L | | | | | | U | Whose? | Possessive— | «domin-ā´rum» | Genitive— | | R | | case of the | the ladies’ | case of the | | A | | possessor | of the ladies | possessor | | L | | | | | | | Whom? | Objective— | «domin-ās» | Accusative— | | | | case of the | the ladies | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +—-+——————-+———————+—————————+————————+When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe thata. The nominative plural ends in «-ae».b. The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in «-ārum».c. The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural    in «-ās».d. The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending.«34.» EXERCISEPronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum.

LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)[Special Vocabulary][See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.]NOUNS  «dea», goddess (deity)   Diā´na, Diana  «fera», a wild beast (fierce)   Lātō´na, Latona  «sagit´ta», arrowVERBS  «est», he (she, it) is; «sunt», they are  «necat», he (she, it) kills, is killing, does killCONJUNCTION[A]  «et», andPRONOUNS  «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., who?  «cuius» (pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os, two syllables), interrog. pronoun,     gen. sing., whose?[Footnote A: A conjunction is a word which connects words, parts    of sentences, or sentences.]«35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:«Fīlia agricolae nautam amat», the farmer’s daughter (or the daughter of the farmer) loves the sailorWhat is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?«36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?«37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?«38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?«39.» EXERCISESFirst learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant.For the order of words imitate the Latin above.II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.«40.» CONVERSATIONTranslate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.1. Quis est Diāna? 2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna? 3. Quis Diānam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittās portat? 6. Cuius fīliae labōrant?

LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)[Special Vocabulary]NOUNS  «corō´na», wreath, garland, crown   fā´bula, story (fable)  «pecū´nia», money (pecuniary)  «pugna», battle (pugnacious)  «victō´ria», victoryVERBS  «dat», he (she, it) gives   nārrat, he (she, it) tells (narrate)CONJUNCTION[A]  «quia» or «quod», because«cui» (pronounced co͝oi, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat.     sing., to whom? for whom?[Footnote A: A conjunction is a word which connects words, parts    of sentences, or sentences.]«41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as from, with, by, to, for, in, at.[1][Footnote 1: Words like to, for, by, from, in, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».]Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the dative.«42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs».NOTE. Observe that the genitive singular, the dative singular, and the nominative plural all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.a. Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina».«43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions to, towards, for.These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as She went to town, He ran towards the horse, Columbus sailed for America. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as motion through space is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that to or towards which a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that for which something serves or exists.a. What dative relations do you discover in the following?The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions—a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.«44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence«Nauta fugam nūntiat», the sailor announces the flightHere the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers», the verb will have two objects:1. Its direct object, flight («fugam») 2. Its indirect object, farmersAccording to the preceding section, to the farmers is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:«45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative.a. The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.«46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, and we have«Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat»«47.» EXERCISESFirst learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor.I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat.Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s.[Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition to to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.]

LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)[Special Vocabulary]ADJECTIVES «bona», good «grāta», pleasing «magna», large, great «mala», bad, wicked «parva», small, little «pulchra», beautiful, pretty «sōla», aloneNOUNS  ancil´la, maidservant  Iūlia, JuliaADVERBS[A]  «cūr», why  «nōn», notPRONOUNS  «mea», my; «tua», thy, your (possesives)  «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., what?«-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», he loves, but «amat´ne»? does he love? «est», he is; «estne»? is he? Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word.[Footnote A: An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings sweetly; she is very talented; she began to sing very early.]«48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.«49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs».a. Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the    final -ā of the ablative is long, as,Nom. fīliă Abl. fīliāb. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina».«50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived—generally translated by from.2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is  done—translated by with or by.3. The place where or the time when something happens—translated by in or at.a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.«51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.«52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.«53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are«ā»[1] or «ab», from, away from «dē», from, down from «ē»[1] or «ex», from, out from, out of «cum», with «in», in, on[Footnote 1: «ā» and «ē» are used only before words beginning with a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or consonants.]1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.«54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence«Puella parva bonam deam amat», the little girl loves the good goddessIn this sentence «parva» (little) and «bonam» (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.[Footnote 2: Pick out the adjectives in the following: “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”]You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.«55.» Examine the sentences«Puella est parva»,the girl is little  «Puella parva bonam deam amat»,the little girl loves the good goddessIn the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.«56.» DIALOGUEJULIA AND GALBAFirst learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna?  G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum.  I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna?  G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna.  I. Quid Diāna portat?  G. Sagittās Diāna portat.  I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat?  G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat.  I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam?  G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat.  I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat?  G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat.  I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat?  G. Diānae corōnās dat.  I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla?  G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā.a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocāre, “to call”). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? «Pugnatne nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», he is fighting, or «Nōn pugnat», he is not fighting.

