LTE for UMTS E-Book

Harri Holma

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 912

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Written by experts actively involved in the 3GPP standards and product development, LTE for UMTS, Second Edition gives a complete and up-to-date overview of Long Term Evolution (LTE) in a systematic and clear manner. Building upon on the success of the first edition, LTE for UMTS, Second Edition has been revised to now contain improved coverage of the Release 8 LTE details, including field performance results, transport network, self optimized networks and also covering the enhancements done in 3GPP Release 9. This new edition also provides an outlook to Release 10, including the overview of Release 10 LTE-Advanced technology components which enable reaching data rates beyond 1 Gbps. Key updates for the second edition of LTE for UMTS are focused on the new topics from Release 9 & 10, and include: * LTE-Advanced; * Self optimized networks (SON); * Transport network dimensioning; * Measurement results.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgements

List of Abbreviations

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Mobile Voice Subscriber Growth

1.2 Mobile Data Usage Growth

1.3 Evolution of Wireline Technologies

1.4 Motivation and Targets for LTE

1.5 Overview of LTE

1.6 3GPP Family of Technologies

1.7 Wireless Spectrum

1.8 New Spectrum Identified by WRC-07

1.9 LTE-Advanced

Chapter 2: LTE Standardization

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Overview of 3GPP Releases and Process

2.3 LTE Targets

2.4 LTE Standardization Phases

2.5 Evolution Beyond Release 8

2.6 LTE-Advanced for IMT-Advanced

2.7 LTE Specifications and 3GPP Structure

References

Chapter 3: System Architecture Based on 3GPP SAE

3.1 System Architecture Evolution in 3GPP

3.2 Basic System Architecture Configuration with only E-UTRAN Access Network

3.3 System Architecture with E-UTRAN and Legacy 3GPP Access Networks

3.4 System Architecture with E-UTRAN and Non-3GPP Access Networks

3.5 Inter-working with cdma2000® Access Networks

3.6 IMS Architecture

3.7 PCC and QoS

References

Chapter 4: Introduction to OFDMA and SC-FDMA and to MIMO in LTE

4.1 Introduction

4.2 LTE Multiple Access Background

4.3 OFDMA Basics

4.4 SC-FDMA Basics

4.5 MIMO Basics

4.6 Summary

References

Chapter 5: Physical Layer

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Transport Channels and their Mapping to the Physical Channels

5.3 Modulation

5.4 Uplink User Data Transmission

5.5 Downlink User Data Transmission

5.6 Uplink Physical Layer Signaling Transmission

5.7 PRACH Structure

5.8 Downlink Physical Layer Signaling Transmission

5.9 Physical Layer Procedures

5.10 UE Capability Classes and Supported Features

5.11 Physical Layer Measurements

5.12 Physical Layer Parameter Configuration

5.13 Summary

References

Chapter 6: LTE Radio Protocols

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Protocol Architecture

6.3 The Medium Access Control

6.4 The Radio Link Control Layer

6.5 Packet Data Convergence Protocol

6.6 Radio Resource Control (RRC)

6.7 X2 Interface Protocols

6.8 Understanding the RRC ASN.1 Protocol Definition

6.9 Early UE Handling in LTE

6.10 Summary

References

Chapter 7: Mobility

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Mobility Management in Idle State

7.3 Intra-LTE Handovers

7.4 Inter-system Handovers

7.5 Differences in E-UTRAN and UTRAN Mobility

7.6 Summary

References

Chapter 8: Radio Resource Management

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Overview of RRM Algorithms

8.3 Admission Control and QoS Parameters

8.4 Downlink Dynamic Scheduling and Link Adaptation

8.5 Uplink Dynamic Scheduling and Link Adaptation

8.6 Interference Management and Power Settings

8.7 Discontinuous Transmission and Reception (DTX/DRX)

8.8 RRC Connection Maintenance

8.9 Summary

References

Chapter 9: Self Organizing Networks (SON)

9.1 Introduction

9.2 SON Architecture

9.3 SON Functions

9.4 Self-Configuration

9.5 Self-Optimization and Self-Healing Use Cases

9.6 3GPP Release 10 Use Cases

9.7 Summary

References

Chapter 10: Performance

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Layer 1 Peak Bit Rates

10.3 Terminal Categories

10.4 Link Level Performance

10.5 Link Budgets

10.6 Spectral Efficiency

10.7 Latency

10.8 LTE Refarming to GSM Spectrum

10.9 Dimensioning

10.10 Capacity Management Examples from HSPA Networks

10.11 Summary

References

Chapter 11: LTE Measurements

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Theoretical Peak Data Rates

11.3 Laboratory Measurements

11.4 Field Measurement Setups

11.5 Artificial Load Generation

11.6 Peak Data Rates in the Field

11.7 Link Adaptation and MIMO Utilization

11.8 Handover Performance

11.9 Data Rates in Drive Tests

11.10 Multi-user Packet Scheduling

11.11 Latency

11.12 Very Large Cell Size

11.13 Summary

References

Chapter 12: Transport

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Protocol Stacks and Interfaces

12.3 Transport Aspects of Intra-LTE Handover

12.4 Transport Performance Requirements

12.5 Transport Network Architecture for LTE

12.6 Quality of Service

12.7 Transport Security

12.8 Synchronization from Transport Network

12.9 Base Station Co-location

12.10 Summary

References

Chapter 13: Voice over IP (VoIP)

