Magnetic Memory Technology E-Book

Denny D. Tang

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 567

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

STAY UP TO DATE ON THE STATE OF MRAM TECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS WITH THIS COMPREHENSIVE RESOURCE Magnetic Memory Technology: Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond delivers a combination of foundational and advanced treatments of the subjects necessary for students and professionals to fully understand MRAM and other non-volatile memories, like PCM, and ReRAM. The authors offer readers a thorough introduction to the fundamentals of magnetism and electron spin, as well as a comprehensive analysis of the physics of magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) devices as it relates to memory applications. This book explores MRAM's unique ability to provide memory without requiring the atoms inside the device to move when switching states. The resulting power savings and reliability are what give MRAM its extraordinary potential. The authors describe the current state of academic research in MRAM technology, which focuses on the reduction of the amount of energy needed to reorient magnetization. Among other topics, readers will benefit from the book's discussions of: * An introduction to basic electromagnetism, including the fundamentals of magnetic force and other concepts * An thorough description of magnetism and magnetic materials, including the classification and properties of magnetic thin film properties and their material preparation and characterization * A comprehensive description of Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) and tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) devices and their equivalent electrical model * Spin current and spin dynamics, including the properties of spin current, the Ordinary Hall Effect, the Anomalous Hall Effect, and the spin Hall effect * Different categories of magnetic random-access memory, including field-write mode MRAM, Spin-Torque-Transfer (STT) MRAM, Spin-Orbit Torque (SOT) MRAM, and others Perfect for senior undergraduate and graduate students studying electrical engineering, similar programs, or courses on topics like spintronics, Magnetic Memory Technology: Spin-Transfer-Torque MRAM and Beyond also belongs on the bookshelves of engineers and other professionals involved in the design, development, and manufacture of MRAM technologies.

Leseprobe

IEEE Press445 Hoes LanePiscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial BoardEkram Hossain, Editor in Chief

Jón Atli BenediktssonDavid Alan GrierElya B. JoffeXiaoou LiPeter LianAndreas MolischSaeid NahavandiJeffrey ReedDiomidis SpinellisSarah SpurgeonAhmet Murat Tekalp

Magnetic Memory Technology

Spin‐Transfer‐Torque MRAM and Beyond

Denny D. Tang

Tang Consultancy

Chi‐Feng Pai

National Taiwan University

Copyright © 2021 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762‐2974, outside the United States at (317) 572‐3993 or fax (317) 572‐4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Tang, Denny D., author. | Pai, Chi-Feng, author. | John Wiley & Sons, Inc., publisher.Title: Magnetic memory technology : spin-transfer-torque MRAM and beyond / Denny D. Tang, Chi-Feng Pai.Description: Hoboken : Wiley-IEEE Press, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2020033767 (print) | LCCN 2020033768 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119562238 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119562221 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119562283 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Magnetic memory (Computers). | Spintronics. | Nonvolatile random-access memory.Classification: LCC TK7895.M3 T365 2021 (print) | LCC TK7895.M3 (ebook) | DDC 621.39/763--dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020033767LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020033768

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Fractal image courtesy of Denny D. Tang, (inset image) IEEE

Preface

In early 1900s, quantum mechanics successfully explained that the discrete light emission spectrum is associated with the discrete electron energy of an atom. Schrödinger further confirmed that three integer quantum numbers are sufficient to describe the Hydrogen emission spectrum. In 1925, Ralph Kronig, a young Ph.D. student who studied emission spectrum at Columbia University came to the conclusion that he needed to add a new quantum number to explain the spectrum of certain materials. The quantum number is ms = ±1/2 and is associated with electron spin. This hypothesis caused debates in the science community, since it was entirely derived from experimental observations, which lacks a theoretical base. One of Kronig’s thesis advisers, Wolfgang Pauli, commented, “It is indeed a very clever, but of course has nothing to do with reality.” Shortly after, two graduate students, George Uhlrenbeck and Samuel Gousmit of Leiden University, Netherlands, also came up with the same idea and wrote a note to their thesis adviser, Paul Ehrenfest. Ehrenfest sent the note for publication. The two students felt uncomfortable and wanted to retract, but Ehrenfest said, “You are both young enough to be able to afford a stupidity.” In 1928, Paul Dirac included the concept of relativity into the Schrödinger equation, and the fourth quantum number fell out naturally and established the theoretical base of electron spin. The discoveries of these scientists (see Figure P.1) revolutionized not only fundamental physics but also electronic industry in the future.

