Joost van den Vondel
Lucifer
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Table of contents
Introduction.
Introduction: Dr. Kalff.
Vondel: His Life and Times.
The "Lucifer."
The Falling Morning Star
A Word to All Fellow-Academicians and Patrons of the Drama.
The Argument
Dramatis Personæ.
ACT I.
Act II.
ACT III.
ACT IV.
Act V.
Introduction.
It
has become a matter of literary tradition, in Holland and out of it,
that the choral drama of "Lucifer" is the great masterpiece
of Dutch literature. The Dutch critics, however, are by no manner of
means unanimous in this opinion. In point of fact, it has been
assigned by some a place relatively subordinate among the works of
this "Dutch Shakespeare," as they are fond of calling
Vondel at home. No other one, however, in the long list of his dramas
and poems, from the "Pascha" of 1612 to his last
translations of 1671, the beginning and the end of a literary career,
in which one of the greatest of Dutch writers on its history has
pronounced the poetry of the Netherlands to have attained its zenith,
will, none the less, so strongly appeal to us, outside of Holland, as
does the "Lucifer." Vondel's tragedy "Gysbreght van
Amstel" may have found far greater favor as a drama, and the
poet may possibly in his lyrics have risen to his greatest height;
but neither the one nor the other, in spite of this, can have such
supreme claims upon our attention.Why
this is so is dependent upon a variety of reasons. It is not solely
on account of the lofty character of the subject, nor because we have
an almost identical one in a great poem in English literature,
between which and the "Lucifer" there is a more than
generic resemblance. The question of Milton's indebtedness to Vondel
is no longer to be considered an open one, and has resolved itself
into an inquiry simply as to the amount of the influence exerted.
This is an interesting phase of the matter, and, since it involves
one of our great classics, an important one. The two poems,
nevertheless, however great this influence may be shown to be, are by
no manner of means alike in detail, and one main source of interest
to us, to whom "Paradise Lost" is a heritage, is
undoubtedly to compare the treatment of such a subject by two great
poets of different nationalities. The paramount reason, however, why
the "Lucifer" should appeal to us is because it is, in
reality, one of the great poems of the world; because of its inherent
worth, its seriousness of purpose, the sublimity of its fundamental
conceptions, its whole loftiness of tone. When the critics praise
others of Vondel's works for excellences not shared by the "Lucifer,"
they extol him immeasurably, for there is enough in this poem alone
to have made its author immortal.It
is a matter of surprise that down to the present time there has been
no English translation of "Lucifer," although, after all,
its neglect is but a part of the general indifference among us to the
literature of Holland in all periods of its history. Why this should
be so is not quite apparent; for wholly apart from the important
question of action and reaction as a constituent part of the world's
literature, the literature of Holland has in it, in almost every
phase of its development, sublimities and beauties of its own which
surely could not always remain hidden. An era of translation was sure
to set in, and it is a matter of significance that its herald has
even now appeared.That
the first considerable translation of any Dutch poet into English
should be Vondel, and that the particular work rendered should be the
"Lucifer," is, from the preëminent place of writer and
poem in the literature of the Netherlands, altogether apt.It
is particularly fitting, however, that such an English translation,
both because it is first and because it is Vondel, should be put
forth, beyond all other places, from this old Dutch city of New York.
There is surely more than a passing interest in the thought that, at
the time of the appearance of Vondel's "Lucifer" in old
Amsterdam, in 1654, its reading public was in part New Amsterdam, as
well. Whether any copy of the book ever actually found its way over
to the New Netherlands is a matter that it is hardly possible now to
determine; but that it might have been read in the vernacular as
readily here as at home is a fact of history. Only two years after
the publication of the "Lucifer," that is in 1656, Van der
Donck, as his title page states, "at the time in New
Netherland," printed his "Beschryvinge van
Nieuw-Nederlant," in which occurs the familiar picture of "Nieuw
Amsterdam op 't Eylant Manhattans," with its fort, and
flagstaff, and windmill, its long row of little Dutch houses, and its
gibbet well in the foreground as an unmistakable symbol of law and
order.Strikingly
enough, too, during the lifetime of Vondel we were making our own
contributions to Dutch literature; modest they certainly may have
been, but real none the less. Jacob Steendam, the first poet of New
York, wrote here at least one of his poems, the "Klagt van
Nieuw-Amsterdam," printed in Holland in 1659, and from this same
period are the occasional verses of those other Dutch poets, Henricus
Selyns, the first settled minister of Brooklyn, and of Nicasius de
Sille, first colonial Councillor of State under Governor Stuyvesant.