13.1 Introduction

13.2 VoIP Codecs

13.3 VoIP Requirements

13.4 Delay Budget

13.5 Scheduling and Control Channels

13.6 LTE Voice Capacity

13.7 Voice Capacity Evolution

13.8 Uplink Coverage

13.9 Circuit Switched Fallback for LTE

13.10 Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SR-VCC)

13.11 Summary

References

Chapter 14: Performance Requirements

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Frequency Bands and Channel Arrangements

14.3 eNodeB RF Transmitter

14.4 eNodeB RF Receiver

14.5 eNodeB Demodulation Performance

14.6 User Equipment Design Principles and Challenges

14.7 UE RF Transmitter

14.8 UE RF Receiver Requirements

14.9 UE Demodulation Performance

14.10 Requirements for Radio Resource Management

14.11 Summary

References

Chapter 15: LTE TDD Mode

15.1 Introduction

15.2 LTE TDD Fundamentals

15.3 TDD Control Design

15.4 Semi-persistent Scheduling

15.5 MIMO and Dedicated Reference Signals

15.6 LTE TDD Performance

15.7 Evolution of LTE TDD

15.8 LTE TDD Summary

References

Chapter 16: LTE-Advanced

16.1 Introduction

16.2 LTE-Advanced and IMT-Advanced

16.3 Requirements

16.4 3GPP LTE-Advanced Study Phase

16.5 Carrier Aggregation

16.6 Downlink Multi-antenna Enhancements

16.7 Uplink Multi-antenna Techniques

16.8 Heterogeneous Networks

16.9 Relays

16.10 Release 11 Outlook

16.11 Conclusions

References

Chapter 17: HSPA Evolution

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Discontinuous Transmission and Reception (DTX/DRX)

17.3 Circuit Switched Voice on HSPA

17.4 Enhanced FACH and RACH

17.5 Downlink MIMO and 64QAM

17.6 Dual Cell HSDPA and HSUPA

17.7 Multicarrier and Multiband HSDPA

17.8 Uplink 16QAM

17.9 Terminal Categories

17.10 Layer 2 Optimization

17.11 Single Frequency Network (SFN) MBMS

17.12 Architecture Evolution

17.13 Summary

References

Index

This edition first published 2011

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

LTE for UMTS : Evolution to LTE-Advanced / edited by Harri Holma, Antti Toskala.—Second Edition.

p. cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-66000-3 (hardback)

1. Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. 2. Wireless communication systems—Standards. 3. Mobile communication systems—Standards. 4. Global system for mobile communications. 5. Long-Term Evolution (Telecommunications) I. Holma, Harri (Harri Kalevi), 1970-II. Toskala, Antti. III. Title: Long Term Evolution for Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems.

TK5103.4883.L78 2011

621.3845′6—dc22

2010050375

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 9780470660003 (H/B)

ePDF ISBN: 9781119992950

oBook ISBN: 9781119992943

ePub ISBN: 9781119992936

To Kiira and Eevi

–Harri Holma

To Lotta-Maria, Maija-Kerttu and Olli-Ville

–Antti Toskala

Preface

The number of mobile subscribers has increased tremendously in recent years. Voice communication has become mobile in a massive way and the mobile is the preferred method of voice communication. At the same time data usage has grown quickly in networks where 3GPP High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) was introduced, indicating that the users find broadband wireless data valuable. Average data consumption exceeds hundreds of megabytes and even a few gigabytes per subscriber per month. End users expect data performance similar to fixed lines. Operators request high data capacity with low cost of data delivery. 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) is designed to meet those targets. The first commercial LTE networks have shown attractive performance in the field with data rates of several tens of mbps. This book presents 3GPP LTE standard in Release 8 and describes its expected performance.

Figure 0.1 Contents of the book

The book is structured as follows. Chapter 1 presents the introduction. The standardization background and process is described in Chapter 2. System architecture evolution (SAE) is presented in Chapter 3 and the basics of the air interface in Chapter 3. Chapter 5 describes 3GPP LTE physical layer solutions and Chapter 6 protocols. Mobility aspects are addressed in Chapter 7 and the radio resource management in Chapter 8. Self-optimized Network (SON) algorithms are presented in Chapter 9. Radio and end-to-end performance is illustrated in Chapter 10 followed by the measurement results in Chapter 11. The backhaul network is described in Chapter 12. Voice solutions are presented in Chapter 13. Chapter 14 explains the 3GPP performance requirements. Chapter 15 presents the LTE Time Division Duplex (TDD). Chapter 16 describes LTE-Advanced evolution and Chapter 17 HSPA evolution in 3GPP Releases 7 to 10.

LTE can access a very large global market—not only GSM/UMTS operators but also CDMA and WiMAX operators and potentially also fixed network service providers. The large potential market can attract a large number of companies to the market place pushing the economies of scale that enable wide-scale LTE adoption with lower cost. This book is particularly designed for chip set and mobile vendors, network vendors, network operators, application developers, technology managers and regulators who would like to gain a deeper understanding of LTE technology and its capabilities.

The second edition of the book includes enhanced coverage of 3GPP Release 8 content, LTE Release 9 and 10 updates, introduces the main concepts in LTE-Advanced, presents transport network protocols and dimensioning, discusses Self Optimized Networks (SON) solutions and benefits, and illustrates LTE measurement methods and results.