The properties of electron spin were not fully commercially exploited in the next 60 years, until the days of the development of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) sensor in the 1980s by the hard disk drive (HDD) industry. The introduction of GMR sensors accelerated the recording density growth rate to two times every year. Spintronics, a name created by putting spin and electronics into a single word, became a hot subject. Cheap HDD data storage devices began to become ubiquitous and made a significant impact on people’s lives. Today, storing data in HDD is cheaper than on a piece of paper. Nonetheless, GMR is based on the spin‐dependent transport properties of electrons only. The spin torque exchange properties were not exploited.

Figure P.1 Stars of the discovery of electron spin.

Figure P.2 J.C. Slonczsewski and Luc Berger were the two people who proposed the spin torque exchange.

The torque exchange between electrons was first recognized by John Slonczewski and also independently by Luc Berger (see Figure P.2). The best description of the spin torque exchange of electrons can be found in the patent issued to John Slonczewski in 1997:

It is a fundamental fact that the macroscopic magnetization intensity of a magnet such as iron arises from the cooperative mutual alignment of elementary magnetic moments carried by electrons. An electron is little more than a mass particle carrying an electrostatic charge, which spins at a constant rate, like a planet about its axis. The electric current of this spin induces a surrounding magnetic field distribution resembling that, which surrounds the Earth. Thus, each electron is effectively a miniscule permanent magnet….

… The exchange interaction is that force, arising quantum‐mechanically from electrostatic interactions between spinning electrons, which causes this mutual alignment … Not only does it couple the bound spins of a ferromagnet to each other, but it also couples the spins of moving electrons, such as those partaking in current flow, to these bound electrons.

We believe that electron spin will make a big impact on people’s lives in the twenty‐first century as much as the electron charge did in the twentieth century. At the end of twentieth century, scientists and engineers had made remarkable progress in the research of spin torque exchange. The torque exchange between electrons, itinerary and local, is fully exploited. Electrons are now treated not only as charge‐carrying particles but also tiny magnets. This little magnet is not easily observable, since the net magnetic torque of two opposite spins cancel, unless one can filter off one spin and keep the other. Through the exchange, they can pass on the magnetic moment in an efficient manner, much more efficient than an external magnetic field. We believe that the most important product entry is spin‐transfer torque magnetic memory (STT‐MRAM). STT‐MRAM has moved out of laboratory and is the only fast read/write nonvolatile memory in production today. The technology is still very young, and not as mature as the existing volatile dynamic memory (DRAM) or static memory (SRAM). Since its data latency is close to SRAM and DRAM, we believe its potential is tremendous. The success of this technology will offer storage at the speed of a data processor, redefines the memory architecture, and drastically lowers the power dissipation of computers.

This book was written to inspire students and professionals to push the frontier of spintronics, to exploit its potentials further, and to help it make more of an impact on our lives.

Denny D. Tang and Chi‐Feng Pai

Author Biographies

Denny D. Tang

Dr. Denny D. Tang received his PhD degree in Electrical Engineering from The University of Michigan in 1975. He then joined IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown, New York, where he conducted research in Silicon technology and managed a bipolar transistor team. He was elected as IEEE Fellow for his work in bipolar scaling. In 1990, he transferred to IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California, where he conducted research in magnetic recording and then managed the read channel design group and later the write head magnetics group. His group demonstrated the MRAM concept at IEDM in 1995. In 2001, he joined Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) in Hsinchu, Taiwan, where he managed an exploratory Si research group. In 2003, he received a multi-year grant from the Taiwan government to start MRAM research. In 2008, he joined MagIC, Milpitas, CA, as VP of product engineering to develop and manufacture MRAM products. He is the author of Magnetic Memory: Fundamentals and Technology (Cambridge University Press, 2010) and has been granted more than 70 US patents. He is an IEEE Live Fellow, a Fellow of Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) and a Fellow of TSMC Academy.

