Lead-Nickel Electrochemical Batteries E-Book

Christian Glaize

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 346

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

The lead-acid accumulator was introduced in the middle of the 19th Century, the diverse variants of nickel accumulators between the beginning and the end of the 20th Century. Although old, these technologies are always very present on numerous markets. Unfortunately they are still not used in optimal conditions, often because of the misunderstanding of the internal electrochemical phenomena. This book will show that batteries are complex systems, made commercially available thanks to considerable amounts of scientific research, empiricism and practical knowledge. However, the design of batteries is not fixed; it is subject to constant developments as a result of user feedback and validation processes which are often long and fastidious. This book attempts to show that it is not possible to consider a family of batteries as having fixed, applicable properties and characteristics whatever the application and the technology used in their manufacture. For this reason, the authors have chosen to present the fundamental electrochemical and chemical phenomena involved in as simple and as clear a way as possible. It is essential to be aware of these mechanisms in order to develop suitable theoretical models. This work will be of particular interest to those working in the field of electrical engineering and to industrialists, the final users of these technologies. It will also be of interest to electrochemists, as experts in lead or nickel batteries are becoming fewer and farther between, and their knowledge and practical skills are steadily being lost. Contents Part 1. Universal Characteristics of Batteries 1. Definitions and Methods of Measurement. Part 2. Lead-Acid Batteries 2. The Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries. 3. Internal Composition and Types of Lead-Acid Batteries. 4. Lead Batteries: Main Characteristics. 5. Manufacturing Starting, Lighting and Ignition Batteries. Part 3. Introduction to Nickel-Based Batteries 6. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries. 7. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries. 8. Other Nickel-Based Batteries.

Leseprobe

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

Introduction

PART 1: Universal Characteristics of Batteries

Chapter 1: Definitions and Methods of Measurement

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Terminology

1.3. Definitions of characteristics

1.4. Battery states

1.5. Faradic efficiency

1.6. Charge coefficient

1.7. Overcharge coefficient

1.8. Energy efficiency

1.9. Self-discharge

1.10. Acceptance current

1.11. Conclusion

1.12. Appendix: Nernst’s law

1.13. Solutions to exercises

PART 2: Lead-Acid Batteries

Chapter 2: The Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries

2.1. Principles of operation

2.2. Properties due to electrochemical reactions

2.3. Polarity inversion

2.4. Effects of temperature, aging and thermal runaway

2.5. Failure modes

2.6. Appendices

2.7. Solutions to exercises

Chapter 3: Internal Composition and Types of Lead-Acid Batteries

3.1. Composition of lead-acid batteries

3.2. Families of lead-acid batteries

3.3. Other battery types and future prospects

Chapter 4: Lead Batteries: Main Characteristics

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Electrical characteristics

4.3. Charge of lead batteries

4.4. Energy management

4.5. SOC indicator

4.6. Conditions of use

4.7. Economic considerations

4.8. Applicable standards

4.9. Future developments

4.10. To find out more

4.11. Solutions to exercises

Chapter 5: Manufacturing Starting, Lighting and Ignition Batteries

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Manufacturing an SLI battery

5.3. Raw materials

5.4. Different ways of manufacturing lead SLI batteries

5.5. Composition of the paste

5.6. Pasting the grids

5.7. Curing of the plates

5.8. Assembly

5.9. Formation of the battery

5.10. Final test and dispatch

5.11. Solutions to exercises

PART 3: Introduction to Nickel-Based Batteries

Chapter 6: Nickel-Cadmium Batteries

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Operating principle

6.3. Main characteristics

Chapter 7: Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Operating principle

7.3. Main characteristics

7.4. Solution to exercise

Chapter 8: Other Nickel-Based Batteries

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Nickel-iron batteries

8.3. Nickel-zinc batteries

8.4. More information on nickel-based batteries

Conclusion

Index

First published 2012 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd 27-37 St George’s Road London SW19 4EU UKwww.iste.co.ukJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street Hoboken, NJ 07030 USAwww.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2012

The rights of Christian Glaize and Sylvie Geniesto be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Glaize, Christian.

Lead-nickel electrochemical batteries / Christian Glaize, Sylvie Genies. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-84821-376-0 (hardback)

1. Lead-acid batteries. 2. Nickel-cadmium batteries. 3. Nickel-metal hydride batteries. I. Genies, Sylvie. II. Title.

TK2945.L42G58 2012 621.31'242--dc23

2012003202

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84821-376-0

Preface

Access to high-performance energy storage systems, offering reasonable manufacturing, usage, and recycling costs, and high-operational security, is of crucial importance for portable, onboard, and stationary applications. The extent of the domains of application, the diversity of usage profiles, and the range of techno-economic criteria mean that no single type of battery can meet all these requirements. This book aims to describe two forms of storage based on an aqueous electrolyte: lead-acid batteries, a technology developed over 150 years ago (1859), and nickel batteries, invented in 1899. Our readers may wonder why we have devoted several chapters to lead batteries, as their disappearance has been predicted on a number of occasions owing to the emergence of more promising “couples”. However, time has shown that while other couples are essential for use in portable applications, none has reached the necessary level of technological maturity and offers sufficiently low costs per kWh for use in high-capacity (or high-power) applications. Work is currently underway on another book dedicated to lithium technologies and other batteries now being developed and launched onto the market.