Acknowledgements

The editors would like to acknowledge the hard work of the contributors from Nokia Siemens Networks, Nokia, Renesas Mobile, ST-Ericsson and Nomor Research: Andrea Ancora, Iwajlo Angelow, Dominique Brunel, Chris Callender, Mieszko Chmiel, Mihai Enescu, Marilynn Green, Kari Hooli, Woonhee Hwang, Seppo Hämäläinen, Juha Kallio, Pasi Kinnunen, Tommi Koivisto, Troels Kolding, Krzysztof Kordybach, Juha Korhonen, Jarkko Koskela, István Z. Kovács, Markku Kuusela, Daniela Laselva, Petteri Lunden, Timo Lunttila, Atte Länsisalmi, Esa Malkamäki, Earl McCune, Torsten Musiol, Peter Muszynski, Laurent Noël, Jussi Ojala, Kari Pajukoski, Klaus Pedersen, Karri Ranta-aho, Jussi Reunanen, Timo Roman, Claudio Rosa, Cinzia Sartori, Peter Skov, Esa Tiirola, Ingo Viering, Haiming Wang, Colin Willcock, Che Xiangguang and Yan Yuyu.

We would also like to thank the following colleagues for their valuable comments: Asbjörn Grovlen, Kari Heiska, Jorma Kaikkonen, Michael Koonert, Peter Merz, Preben Mogensen, Sari Nielsen, Gunnar Nitsche, Miikka Poikselkä, Nathan Rader, Sabine Rössel, Benoist Sebire, Mikko Simanainen, Issam Toufik and Helen Waite.

The editors appreciate the fast and smooth editing process provided by Wiley-Blackwell and especially Susan Barclay, Sarah Tilley, Sophia Travis, Jasmine Chang, Michael David, Sangeetha Parthasarathy and Mark Hammond.

We are grateful to our families, as well as the families of all the authors, for their patience during the late-night and weekend editing sessions.

The editors and authors welcome any comments and suggestions for improvements or changes that could be implemented in forthcoming editions of this book. Feedback may be sent to the editors' email addresses: [email protected] and [email protected].