Steendam, after he had returned from these shores to the Fatherland,
is still a New Netherlander in spirit, for he continued to sing in
vigorous, if homely, verses of the land he had left, which in his
long poems, "'T Lof van Nieuw-Nederland," and
"Prickel-Vaersen" he paints in glowing colors:Nieuw-Nederland,
gy edelste GewestDaar
d'Opperheer (op 't heerlijkst) heeft gevestDe
Volheyt van zijn gaven: alder-bestIn
alle Leden.Dit
is het Land, daar Melk en Honig vloeyd:Dit
is't geweest, daar't Kruyd (als dist'len) groeyd:Dit
is de Plaats, daar Arons-Roede bloeyd:Dit
is het Eden.A
translation of Vondel, from what has been said, is, accordingly, in a
certain sense, a rehabilitation, a restoration to a former status
that through the exigency of events has been lost. While this may be
considered from some points of view but a curiosity of coincidence,
it is in reality, as has been assumed, much more than that: it is a
pertinent reminder of our historical beginnings, a harking back to
the century that saw our birth as a province and as a city, to the
mother country and to the mother tongue.Of
the literature of Holland, from the lack of opportunity, we know far
too little. The translation into English of Vondel's "Lucifer"
is not only in and for itself an event of more than ordinary
importance in literary history, but it cannot fail to awaken among us
a curiosity as to what else of supreme value maybe contained in Dutch
literature, and thereby, in effect, form a veritable "open
sesame" to unlock its hidden treasures.
Introduction: Dr. Kalff.
When
Vondel, in 1653, finished his "Lucifer," he stood,
notwithstanding his sixty-six laborious years, with undiminished
vigor upon one of the loftiest peaks in his towering career.A
long road lay behind him, in some places rough and steep, though ever
tending upwards. What had he not experienced, what had he not endured
since that day in 1605 when he contributed a few faulty strophes to a
wedding feast—the first product of his art of which we have any
knowledge!After
a long and wearisome war, full of brilliant feats of arms, his
countrymen had, at length, closed a treaty full of glory to
themselves with their powerful and superior adversary. The Republic
of the United Netherlands had taken her place among the great powers
of the earth. In the East and in the West floated the flag of
Holland. Over far-distant seas glided the shadows of Dutch ships,
en route to other
lands, bearing supplies to satisfy their needs, or speeding homewards
freighted with riches.Prince
Maurice was dead. Frederic Henry and William II. had come and gone.
De Witt, however, guided the helm of the ship of state; and as long
as De Ruyter stood on the quarter-deck of his invincible "Seven
Provinces" no reason existed to inspire an Englishman with a
"Rule Britannia."Knowledge
soared on daring wings. Art reigned triumphant. The Stadhuis at
Amsterdam was nearing completion. Rembrandt's "Night Patrol"
already hung in the great hall of the Arquebusiers, and his "Syndics
of the Cloth Merchants" was soon to be begun.Fulness
of life, growth of power, and the extension of boundaries were
everywhere apparent. The life of the period is like an impressive
pageant: in front, proud cavaliers, in high saddles, on their
prancing steeds, with splendid colors and dazzling weapons, while
silk banners gorgeously embroidered are waving aloft; in the rear,
beautiful triumphal chariots and picturesque groups; around stands a
clamorous multitude that for one moment forgets its cares in the glow
of that splendor, though often only kept in restraint with
difficulty.In
the midst of this busy, murmurous scene, Vondel with steady feet
pursued his own way; often, indeed, lending his ear to the voices
with which the air reverberated, or feasting his eyes upon color and
form; often, too, lifting his voice for attack or defence; though
still more often with averted glance, and lost in meditation,
listening to the voice within.Life
had not left him untried. In many a contest, especially in his
struggles against the Calvinistic clergy, he had strengthened his
belief on many a doubtful point, developed his powers, and sharpened
his understanding.He
had lost two lovely children; his tenderly beloved wife, who lived
for him, had left him alone; his conversion to Catholicism had cost
him much internal strife, and had brought with it the loss of former
friends; his oldest son, Joost, had plunged him into financial
difficulties, which resulted in ruin: yet beneath all this his sturdy
strength did not fail him.The
fire of his spirit, not suppressed or smothered by the piled-up fuel
of early learning, but constantly and richly fed with that which was
best, burned with a fierce flame, ever hungry for new food. Treasures
of art and knowledge he had gathered, even as the honey-bee culls her
store out of all meadows and flowers; for towards art and knowledge
his heart ever inclined—towards those muses of whom, in his
"Birthday Clock of William Van Nassau," he said:"For
whom all life I love; and without whom, ah me!The
glorious majesty of sun I could not gladly see."In
an awe-inspiring number of long and short poems, he had, since those
first lame verses, developed his art; he had taught his understanding
to make use of life-like forms in the construction of his dramas; his
feelings he had made deeper and more refined; his taste he had
ennobled; his self-restraint he had increased; his technique he had
made perfect.Did
his Bible remain the fount from which he preferred to draw the
material for his dramas, he also gladly borrowed his motifs from the
past of classical antiquity, and from the every-day Netherland life
around him. His own fiery belief and deep convictions, and
irrepressible desire to give vent to them, caused the person of the
poet to be seen more clearly in his characters than we observe to be
the case in the productions of his masters, the classic tragedians."Palamedes"
is a tempestuous defence of the great statesman Oldenbarneveldt—a
defence full of intemperate passion, bitter reproach, and burning
satire. How fiercely glows there, in each word, in each answer, in
transparent allusion and in scornful irony, the fire of party spirit!
How often, too, do we there hear the voice of the poet himself, as it
trembles with tender sympathy or with lofty indignation!"Gÿsbrecht
van Amstel," a subject dearer to the burghers of Amsterdam than
most others, is illuminated with the soft glimmer of altar-candles
mingled with airy incense. That same light, that same perfume, we
also perceive in "Maeghden," "Peter en Pauwels,"
and "Maria Stuart."The
Christ-like, humble thankfulness of a Dutch burgher falls upon our
ears in the "Leeuwendalers," that charming pastoral, in
which the wanton play of whistling pipe and reed is constantly
relieved by the silvery pure tones of ringing peace-bells.Does
the history of the development of the Vondelian drama teach us more
about the man Vondel, it also most clearly shows us the evolution of
the artist. Especially after his translation of "Hippolytus"
he had weaned himself from the style of Seneca. More and more he
became filled with the grandeur of the Greek tragedians, Sophocles
and Euripides above all others. Æschylus he had not yet made his
own; that hour was not yet come.In
"Gÿsbrecht van Amstel" we feel, for the first time, that
Vondel acknowledges the Greeks as his masters, that he strives to
follow them in their sublime simplicity; in their naturalness, that
never degenerates to the gross; in their freedom of movement, so
different from the stiffness of the school of Seneca; in the
exquisitely delicate manner in which the lyric is introduced into the
drama. In "Joseph in Dothan," "Leeuwendalers,"
and "Salomon," we behold the poet pursuing the same path,
and here the influence of the Greeks is still more perceptible.We
have attempted in a few rapid strokes to give a brief outline of the
time in which the tragedy "Lucifer" had its origin, and
also of the man, the poet, who created it.When
Vondel first conceived the plan of writing this tragedy is not known.
However, it is well known that this subject had early made an
impression upon him. In the collection of prints entitled "Gulden
Winkel" (1613), for which Vondel wrote the accompanying mottoes,
we already find the Archangel whom God had doomed to the pit of hell.
In the "Brieven der Heilige Maeghden" (1642), and in
"Henriette Marie t'Amsterdam" (1642), we also find mention
of the revolt of the Archangel. In the first-named work the strife
between Michael and Lucifer, with their legions, is already seen in
prototype. About 1650 he had undoubtedly resolved upon a plan to
expand this subject into a tragedy.Was
the fallen Archangel for a long period thus ever present to the
poet's eye? Did that subject so enthrall him that, at last, he could
no longer resist the impelling desire to picture it after his own
fashion? For the causes of this interest we shall not have far to
seek.The
seventeenth century was, more than almost any other, the age of
authority, and "Lucifer" is the tragedy of the individual
in his revolt against authority. Vondel, the Catholic Christian, to
whom the ruling power was holy—holy because it came from God;
Vondel, the Amsterdam burgher, reared in the fear of the Lord, and
full of reverence for those in authority as long as his conscience
approved; Vondel must thus have been deeply impressed by the thought
of the presumptuous attempt of the Stadholder of God, "the
fairest far of all things ever by God created," in his revolt
against the "Creator of his glory." Out of this deep
agitation this tragedy was born.Only
a genius such as that of Vondel or Milton could bring itself to
undertake so dubious a task—out of such material to create a poem;
only the highest genius could succeed in such gigantic attempt. Only
such a poet can translate us on the mighty wings of his imagination
into the portals of heaven; can present to us angels that at the same
time are so human that we can put ourselves in their place, but who,
nevertheless, remain for us a higher order of beings; can dare to
bring into a drama a representation of God, without offending His
majesty.With
chaste taste the poet has only rapidly sketched the scene of the
drama; by means of a few suggestive strokes, awaking in reader and
hearer a sympathetic conception: an illimitable spaciousness radiant
with light; an eternal sunshine, more beautiful than that of earth,
mirroring itself in the blue crystalline, above which hover hosts of
celestial angels; here and there in the background, the dazzling
pediments, towers, and battlements of ethereal palaces; far away,
upon the heights beyond, the golden port, from which God's "Herald
of Mysteries" came down into view. The earth lies immeasurably
far below; high, high above, "So deep in boundless realms of