The present work shows that batteries are complex systems, made commercially available thanks to considerable amounts of scientific research, empiricism, and practical knowledge. A significant amount of work has gone into their design, with compromises being made at times to allow them to maintain competitiveness and guarantee economic viability. However, the design of batteries is not fixed; it is subject to constant developments as a result of user feedback and validation processes that are often long and fastidious, because battery life is increasingly long and laws of accelerated aging are not always applicable or representative of real-world operations. We attempt to show that it is not possible to consider a family of batteries as having fixed, applicable properties and characteristics whatever the application and the technology used in their manufacture. For this reason, we have chosen to present the fundamental electrochemical and chemical phenomena involved in as simple and as clear a way as possible. It is, in our opinion, essential to be aware of these mechanisms in order to develop suitable theoretical models. This work is of particular interest to those working in the field of electrical engineering and to industrialists, the final users of these technologies; these groups must take a pragmatic and common-sense approach to battery use. It is also of interest to electrochemists, as experts in lead or nickel batteries are becoming few and far between and their knowledge and practical skills are steadily being lost.

We have endeavored to consider economic aspects throughout this book, as such factors cannot be ignored when choosing between different forms of storage. While we have attempted to provide thorough coverage of our subject and the greatest possible number of examples, this work makes no claim to be exhaustive. The data (and especially the technical and economic data) presented are that which were available at the time of writing, from 2010 to the end of 2011. As research and development activities in the field of energy storage continue to progress, driven by the demands of electric vehicles in terms of performance and by the need to store energy from renewable sources, these data will continue to evolve; the reader is therefore advised to keep in mind the age of the data used.

Christian GLAIZE and Sylvie GENIÈS

February 2012

Acknowledgments

We take this opportunity to look back over the process that led to the publication of this book. When Bernard Multon asked me to produce a work on electrochemical energy storage, the main subject of my research activities, little did I imagine how difficult and complex the task would prove to be. I invited another electrochemical and energy storage specialist, Sylvie Geniès, to collaborate with me on this project, and her industrial and technological knowledge of batteries has proven invaluable. Our aim was to explain the correct means of selecting and using a battery for a given usage, without falling into the trap of providing a list of generic rules. This requires detailed understanding of the inner workings of specific batteries and their different and numerous technological variations, something which cannot be done in the space of a few pages. Moreover, it is no simple task to provide a clear explanation of electrochemical processes and industrial constraints to readers who, while they may have a professional background in electrical engineering, will not have specialist knowledge of electrochemistry.

Our work was made easier by a wealth of rich scientific discussion, both between ourselves and with teaching colleagues, researchers, and industrial partners. Particular thanks are due to Jean Alzieu, who is (without the slightest hint of flattery) a fount of scientific knowledge and innovative ideas and who introduced me to the electrochemistry of lead-based batteries. I also wish to thank those doctoral students whose theses I directed or codirected and those for whom I acted as rapporteur. I feel that our discussions helped to further our knowledge of batteries. Thanks are due to (in alphabetical order) Arnaud Delaille, Guillaume Dillenseger, Loïc Goemaere, Thi Minh Phuong Nguyen, Hassan Smimite, Adrien Soares, and Yaël Thiaux. I should also mention all the researchers and engineers with whom I was able to discuss the subject at Université Montpellier II (Jean-Jacques Huselstein, Thierry Martiré, Laure Monconduit, Lorenzo Stievano et al.), at other universities, the CEA (Daniel Desmettre, Florence Fusalba, Frédéric Le Cras, Elisabeth Lemaire, Florence Mattera, Sébastien Patoux, and Marion Perrin), the EDF study and research department (DER) (Jean Alzieu, Thierry Brincourt, and Guy Schweitz), and Exide (Jean-François Sarrau). This list is by no means exhaustive, and I hope that those whose names have been omitted from this list will forgive the oversight.

We hope you enjoy the book — happy reading!

Christian GLAIZE

Introduction

The first secondary (rechargeable) battery was presented to the Académie des Sciences by Gaston Planté in 1859, and since then a considerable number of different couples have been proposed for use in these batteries. Some couples were rapidly abandoned or not developed further as certain problems remained unresolved1, rendering the technology non-viable. Other couples have stood the test of time, such as the nickel-cadmium pairing (NiCd) introduced by Sweden’s Waldemar Jungner (1869–1924) in 1899 and developed mostly by Edison. However, it was only in 1947 that Neumann succeeded in producing a complete seal in these batteries, paving the way for modern, sealed nickel-cadmium batteries.

Recently, a number of couples, such as NiMH and lithium batteries, were developed; the examples given above were developed toward the end of the last century.

In the following sections, we shall describe two forms of batteries currently in widespread use: lead-based (lead-acid) and nickel-based (nickel-cadmium, NiCd, and nickel-metal hydride, NiMH) batteries.

We must provide a clear description of these different battery types as the criteria for choosing a suitable battery for a given application do not depend solely on the required specific energy or kWh cost, as most analyses seem to imply. Other factors, such as lifetime, types of recycling, and security, must also be taken into account.

1 For example, the nickel-iron battery (NiFe, described in Chapter 8), which was invented by Edison in 1901 — at almost the same time as the NiCd — has a low energy efficiency, causing overheating and excessive hydrogen production. Another example is the nickel-zinc battery (NiZn, see Chapter 8) where further work is needed to understand and prevent the formation of dendrites that limit the lifetime of these batteries.

PART 1

Universal Characteristics of Batteries