List of Abbreviations

1×RTT1 times Radio Transmission Technology3GPPThird Generation Partnership ProjectAAAAuthentication, Authorization and AccountingABSAlmost Blank SubframesACFAnalog Channel FilterACIRAdjacent Channel Interference RejectionACKAcknowledgementACLRAdjacent Channel Leakage RatioACSAdjacent Channel SelectivityADCAnalog-to Digital ConversionADSLAsymmetric Digital Subscriber LineAKAAuthentication and Key AgreementAMAcknowledged ModeAM/AMAmplitude Modulation to Amplitude Modulation conversionAMBRAggregate Maximum Bit RateAMDAcknowledged Mode DataAM/PMAmplitude Modulation to Phase Modulation conversionAMRAdaptive Multi-RateAMR-NBAdaptive Multi-Rate NarrowbandAMR-WBAdaptive Multi-Rate WidebandAPAntenna PortARCFAutomatic Radio Configuration FunctionARPAllocation Retention PriorityASNAbstract Syntax NotationASN.1Abstract Syntax Notation OneATMAdaptive Transmission BandwidthAWGNAdditive White Gaussian NoiseBBBasebandBCCHBroadcast Control ChannelBCHBroadcast ChannelBEBest EffortBEMBlock Edge MaskBICCBearer Independent Call Control ProtocolBiCMOSBipolar CMOSBLERBlock Error RateBOBackoffBOMBill of MaterialBPFBand Pass FilterBPSKBinary Phase Shift KeyingBSBase StationBSCBase Station ControllerBSRBuffer Status ReportBTBluetoothBTSBase StationBWBandwidthCACarrier AggregationCACConnection Admission ControlCAZACConstant Amplitude Zero Autocorrelation CodesCBRConstant Bit RateCBSCommitted Burst SizeCCComponent CarrierCCCHCommon Control ChannelCCEControl Channel ElementCCOCoverage and Capacity OptimizationCDDCyclic Delay DiversityCDFCumulative Density FunctionCDMCode Division MultiplexingCDMACode Division Multiple AccessCDNContent Distribution NetworkCGIDCell Global Cell IdentityCIFCarrier Information FieldCIRCarrier-to-Interference RatioCIRCommitted Information RateCLMClosed Loop ModeCMCubic MetricCMOSComplementary Metal Oxide SemiconductorCoMPCoordinated Multiple PointCoMPCoordinated Multipoint TransmissionCPCyclic PrefixCPECommon Phase ErrorCPECustomer Premises EquipmentCPICHCommon Pilot ChannelC-PlaneControl PlaneCQIChannel Quality InformationCRCCyclic Redundancy CheckC-RNTICell Radio Network Temporary IdentifierCRSCell-specific Reference SymbolCRSCommon Reference SymbolCSCircuit SwitchedCSCFCall Session Control FunctionCSFBCircuit Switched FallbackCSIChannel State InformationCTCore and TerminalsCTLControlCWContinuous WaveDACDigital to Analog ConversionDARPDownlink Advanced Receiver PerformanceD-BCHDynamic Broadcast ChannelDCDirect CurrentDCCHDedicated Control ChannelDCHDedicated ChannelDC-HSDPADual Cell HSDPADC-HSPADual Cell HSPADC-HSUPADual Cell HSUPADCIDownlink Control InformationDCRDirect Conversion ReceiverDCXODigitally-Compensated Crystal OscillatorDDDuplex DistanceDeNBDonor eNodeBDFCADynamic Frequency and Channel AllocationDFTDiscrete Fourier TransformDGDuplex GapDHCPDynamic Host Configuration ProtocolDLDownlinkDL-SCHDownlink Shared ChannelDPCCHDedicated Physical Control ChannelDRDynamic RangeDRXDiscontinuous ReceptionDSCPDiffServ Code PointDSLDigital Subscriber LineDSPDigital Signal ProcessingDTCHDedicated Traffic ChannelDTMDual Transfer ModeDTXDiscontinuous TransmissionDVB-HDigital Video Broadcast—HandheldDwPTSDownlink Pilot Time SlotEBSExcess Burst SizeE-DCHEnhanced DCHEDGEEnhanced Data Rates for GSM EvolutionEFLEffective Frequency LoadEFREnhanced Full RateEGPRSEnhanced GPRSE-HRDPEvolved HRPD (High Rate Packet Data) networkeICICEnhanced Inter-Cell Interference CoordinationEIRExcess Information RateEIRPEquivalent Isotropic Radiated PowerEMIElectromagnetic InterferenceEMSElement Management SystemEPAExtended Pedestrian AEPCEvolved Packet CoreEPDGEvolved Packet Data GatewayETUExtended Typical UrbanE-UTRAEvolved Universal Terrestrial Radio AccessEVAExtended Vehicular AEVCEthernet Virtual ConnectionEVDOEvolution Data OnlyEVMError Vector MagnitudeEVSError Vector SpectrumFACHForward Access ChannelFCCFederal Communications CommissionFDFrame DelayFDFrequency DomainFDDFrequency Division DuplexFDEFrequency Domain EqualizerFDMFrequency Division MultiplexingFDPSFrequency Domain Packet SchedulingFDVFrame Delay VariationFEFast EthernetFEFront EndFFTFast Fourier TransformFLRFrame Loss RatioFMFrequency ModulatedFNSFrequency Non-SelectiveFRFull RateFRCFixed Reference ChannelFSFrequency SelectiveGBGigabyteGBFGuaranteed Bit RateGBRGuaranteed Bit RateGDDGroup Delay DistortionGEGigabit EthernetGERANGSM/EDGE Radio Access NetworkGFG-FactorGGSNGateway GPRS Support NodeGMSKGaussian Minimum Shift KeyingGPGuard PeriodGPONGigabit Passive Optical NetworkGPRSGeneral packet radio serviceGPSGlobal Positioning SystemGREGeneric Routing EncapsulationGSMGlobal System for Mobile CommunicationsGTPGPRS Tunneling ProtocolGTP-CGPRS Tunneling Protocol, Control PlaneGUTIGlobally Unique Temporary IdentityGWGatewayHARQHybrid Adaptive Repeat and RequestHBHigh BandHD-FDDHalf-duplex Frequency Division DuplexHFNHyper Frame NumberHIIHigh Interference IndicatorHOHandoverHPBWHalf Power Beam WidthHPFHigh Pass FilterHPSKHybrid Phase Shift KeyingHRPDHigh Rate Packet DataHSDPAHigh Speed Downlink Packet AccessHS-DSCHHigh Speed Downlink Shared ChannelHSGWHRPD Serving GatewayHSPAHigh Speed Packet AccessHS-PDSCHHigh Speed Physical Downlink Shared ChannelHSSHome Subscriber ServerHS-SCCHHigh Speed Shared Control ChannelHSUPAHigh Speed Uplink Packet AccessICIntegrated CircuitICInterference CancellationICIInter-carrier InterferenceICICInter-cell Interference ControlICSIMS Centralized ServiceIDIdentityIDUIndoor UnitIEEEInstitute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersIETFInternet Engineering Task ForceIFFTInverse Fast Fourier TransformILInsertion LossiLBCInternet Lob Bit Rate CodecIMImplementation MarginIMDIntermodulationIMSIP Multimedia SubsystemIMTInternational Mobile TelecommunicationsIMT-AIMT-AdvancedIoTInterference over ThermalIOTInter-Operability TestingIPInternet ProtocolIRImage RejectionIRCInterference Rejection CombiningISDInter-site DistanceISDNIntegrated Services Digital NetworkISIInter-system InterferenceISTOIndustry Standards and Technology OrganizationISUPISDN User PartITUInternational Telecommunication UnionIWFInterworking FunctionL2VPNLayer 2 VPNL3VPNLayer 3 VPNLAILocation Area IdentityLBLow BandLCIDLogical Channel IdentificationLCSLocation ServicesLMALocal Mobility AnchorLMMSELinear Minimum Mean Square ErrorLNALow Noise AmplifierLOLocal OscillatorLOSLine of SightLTELong Term EvolutionLTE-ALTE-AdvancedM2MMachine-to-MachineMACMedium Access ControlMAPMaximum a posterioriMAPMobile Application PartMBMSMultimedia Broadcast/Multicast ServiceMBMSMultimedia Broadcast Multicast SystemMBRMaximum Bit RateMCHMulticast ChannelMCLMinimum Coupling LossMCSModulation and Coding SchemeMDTMinimization of Drive TestingMEFMetro Ethernet ForumMGWMedia GatewayMIBMaster Information BlockMIMOMultiple Input Multiple OutputMIPMobile IPMIPIMobile Industry Processor InterfaceMIPSMillion Instructions Per SecondMLBMobility Load BalancingMMMobility ManagementMMEMobility Management EntityMMSEMinimum Mean Square ErrorM-PlaneManagement PlaneMPLSMultiprotocol Label SwitchingMPRMaximum Power ReductionMRCMaximal Ratio CombiningMROMobility RobustnessMSCMobile Switching CenterMSC-SMobile Switching Center ServerMSDMaximum Sensitivity DegradationMSSMaximum Segment SizeMTUMaximum Transmission UnitMUMultiuserMU-MIMOMultiuser MIMOMWRMicrowave RadioNACCNetwork Assisted Cell ChangeNACKNegative AcknowledgementNASNon-access StratumNATNetwork Address TableNBNarrowbandNBAPNode B Application PartNDSNetwork Domain SecurityNFNoise FigureNGMNNext Generation Mobile NetworksNMONetwork Mode of OperationNMSNetwork Management SystemNRTNon-real TimeNTPNetwork Time ProtocolOAMOperation Administration MaintenanceOCCOrthogonal Cover CodesOFDMOrthogonal Frequency Division MultiplexingOFDMAOrthogonal Frequency Division Multiple AccessOIOverload IndicatorOLLAOuter Loop Link AdaptationO&MOperation and MaintenanceOOBOut of BandOOBNOut-of-Band NoisePAPower AmplifierPAPRPeak to Average Power RatioPARPeak-to-Average RatioPBRPrioritized Bit RatePCPersonal ComputerPCPower ControlPCBPrinted Circuit BoardPCCPolicy and Charging ControlPCCPrimary Component CarrierPCCCParallel Concatenated Convolution CodingPCCPCHPrimary Common Control Physical ChannelPCellPrimary Serving CellPCFICHPhysical Control Format Indicator ChannelPCHPaging ChannelPCIPhysical Cell IdentityPCMPulse Code ModulationPCRFPolicy and Charging Resource FunctionPCSPersonal Communication ServicesPDPacket DelayPDCCHPhysical Downlink Control ChannelPDCPPacket Data Convergence ProtocolPDFProbability Density FunctionPDNPacket Data NetworkPDSCHPhysical Downlink Shared ChannelPDUPayload Data UnitPDUProtocol Data UnitPDVPacket Delay VariationPERPacked Encoding RulesPFProportional FairP-GWPacket Data Network GatewayPHICHPhysical HARQ Indicator ChannelPHRPower Headroom ReportPHSPersonal Handyphone SystemPHYPhysical LayerPKIPublic Key InfrastructurePLLPhase Locked LoopPLMNPublic Land Mobile NetworkPLRPacket Loss RatioPMIPrecoding Matrix IndexPMIPProxy Mobile IPPNPhase NoisePRACHPhysical Random Access ChannelPRBPhysical Resource BlockPRCPrimary Reference ClockPSPacket SwitchedPSDPower Spectral DensityPSSPrimary Synchronization SignalPTPPrecision Time ProtocolPUCCHPhysical Uplink Control ChannelPUSCHPhysical Uplink Shared ChannelQAMQuadrature Amplitude ModulationQCIQoS Class IdentifierQDQuasi DynamicQNQuantization NoiseQoSQuality of ServiceQPSKQuadrature Phase Shift KeyingRACHRandom Access ChannelRADRequired Activity DetectionRANRadio Access NetworkRARRandom Access ResponseRATRadio Access TechnologyRBResource BlockRBGRadio Bearer GroupRFRadio FrequencyRIRank IndicatorRLCRadio Link ControlRLFRadio Link FailureRNRelay NodeRNCRadio Network ControllerRNLRadio Network LayerRNTPRelative Narrowband Transmit PowerROHCRobust Header CompressionRRRound RobinRRCRadio Resource ControlRRMRadio Resource ManagementRSReference SignalRSCPReceived Symbol Code PowerRSRPReference Symbol Received PowerRSRQReference Symbol Received QualityRSSIReceived Signal Strength IndicatorRTReal TimeRTTRound-Trip TimeRVRedundancy VersionS1APS1 Application ProtocolSAServices and System AspectsSAESystem Architecture EvolutionSAICSingle Antenna Interference CancellationSCCSecondary Component CarrierS-CCPCHSecondary Common Control Physical ChannelSC-FDMASingle Carrier Frequency Division Multiple AccessSCHShared ChannelSCHSynchronization ChannelSCMSpatial Channel ModelSCTPStream Control Transmission ProtocolSDQNRSignal to Distortion Quantization Noise RatioSDUService Data UnitSESpectral EfficiencySEGSecurity GatewaySEMSpectrum Emission MaskSFSpreading FactorSFBCSpace Frequency Block CodingSFNSingle Frequency NetworkSFNSystem Frame NumberSGSNServing GPRS Support NodeS-GWServing GatewaySIBSystem Information BlockSIDSilence Indicator FrameSIMSubscriber Identity ModuleSIMOSingle Input Multiple OutputSINRSignal to Interference and Noise RatioSLAService Level AgreementSLSService Level SpecificationSMSShort Message ServiceSNRSignal to Noise RatioSONSelf Organizing NetworksSORTDSpace-Orthogonal Resource Transmit DiversityS-PlaneSynchronization PlaneSRScheduling RequestS-RACHShort Random Access ChannelSRBSignaling Radio BearerS-RNCServing RNCSRSSounding Reference SignalsSR-VCCSingle Radio Voice Call ContinuitySSSSecondary Synchronization SignalS-TMSIS-Temporary Mobile Subscriber IdentitySU-MIMOSingle User Multiple Input Multiple OutputSyncESynchronous EthernetTATracking AreaTBSTransport Block SizeTDTime DomainTDDTime Division DuplexTD-LTETime Division Long Term EvolutionTD-SCDMATime Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple AccessTMTransparent ModeTNLTransport Network LayerTPCTransmit Power ControlTRXTransceiverTSGTechnical Specification GroupTTITransmission Time IntervalTUTypical UrbanUDPUnit Data ProtocolUEUser EquipmentUHFUltra High FrequencyUICCUniversal Integrated Circuit CardULUplinkUL-SCHUplink Shared ChannelUMUnacknowledged ModeUMDUnacknowledged Mode DataUMTSUniversal Mobile Telecommunications SystemUNIUser Network InterfaceU-PlaneUser PlaneUpPTSUplink Pilot Time SlotUSBUniversal Serial BusUSIMUniversal Subscriber Identity ModuleUSSDUnstructured Supplementary Service DataUTRAUniversal Terrestrial Radio AccessUTRANUniversal Terrestrial Radio Access NetworkVCCVoice Call ContinuityVCOVoltage Controlled OscillatorVDSLVery High Data Rate Subscriber LineVLANVirtual LANVLRVisitor Location RegisterV-MIMOVirtual MIMOVoIPVoice over IPVPNVirtual Private NetworkVRBVirtual Resource BlocksWCDMAWideband Code Division Multiple AccessWGWorking GroupWLANWireless Local Area NetworkWRCWorld Radio ConferenceX1APX1 Application ProtocolZFZero Forcing