light," God reigns upon His throne.In
that endless vast live and move the inhabitants of Heaven in tranquil
enjoyment. "Grief never nestled 'neath those joyful eaves"
until the creation of man. Pride and envy now awake in the breasts of
the angels, and their suffering begins.Lucifer's
passionate pride, which in its outbursts occasionally reminds us of
the heroes of Seneca; his dissimulation in the conversation with the
rebellious angels; his wretchedness when Rafael has opened his eyes
to an appreciation of his position; his obstinate resistance and
untamed defiance—all this Vondel has portrayed for us in a masterly
manner. Belzebub, more than Lucifer, is the real genius of evil, the
wicked one. He is this in his inclination towards subtle mockery and
sarcasm; in his hypocrisy; in his wily use of Lucifer's weakness to
incite him to destruction; in the art with which he, while himself
behind the curtain, directs the course of events.After
the grand overture of the drama, wherein men and angels are placed
over against one another, we see how, in the second act, Lucifer
comes on the scene, mounted on his battle chariot, excited,
embittered; and then the action develops itself in a remarkably even
manner. The clouds roll together; more threateningly, more heavily
they impend; the light that glows from the towers and battlements of
Heaven grows tarnished; the seditious angels gradually lose their
lustre; the thunder approaches with dull rumblings; one moment it is
stayed, even at the point of outbursting, where Rafael, "oppressed
and wan," throws himself appealingly on Lucifer's neck; then it
precipitates itself in a terrible storm of strife between desperate
rage and the powers above. The fall of man is the sombre afterpiece
of this intensely interesting drama.All
of this is discussed in verses that know not their equal in nobility
of sound, in fulness and purity of tone, in rapidity of change from
tenderness to strength, in wealth of coloring.Through
its opulence and beauty this tragedy holds a unique place in our
literature. Only "Adam in Ballingschap" can be placed
beside it. Only Vondel can with Vondel be compared. If, however, one
should compare this production with the best that has been produced
in this kind of poetry by other nations, its splendor remains
undimmed; beside the masterpieces of Æschylus, Dante, and Milton,
Vondel's maintain an equal place.To
this tragedy and to other works of Vondel and of some of our other
poets we proudly point, if strangers ask us in regard to our right to
a place in the world's literature. It could, therefore, not be
otherwise than that a Netherlander who loves his countrymen should be
glad when the bar between his literature and that of the outside
world is raised; when other nations are furnished occasion to admire
one of our national treasures, and are thereby enabled to have a
better knowledge of the character and the significance of our people.We
heartily rejoice over the fact that Vondel's drama has been
translated into English by an American for Americans, with whom we
Netherlanders have from time immemorial been on a friendly footing.
We rejoice, too, that this rendering into a language which is more of
a world tongue than our own will also give to Englishmen an
opportunity to enjoy Vondel's work.Were
this translation an inferior one, or were it only mediocre, we should
have no reason to be glad. Then, surely, it were better that the
translation had never been made; for to be unknown is better than to
be misknown.But
in this case it is otherwise. Although no translation can entirely
compensate for the lack of the original, it is, however, possible for
the original to be followed very closely. This is well shown by this
rendering, which to a high degree possesses the merit of accuracy,
while, at the same time, the spirit and the character of Vondel's
tragedy are felt, understood, and interpreted in a remarkable manner.Whoever
is in a position, by the comparison of the translation with the
original, to form an individual opinion of Van Noppen's work, will
probably be convinced, even as I have been, that here an
extraordinarily difficult task has been magnificently done. May this
translation, therefore, aid in the spreading of Vondel's fame. May it
also be followed by many another equally admirable rendering of the
poetry and prose of the Netherlands, and may thereby, furthermore,
the bond be drawn more closely between America and that land which at
one time possessed the opportunity to be the mother-country.
Vondel: His Life and Times.
"Vondel!
thousand thousand voicesEcho
answer—grandly sing
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!