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR Ā-DECLENSION[Special Vocabulary]NOUNS  «casa, -ae», f., cottage   cēna, -ae, f., dinner  «gallī´na, -ae», f., hen, chicken  «īn´sula, ae», f., island (pen-insula)ADVERBS  «de-in´de», then, in the next place  «ubi», wherePREPOSITION  «ad», to, with acc. to express motion towardPRONOUN  «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., whom?VERBS  ha´bitat, he (she, it) lives, is living, does live (inhabit)  «laudat», he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise (laud)  «parat», he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare  «vocat», he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites,     is inviting, does invite (vocation)«57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the Ā-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:+————+————————+—————————-+————————————-+ | CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING | | | | | OF EACH CASE | +————+————————+—————————-+————————————-+ | | | SINGULAR | | +————+————————+—————————-+————————————-+ | Nom. | do´min-a | the lady | The subject | | | | | | | Gen. | domin-ae | of the lady, | The possessor | | | | or the lady’s | of something | | | | | | | Dat. | domin-ae | to or for | Expressing the relation | | | | the lady | to or for, | | | | | especially the | | | | | indirect object | | | | | | | Acc. | domin-am | the lady | The direct object | | | | | | | Abl. | domin-ā | _from, with, by, | Separation (from), | | | | in, the lady_ | association or means | | | | | (with, by), place | | | | | where or time when | | | | | (in, at) | +————+————————+—————————-+————————————-+ | | | PLURAL | | +————+————————+—————————-+————————————-+ | Nom. | domin-ae | the ladies | | | | | | | | Gen. | domin-ā´rum | of the ladies, | | | | | or the ladies’ | | | | | | | | Dat. | domin-īs | to or for | The same as | | | | the ladies | the singular | | | | | | | Acc. | domin-ās | the ladies | | | | | | | | Abl. | domin-īs | from, with, by, | | | | | in, the ladies | | +————+————————+—————————-+————————————-+«58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base».Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular.«59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.«pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil´la», «corō´na», «īn´sula», «silva»«60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? She is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken it home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender».Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», a stone; «rūpēs», a cliff; and «saxum», a rock. «Lapis» is masculine, «rūpēs» feminine, and «saxum» neuter. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and must always be learned, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.«61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», sailor, and «agricola», farmer, are masculine.«62.» EXERCISESFirst learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat.II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.[Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that to which a feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.)][Illustration]What Latin words are suggested by this picture?«63.» CONVERSATIONAnswer the questions in Latin.1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat? 2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam? 5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae? 6. Cui domina pecūniam dat?

LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (Continued)

[Special Vocabulary]

  NOUNS  «Italia, -ae», f., Italy   Sicilia, -ae, f., Sicily  «tuba, -ae», f., trumpet (tube)  «via, -ae», f., way, road, street (viaduct)

  ADJECTIVES  «alta», high, deep (altitude)  «clāra», clear, bright; famous  «lāta», wide (latitude)  «longa», long (longitude)  «nova», new (novelty)

«64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in case and in number (§54). They agree also in gender. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a».

«65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

«66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

          NOUN ADJECTIVE  «domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»),     f., lady good

          SINGULAR TERMINATIONS  Nom. do´mina bona -a  Gen. dominae bonae -ae  Dat. dominae bonae -ae  Acc. dominam bonam -am  Abl. dominā bonā -ā

          PLURAL  Nom. dominae bonae -ae  Gen. dominā´rum bonā´rum -ārum  Dat. dominīs bonīs -īs  Acc. dominās bonās -ās  Abl. dominīs bonīs -īs

a. In the same way decline together «puella mala», the bad girl; «ancil´la parva», the little maid; «fortū´na magna», great fortune.

«67.» The words «dea», goddess, and «fīlia», daughter, take the ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension:

«dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-»)

SINGULAR PLURAL Nom. dea bona deae bonae Gen. deae bonae deā´rum bonā´rum Dat. deae bonae deā´bus bonīs Acc. deam bonam deās bonās Abl. deā bonā dea´bus bonīs

a. In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva».

«68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf. §32.1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order) «Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle. Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words—that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed—is as follows:

subject—modifiers of the subject—indirect object— direct object—adverb—verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

    «fīlia mea», my daughter;      «mea fīlia», «my» daughter;    «casa Galbae», Galba’s cottage;      «Galbae casa», «Galba’s» cottage.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways: