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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Wiley Series in Display Technology
- Sprache: Englisch
An unprecedented look into the basic physics, chemistry, and technology behind the LCD Most notably used for computer screens, televisions, and mobile phones, LCDs (liquid crystal displays) are a pervasive and increasingly indispensable part of our lives. Providing both an historical and a business-minded context, this extensive resource describes the unique scientific and engineering techniques used to create these beautiful, clever, and eminently useful devices. In this book, the history of the science and technology behind the LCD is described in a prelude to the development of the device, presenting a rational development theme and pinpointing innovations. The book begins with Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, and the ultimately profound realization that light is an electromagnetic wave and an electromagnetic wave is light. The power of mathematical physics thus was brought to bear upon the study of light, and particularly the polarization of light by material bodies, including liquid crystals. After a brief historical description of polarization, a physical interpretation provides substance to the mathematical concepts. Subsequent chapters cover: * Thermodynamics for liquid crystals * The Maier-Saupe mean field, phenomenological, static continuum, and dynamic continuum theories * The transistor and integrated circuit * Glass, panels, and modules * The calculus of variations * The active matrix * Semiconductor fabrication * The global LCD business Additionally, the book illustrates how mathematics, physics, and chemistry are put to practical use in the LCDs we use every day. By describing the science from an historical perspective and in practical terms in the context of a device very familiar to readers, the book presents an engaging and unique view of the technology for everyone from science students to engineers, product designers, and indeed anyone curious about LCDs. Series Editor: Anthony C. Lowe, The Lambent Consultancy, Braishfield, UK The Society for Information Display (SID) is an international society, which has the aim of encouraging the development of all aspects of the field of information display. Complementary to the aims of the society, the Wiley-SID series is intended to explain the latest developments in information display technology at a professional level. The broad scope of the series addresses all facets of information displays from technical aspects through systems and prototypes to standards and ergonomics.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
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Table of Contents
Cover
Wiley-SID Series in Display Technology
Title page
Copyright page
Series Editor’s Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 Double Refraction
2 Electromagnetism
Faraday’s Intuitive Field
Maxwell’s Equations
The Derivation of
The Derivation of
The Derivation of
The Derivation of
Vector Analysis
Light Is an Electromagnetic Wave
The Light Wave
3 Light in Matter
The Electric Dipole Moment
The Lorentz–Lorenz Equation
4 The Polarization of an Electromagnetic Wave
Unpolarized Light
Elliptical, Linear, and Circular Polarization
Birefringence
Ordinary and Extraordinary Waves
Quantum Mechanical Polarization
5 Liquid Crystals
Carrots
Liquid Crystal Genealogy
The Chiral Nematic
The Ferroelectric Chiral Smectic-C
The Blue Flash
Lyotropic Liquid Crystals
The Director and the Order Parameter
Stiff But Flexible
Liquid Crystal Character
The Induced Dipole Moment
6 Thermodynamics for Liquid Crystals
The Three Laws of Thermodynamics
Phase Transitions
Entropy
The Boltzmann Distribution
The Minimization of Free Energy
7 The Calculus of Variations
The Brachistochrone Problem
Catenary and Suspension
The Euler–Lagrange Equation
Deeper Meanings of the Euler–Lagrange Equation
8 The Mean Field
Ideal Gas in Crystal Lattice
Long Rod Models
The Composite Electric Field and Average Index of Refraction
The Dipole Mean Field Is Born
9 Maier–Saupe Theory
The Nematic to Isotropic Phase Transition Calculation
Dielectric Anisotropy Calculation
Near Neighbor Correlation
10 Phenomenological Theory
The Nematic to Isotropic Phase Transition Calculation
Birefringence Calculation
11 Static Continuum Theory
Basic Principles
Static Continuum Theory Examples
The Freedericksz Cell
In Memoriam
12 Dynamic Continuum Theory
Conservation Principles
The Leslie Work Hypothesis
Turn-On Example
Hydrodynamic Instability
Conclusion
13 The First Liquid Crystal Display
Dynamic Scattering
The Liquid Crystal Display Calculator
14 Liquid Crystal Display Chemistry
The Aromatic Compounds
The Search for a Robust Display Liquid Crystal
15 The Twisted Nematic
A Twist of Fate
The Gathering Patent Storm
Watches and Calculators
16 Engineering the Liquid Crystal
Poincaré Sphere
Refractive Index Ellipsoid
Jones Vector
The Phase Retardation Parameter
The Mauguin Condition
The Gooch–Tarry Condition
Twisted Nematic Waveguiding
The Twisted Nematic Cell
17 The Active Matrix
Matrix Addressing
The Super Twisted Nematic
Active Matrix Addressing
18 New Screens
Twisted Nematic Television
Notebook Computer Screens
19 The Transistor and Integrated Circuit
The Bohr Atom
The Point Contact Transistor
The Junction Transistor
The Tyranny of Numbers
Monolithic Component Integration
Monolithic Circuit Integration
20 A Transistor for the Active Matrix
Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon
The Field Effect Transistor
The a-Si:H Field Effect Thin-Film Transistor
21 Semiconductor Fabrication
Growing Crystals
The Planar Process
The Four-Mask Bottom Gate
22 Enhancing the Image
The Grayscale
The On/Off Ratio
The Production of Color
The CCFL Backlight and Color Filter
Field Sequential Color
The LED Backlight
Signal Processing
23 The Wider View
c-axis a-plate c-plate
Mid-Layer Tilt
Twisted Nematic Display Oblique Viewing
Negative and Positive Compensation
The Discotic Solution
Grayscale Inversion
Compensation Overview
24 Liquid Crystal Television
Vertical Alignment
Multiple-Domain Vertical Alignment
In-Plane Switching
Fringing Field Switching
Response Time
Overdrive
Flicker
25 Glass, Panels, and Modules
Glass Generations
The TFT Array Plate
The Color Filter Plate
Side Injection and One Drop Fill
Spacers
Sealing, Cutting, and Inspection
Electrostatic Damage Protection
Laser Repair
Yield
LCDModule Assembly
26 The Global LCD Business
RCA’s Legacy
Optical Imaging Systems
The Electronics Manufacturing Paradigm
Korea, the Emerging Economy Model
Taiwan’s Twin Stars
Japan’s Closed Shop
The Worldwide Financial Tsunami
Is China a Rising Liquid Crystal Star?
The Solar Cell
27 New Technologies and Products
Light Scattering
Liquid Crystal Polymer Composites
Cholesteric Bistable Reflective Displays
Ferroelectric Chiral Smectic-C Bistable Displays
Electrophoretic Paper
The Organic Light-Emitting Diode Display
The Blue Phase Display
Reflective Displays
Transflective Displays
Projection Displays
Brightness Enhancement Film
Touch Screens
3D
LCD Products
Index
Wiley-SID Series in Display Technology
Series Editor:
Anthony C. Lowe
Consultant Editor:
Michael A. Kriss
Display Systems: Design and Applications
Lindsay W. MacDonaldand Anthony C. Lowe (Eds.)
Electronic Display Measurement: Concepts, Techniques, and Instrumentation
Peter A. Keller
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays
Shin-Tson Wuand Deng-Ke Yang
Colour Engineering: Achieving Device Independent Colour
Phil Greenand Lindsay MacDonald (Eds.)
Display Interfaces: Fundamentals and Standards
Robert L. Myers
Digital Image Display: Algorithms and Implementation
Gheorghe Berbecel
Flexible Flat Panel Displays
Gregory Crawford (Ed.)
Polarization Engineering for LCD Projection
Michael G. Robinson, Jianmin Chen,and Gary D. Sharp
Fundamentals of Liquid Crystal Devices
Deng-Ke Yangand Shin-Tson Wu
Introduction to Microdisplays
David Armitage, Ian Underwood,and Shin-Tson Wu
Mobile Displays: Technology and Applications
Achintya K. Bhowmik, Zili Li,and Philip Bos (Eds.)
Photoalignment of Liquid Crystalline Materials: Physics and Applications
Vladimir G. Chigrinov, Vladimir M. Kozenkov and Hoi-Sing Kwok
Projection Displays, Second Edition
Matthew S. Brennesholtz and Edward H. Stupp
Introduction to Flat Panel Displays
Jiun-Haw Lee, David N. Liu and Shin-Tson Wu
LCD Backlights
Shunsuke Kobayashi, shigeo Mikoshiba and Sungkyoo Lim (Eds.)