Chapter 2

LTE Standardization

Antti Toskala

2.1 Introduction

Long-Term Evolution (LTE) standardization is being carried out in the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), as was the case for Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) and the later phase of GSM evolution. This chapter introduces the 3GPP LTE release schedule and the 3GPP standardization process. The requirements set for LTE by the 3GPP community are reviewed and the anticipated steps for later LTE Releases, including LTE-Advanced work for the IMT-Advanced process, are covered. This chapter concludes by introducing LTE specifications and 3GPP structure.

2.2 Overview of 3GPP Releases and Process

The development of 3GPP dates from 1998. The first WCDMA release, Release 99, was published in December 1999. This contained basic WCDMA features with theoretical data rates of up to 2 Mbps, with different multiple access for Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) mode and Time Division Duplex (TDD). After that, 3GPP abandoned the yearly release principle and the release naming was also changed, continuing from Release 4 (including TD-SCDMA), completed in March 2001. Release 5 followed with High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) in March 2002 and Release 6 with High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) in December 2004 for WCDMA. Release 7 was completed in June 2007 with the introduction of several HSDPA and HSUPA enhancements. In 2008 3GPP finalized Release 8 (with a few issues pending for March 2009, including RRC ASN.1 freezing), which brought further HSDPA/HSUPA improvements, often referred to jointly as High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) evolution, as well as the first LTE Release. A more detailed description of the WCDMA/HSPA Release content can be found in Chapter 17 covering Release 8, 9 and 10 and in [1] for the earlier releases. The feature content for Release 8 was completed in December 2008 and then work continued with further LTE releases, as shown in Figure 2.1, with Release 9 completed at end of 2009 and Releases 10 and 11 scheduled to be finalized in March 2011 and the second half of 2012 respectively. Three months' additional time was allowed for the ASN.1 freeze.

Figure 2.1 3GPP LTE Release schedule up to Release 11

The earlier 3GPP releases are related to the LTE in Release 8. Several novel features, especially features adopted in HSDPA and HSUPA, are also used in LTE. These include base station scheduling with physical layer feedback, physical layer retransmissions and link adaptation. The LTE specifications also reuse the WCDMA design in the areas where this could be done without compromising performance, thus facilitating reuse of the design and platforms developed for WCDMA. The first LTE release, Release 8, supports data rates up to 300 Mbps in the downlink and up to 75 Mbps in the uplink with low latency and flat radio architecture. Release 8 also facilitates the radio level interworking with GSM, WCDMA and cdma2000.

Currently 3GPP is introducing new work items and study items for Release 11, some of them related to postponed from earlier releases and some of them related to new features. Release 9 content was finalized at the end of 2009 with a few small additions in early 2010. Release 10 contains further radio capability enhancement in the form of LTE-Advanced, submitted to the ITU-R IMT-Advanced process with data rate capabilities foreseen to range up to 1 Gbps. Release 10 specifications were ready at the end of 2010 with some fixes during the first half of 2011.