Liquid Crystal Displays: Addressing Schemes and Electro-Optical Effects, Second Edition
Ernst Lueder
Transflective Liquid Crystal Displays
Zhibing Ge and Shin-Tson Wu
Liquid Crystal Displays: Fundamental Physics and Technology
Robert H. Chen
Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Chen, Robert H., 1947-
Liquid crystal displays : fundamental physics & technology / Robert H. Chen.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-93087-8 (cloth)
1. Liquid crystal displays. 2. Liquid crystal devices. I. Title.
TK7872.L56C44 2011
621.3815’422–dc22
2010045220
Obook ISBN 978-1-118-08435-9
ePDF ISBN 978-1-118-08433-5
ePub ISBN 978-1-118-08434-2
Series Editor’s Foreword
For once, I found it difficult to know how to begin. Writing forewords for the Wiley-SID series (this is my twentieth) is a demanding but extremely pleasurable task. In a qualitative sense this foreword is no different; it is the book that is different. Let me explain.
On reading two sample chapters of Robert Chen’s manuscript, I realized that this would be like no other book in the series. Not only was its intended scope to cover the entirety of liquid crystal display (LCD) science and technology from the fundamentals of mathematics and physics to the production of products, but it was written by an author who has not only the academic background but also the experience as an executive in several major companies to provide first-hand insight and understanding of the global development of what is now a predominantly Asia-based industry.
The author has covered his subject matter with great proficiency and style. But there is more: the book is filled with interesting footnotes, often witty, of technical or historical relevance or a combination of all three. The most significant references are cited, but this is not a book where the reader will find a comprehensive list of all relevant publications. Other books in the series which address specific aspects of the technology provide that.
The unique feature of this book is that when discussing the global industrial development of the LCD industry, the author provides an account which is unprecedented—certainly in this series—in its level of detail, its understanding of cultural influences, and its degree of frankness. I believe that few will disagree with his arguments, but some will find it uncomfortable reading.
So, as the author aspires, this book may be read at several different levels. Anyone who reads it will find it rewarding as a technical introduction to the field replete with a sense of history. They will realize that this industry, which has made most of its growth in the last two decades, is built on the shoulders of scientific progress going back two centuries. Last, but certainly not least, I hope that they will find it a first-rate literary experience.
Anthony C. Lowe
Series Editor
Braishfield, UK
Preface
The liquid crystal display (LCD) has become the principal modern medium for visual information and image appreciation. It is now a pervasive and increasingly indispensable part of our everyday lives. Apart from its utility, this marvelous device relies on a science and technology that I believe makes the device all the more attractive and interesting.
This book is organized to highlight the basic physics, chemistry, and technology behind this intriguing product, and while describing the LCD, I attempt to provide some insight into that physics, chemistry, and technology. I believe that the history of the development of the LCD is equally intriguing, and thus I make excursions into tales of the principal contributors and their achievements and thinking in their research. Finally, the allure of liquid crystal television has made it a coveted symbol of modern life worldwide, and so apart from the technical descriptions, I also describe how the LCD business has become a global enterprise.
I attempt to describe the physics and technology in a clear and simple manner understandable to an educated reader. Further, I have endeavored to pay attention to literary exposition as far as I am able, in the hope that, in addition to describing the technology, the book may also provide some literary enjoyment. Of course whether I have succeeded here depends on the reader’s assessment.
This book is written at an introductory level suitable for advanced undergraduates and first-year graduate students in physics and engineering, and as a reference for basic concepts for researchers. I also have tried to make the scientific and technical descriptions intuitively clear so that any educated person who has studied calculus can easily understand the exposition and thereby understand and appreciate liquid crystal displays and the science behind them.
Readers new to the field should read this book in chapter sequence to understand the gradual development of the LCD and the science and engineering involved; advanced researchers and practitioners can select the chapters and sections to find descriptions of the background of those selected topics.
Robert H. Chen
Taipei, Taiwan
June 2011
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Professor Paul Nahin, for his books on mathematics and engineering from which I learned a great deal and borrowed liberally, and for his kind encouragement; Simone Taylor, Editorial Director at Wiley, who saw the potential of the manuscript and undertook the task of getting this book published while guiding me along the way; and most gratefully Dr. Anthony C. Lowe, the Editor of the Wiley-SID Series, who corrected mistakes and blocked metaphors (I am of course solely responsible for any that have gotten through). Further thanks are due to my wife Fonda, for her patient understanding; my daughter Chelsea, for cheerful enthusiasm; and my cat Amao, for accompanying me all the while. For my technical education, I would like to thank Dr. Hsu Chenjung, whose intelligence inspired me; Professor Andrew Nagy of Michigan and Professor Von Eshleman of Stanford, who supported me; and Chimei Optoelectronics Corporation where I learned about LCDs. Many of the drawings were done by Ingrid Hung at Chimei and Tsai Hsin-Huei of the National Taiwan University of Art.
About the Author
Robert Hsin Chen
Robert Hsin Chen is an adjunct professor at National Taiwan University and also teaches at Tsinghua and Jiaotong Universities in Taiwan. He was formerly a Senior Vice-President at Chimei Optoelectronics, a Director at Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Vice-President at Acer Corporation, and Of Counsel at the law firm Baker & McKenzie. Dr. Chen has a PhD from the University of Michigan (Space Physics Research Lab), a postdoctorate from Stanford University (Center for Radar Astronomy), and a JD from the University of California at Berkeley. He is a member of many scientific organizations, as well as the California Bar, and is a registered patent attorney; he has written many articles for international scientific and intellectual property journals, and is the author of Made in Taiwan (1997) and Crystals, Physics, and Law (in Chinese, 2010).
1
Double Refraction
The operation of liquid crystal displays is founded on the phenomenon of the double refraction of light as first recorded in Denmark by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1670. A piece of translucent calcite apparently divides incident light into two streams, producing a double image. This is depicted in Figure 1.1, as shown by the offset of the word “calcite.” At about the same time in the Netherlands, Christian Huygens discovered that the light rays through the calcite could be extinguished by passing them through a second piece of calcite if that piece were rotated about the direction of the ray; this is depicted in Figure 1.2. This may be observed by taking two pairs of polarizing sunglasses and rotating them relative to each other.
Figure 1.1 Double refraction in calcite.
From http://www.physics.gatech.edu/gcuo/lectures.
Figure 1.2 Two pieces of calcite at an angle.
From http://www.physics.gatech.edu/gcuo/lectures.
One hundred and thirty-eight years later, in 1808, a protégé of the famous French mathematician Fourier, Etienne Louis Malus, observed that light reflected from a window, when passing through a piece of calcite also would change intensity as the calcite was rotated, apparently showing that reflected light was also altered in some way. The intensity of the light changed in both cases because the molecules of calcite have a crystal order that affects the light in an intricate but very understandable way called polarization.
It would be another 80 years later in Austria that double refraction, also called birefringence, and light polarization would be observed, not in crystalline rocks, but in a viscous liquid, later to be called a “liquid crystal.” Although no doubt intriguing to natural scientists, intensive investigation of liquid crystals had to wait for yet another 80 years, when commercial interests provided the impetus for further study.
Briefly, a liquid crystal display can reproduce an image of a scene through the use of a video camera that, upon receiving the light reflected from the scene through its lens, in accord with the photoelectric effect first explained by Einstein, an electric current is generated in a metal when struck by light of sufficient energy, the current being proportional to the intensity of that light. That current is then transmitted to transistors that control an analog voltage that is applied to a pair of transparent electrode plates. Those plates enclose a thin layer of liquid crystal between them, and the voltage on the plates generates an electric field that is used to control the orientation of the electric dipole moment of the liquid crystal molecules, causing them to turn. Then light from a light source placed behind the liquid crystal layer, after being linearly polarized by a polarizer, will have its polarization states altered by the different orientations of the liquid crystal molecules, in accord with the liquid crystal’s degree of birefringence. The beauty of the liquid crystal display is that the birefringence effected by a liquid crystal is precisely controllable by that electric field. The different polarization states of the light in conjunction with a second polarizer changes the brightness of the light emanating from the backlight source, and that modulated brightness can represent the light intensity of the original scene; the millions of picture elements so produced then combine to form an image that replicates the original scene.
Liquid crystal displays thus are based on an optical phenomena of electrically controlled birefringence and polarization, which can only be understood through knowledge of the interaction of light and matter.
However, light may be familiar to everybody, but Samuel Johnson succinctly observed that [1]*
We all know what light is, but it is not easy to tell what it is.
The understanding of light can gainfully begin at the outset with an appreciation of light as described by the Maxwell equations.
Note
* Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), English lexicographer, critic, poet, and moralist who completed the Dictionary of the English Language in 1755; Johnson is one of the preeminent authorities on the English language.
Reference
[1] Johnson, S. 1755. Boswell’s Life; Dictionary of the English Language; quoted in Clegg, B. 2001. Light Years. Piatkus, London.