It is in the nature of the 3GPP process that more projects are started than eventually end up in the specifications. Often a study is carried out first for more complicated issues, as was the case with LTE. Typically, during a study, several alternatives are examined and only some of these might eventually enter a specification. Sometimes a study results in the conclusion that there is not enough gain to justify the added complexity in the system. Sometimes a change request from the work-item phase could be rejected for the same reason. The 3GPP process is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 3GPP process for moving from study towards work item and specification creation

2.3 LTE Targets

At the start of work, during the first half of 2005, 3GPP defined the requirements for LTE development. The key elements included in the target setting for LTE feasibility study work, as defined in [2], were as follows:

The LTE system should be packet-switched domain optimized. This means that circuit switched elements are not really considered but everything is assumed to be based on the packet type of operation. The system was required to support IP Multimedia Sub-system (IMS) and further evolved 3GPP packet core.As the data rates increase, the latency also needs to come down in order for the data rates to be improved. Thus the requirement for LTE radio round trip time was set to be below 10 ms and access delay below 300 ms.The requirements for the data rates were defined to ensure sufficient step in terms of data rates in contrast to HSPA. The peak rate requirements for uplink and downlink were set to 50 Mbps and 100 Mbps respectively.As the 3GPP community was used to a good level of security and mobility with earlier systems, starting from GSM, it was also a natural requirement to maintain a good level of mobility and security. This included inter-system mobility with GSM and WCMA, as well as cdma2000, as there was (and is) major interest in the cdma2000 community to evolve to LTE for next generation networks.With WCDMA, terminal power consumption was one of the topics that presented challenges, especially in the beginning, so it was necessary to improve terminal power efficiency.In the 3GPP technology family there was both a narrowband system (GSM with 200 kHz) and wideband system (WCDMA with 5 MHz), so it was necessary for the new system to facilitate frequency allocation flexibility with 1.25/2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz allocations. Later during the course of work, the actual bandwidth values were slightly adjusted for the two smallest bandwidths (to use 1.4 and 3 MHz bandwidths) to match both GSM and cdma2000 refarming cases. It was also required to be able to use LTE in a deployment with WCDMA or GSM as the system on the adjacent band.The ‘standard’ requirement for any new system is to have higher capacity. The benchmark level chosen was 3GPP Release 6, which had a stable specification and known performance level at the time. Thus Release 6 was a stable comparison level for running the LTE performance simulations during the feasibility study phase. Depending on the case, 2–4 times higher capacity than provided with the Release 6 HSDPA/HSUPA reference case, was required.One of the drivers for the work was cost—to ensure that the new system could facilitate lower investment and operating costs compared to the earlier system. This was the natural result of the flat-rate charging model for data use and created pressure on the price the data volume level.

It was also expected that the further development of WCDMA would continue in parallel with LTE activity. This was done with Release 8 HSPA improvements, as covered in Chapter 14.

2.4 LTE Standardization Phases

The LTE work was started as a study in 3GPP, with the first workshop held in November 2004 in Canada. In the workshop the first presentations were given both on the expected requirements for the work and on the expected technologies to be adopted. Contributions were made both from the operator and vendor sides.

Following the workshop, 3GPP TSG RAN approved the start of the study for LTE in December 2004, with work first running at the RAN plenary level to define the requirements, and then moving to working groups for detailed technical discussions for multiple access, protocol solutions and architecture. The first key issues to be resolved were the requirements, as discussed above—these were mainly settled during the first half of 2005, with the first approved version in June 2005. Then work focused on solving two key questions:

What should the LTE radio technology be in terms of multiple access?What should the system architecture be?

The multiple access discussion was concluded rather quickly with the decision that something new was needed instead of just an extension to WCDMA. This conclusion was due to the need to cover different bandwidths and data rates in a reasonably complex way. It was obvious that Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) would be used in the downlink (this had already been reflected in many of the presentations in the original LTE workshop in 2004). For uplink multiple access, the Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) soon emerged as the most favorable choice. It was supported by a large number of key vendors and operators, as could be seen, for example, in [3]. A noticeable improvement from WCDMA was that both FDD and TDD modes were receiving the same multiple access solution, and this is addressed in Chapter 15. Chapter 4 covers OFDMA and SC-FDMA principles and motivational aspects further. The multiple-access decision was officially endorsed at the end of 2005 and, after that, LTE radio work focused on those technologies chosen, with the LTE milestones shown in Figure 2.3. The FDD/TDD alignment refers to the agreement on the adjustment of the frame structure to minimize the differences between FDD and TDD modes of operation.

Figure 2.3 LTE Release 8 milestones in 3GPP

With regard to LTE architecture, it was decided, after some debate, to aim for a single-node RAN, with the result that all radio-related functionality was to be placed in the base station. This time the term used in 3GPP was ‘eNodeB’ with ‘e’ standing for ‘evolved’. The original architecture split, as shown in Figure 2.4, was endorsed in March 2006 with a slight adjustment made in early 2007 (with the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) shifted from the core network side to eNodeB). The fundamental difference with the WCDMA network was the lack of the Radio Network Controller (RNC) element. The architecture is described further in Chapter 3.

Figure 2.4 Original network architecture for LTE radio protocols

The study also evaluated the resulting LTE capacity. The studies reported in [4], and more refined studies summarized in [5], show that the requirements could be reached.

The study part of the process was closed formally in September 2006 and detailed work was started to make the LTE part of 3GPP Release 8 specifications.

The LTE specification work produced the first set of approved physical-layer specifications in September 2007 and the first full set of approved LTE specifications in December 2007. Clearly, there were open issues in the specifications at that point in time, especially in the protocol specifications and in the area of performance requirements. The remaining specification freezing process could be divided into three different steps:

1 Freezing the functional content of the LTE specifications in terms of what would be finalized in the Release 8. This meant leaving out some of the originally planned functionality like support for broadcast use (point-to-multipoint data broadcasting). Functional freeze thus means that no new functionality can be introduced but the agreed content will be finalized. In LTE, the introduction of new functionality was basically over after June 2008 and during the rest of 2008 the work was focusing on completing the missing pieces (and correcting the errors detected) especially in the protocol specifications, which were mostly completed by December 2008.

2 Once all the content is expected to be ready for a particular release, the next step is to freeze the protocol specifications in terms of starting backwards compatibility. The backwards compatibility defines for a protocol the first version that can be the commercial implementation baseline. Until backwards compatibility is started in the protocol specifications, they are corrected by deleting information elements that do not work as intended and replacing them with new ones. Once the start of backwards compatibility is reached, the older information elements are no longer removed but extensions are used. This allows equipment based on the older version to work based on the old information elements (though not necessary 100% optimally) while equipment with newer software can read the improved/corrected information element after noticing the extension bit being set. Obviously, the core functionality needs to work properly before start of the backwards compatibility makes sense, because if something is totally wrong, fixing it with a backwards compatible correction does not help older software versions if the functionality is not operational at all. This step was reached with 3GPP Release 8 protocol specifications in March 2009 when the protocol language used—Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1)—review for debugging all the errors was completed. With Release 9 specifications the ASN.1 backwards compatibility was started in March 2010 while, for Release 10, 3GPP has scheduled ASN.1 backward compatibility to be started from June 2011 onwards. With further work in Release 11, the corresponding milestone is December 2012.

3 The last phase is a ‘deep’ freeze of the specifications, when no further changes to specifications will be allowed. This is something that is valid for a release that has already been rolled out in the field, like Release 5 with HSDPA and Release 6 with HSUPA. With the devices out in the field the core functionality has been tested and proven—there is no point in changing those releases any more. Improvements would need to be made in a later release. Problems may arise in cases where a feature has not been implemented (and thus no testing with network has been possible) and the problem is only detected later. Then it could be corrected in a later release and a recommendation could be made to use it only for devices that are based on this later release. For LTE Release 8 specifications this phase was achieved more-or-less at the end of 2010. Changes that were made during 2009 and 2010 still allowed backwards compatibility to be maintained.

Thus, from a 3GPP perspective, Release 8 has reached a very stable state. The last topics to be covered were UE-related performance requirements in different areas. The amount of changes requested concerning physical layers and key radio-related protocols decreased sharply after March 2009, as shown in Figure 2.5, allowing RRC backwards compatibility from March 2009 to be maintained. With the internal interfaces (S1/X2) there was one round of non-backwards compatible corrections still in May 2009 after which backwards compatibility there was also retained.

Figure 2.5 Release 8 Change Request statistics from March 2009

2.5 Evolution Beyond Release 8

The work of 3GPP during 2008 focused on finalizing Release 8, but work was also started for issues beyond Release 8, including the first Release 9 projects and LTE-Advanced for IMT-Advanced. The following projects have been addressed in 3GPP during Release 9 and 10 work:

LTE MBMS, which covers operations related to broadcast-type data for both for dedicated MBMS carriers and for shared carriers. When synchronized properly, OFDMA-based broadcast signals can be sent in the same resource space from different base stations (with identical content) and then signals from multiple base stations can be combined in the devices. This principle is already in use in, for example, Digital Video Broadcasting for Handheld (DVB-H) devices in the market. DVB-H is also an OFDMA-based system but is only intended for broadcast use. Release 9 supports the carrier with shared MBMS and point-to-point. No specific MBMS-only carrier is defined. There are no changes in that aspect in Release 10.Self-Optimized Network (SON) enhancements. 3GPP has worked on the self-optimization/configuration aspects of LTE and that work continued in Releases 9 and 10. It is covered in more detail in Chapter 9.Minimization of Drive Test (MDT). This is intended to reduce the need to collect data with an actual drive test by obtaining the necessary information from the devices in the field, as elaborated in more detail in Chapter 6.Requirements for multi-bandwidth and multi-radio access technology base stations. The scope of this work is to define the requirements for in cases where the same Radio Frequency (RF) part is used for transmitting, for example, LTE and GSM or LTE and WCDMA signals. Currently requirements for emissions on the adjacent frequencies, for example, take only a single Radio Access Technology (RAT) into account; requirements will now be developed for different combinations including running multiple LTE bandwidths in parallel in addition to the multi-RAT case. This was completed in Release 10 for the operation of contiguous frequency allocations. From mid-2010 onwards, work will be carried out for non-contiguous spectrum allocations (for an operator, for example, in 900 MHz band having spectrums in different parts of the band).Enhancing support for emergency calls, both in terms of enabling prioritization of the emergency calls as well as adding (in addition to the GPS-based methods) support for position location in the LTE network itself with the inclusion of OTDOA measurements in the UEs, completed in Release 9. There is also ongoing work to add uplink-based solutions as part of LTE specifications in the Release 11 based on Uplink TDOA (UTDOA).

The next release, then, is Release 11 with work commencing in early 2011. It is scheduled to be finalized by the end of 2012. The content of Release 11 has not yet been decided in 3GPP but it seems obvious that there will be plenty of new projects started because, during the work for Release 10, a large number of topics were identified that could not be initiated in order to keep to the Release 10 schedule.

2.6 LTE-Advanced for IMT-Advanced