Chi‐Feng Pai

Dr. Chi‐Feng Pai received his PhD degree in Applied Physics from Cornell University in 2015. His research on the giant spin Hall effect in various materials systems led to the invention of spin‐orbit torque MRAM. He then joined the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a postdoctoral research associate. From 2016 to 2020, he served as assistant professor at the Department of Materials Science and Engineering of National Taiwan University (NTU). He is currently an associate professor at NTU and consulting research fellow at Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI), Taiwan. He was the recipient of the Young Researcher Award of Asian Union of Magnetic Society (AUMS) in 2016, Young Researcher Fellowship of Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST, Taiwan) in 2019, and Young Researcher Award of Taiwan Semiconductor Industry Association (TSIA) in 2020.

List of Cited Tables and Figures

Chapter 2

Table/Figure Number

Source

Figure 2.8

J. M. D. Coey, Magnetism and Magnetic Materials (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2010).

Figure 2.10

S. Blundell, Magnetism in condensed matter (Oxford University Press, Oxford; New York, 2001), Oxford master series in condensed matter physics.

Figure 2.13

C. M. Hurd, Varieties of Magnetic Order in Solids, Contemp Phys 23, 469 (1982)

Figure 2.15

R. C. O'Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications (Wiley, New York, 2000)

Figure 2.17

S. S. P. Parkin and D. Mauri, Spin engineering: Direct determination of the Ruderman‐Kittel‐Kasuya‐Yosida far‐field range function in ruthenium, Phys. Rev. B 44, 7131 (1991)

Figure 2.18

A. Fert, V. Cros, and J. Sampaio, Skyrmions on the track, Nat. Nanotechnol. 8, 152 (2013).

Figure 2.19

R. C. O'Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications (Wiley, New York, 2000)

Figure 2.20

R. C. O'Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications (Wiley, New York, 2000)

Figure 2.22

R. C. O'Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications (Wiley, New York, 2000)

Figure 2.23

R. C. O'Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications (Wiley, New York, 2000)

Figure 2.27

T. Liu, J. W. Cai, and L. Sun, Large enhanced perpendicular magnetic anisotropy in CoFeB/MgO system with the typical Ta buffer replaced by an Hf layer, AIP Adv. 2, 032151 (2012)

Figure 2.30

R. C. O'Handley, Modern Magnetic Materials: Principles and Applications (Wiley, New York, 2000)

Chapter 3

Table/Figure Number

Source

Figure 3.2.4

Applied Materials Inc.

www.appliedmaterials.com/products/MRAM

.

Chapter 4

Table/Figure Number

Source

Figure 4.2.1

W. Gil, D. Görlitz, M. Horisberger, and J. Kötzler, Magnetoresistance anisotropy of polycrystalline cobalt films: Geometrical‐size and domain effects, Phys. Rev. B 72, 134401 (2005).

Figure 4.3.2

1. M. N. Baibich, J. M. Broto, A. Fert, F. N. Vandau, F. Petroff, P. Eitenne, G. Creuzet, A. Friederich, and J. Chazelas, Giant Magnetoresistance of (001)Fe/(001) Cr Magnetic Superlattices, Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 2472 (1988).2. G. Binasch, P. Grunberg, F. Saurenbach, and W. Zinn, Enhanced Magnetoresistance in Layered Magnetic‐Structures with Antiferromagnetic Interlayer Exchange, Phys. Rev. B 39, 4828 (1989).

Figure 4.4.1

S. A. Wolf, D. D. Awschalom, R. A. Buhrman, J. M. Daughton, S. von Molnar, M. L. Roukes, A. Y. Chtchelkanova, and D. M. Treger, Spintronics: A spin‐based electronics vision for the future, Science 294, 1488 (2001)

Figure 4.4.2

1. J. S. Moodera, L. R. Kinder, T. M. Wong, and R. Meservey, Large Magnetoresistance at Room Temperature in Ferromagnetic Thin Film Tunnel Junctions, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 3273 (1995).2. T. Miyazaki and N. Tezuka, Giant magnetic tunneling effect in Fe/Al2O3/Fe junction, Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 139, L231 (1995).

Figure 4.4.3

1. S. Yuasa, T. Nagahama, A. Fukushima, Y. Suzuki, and K. Ando, Giant room‐temperature magnetoresistance in single‐crystal Fe/MgO/Fe magnetic tunnel junctions, Nat. Mater. 3, 868 (2004).2. S. S. P. Parkin, C. Kaiser, A. Panchula, P. M. Rice, B. Hughes, M. Samant, and S. H. Yang, Giant tunnelling magnetoresistance at room temperature with MgO (100) tunnel barriers, Nat. Mater. 3, 862 (2004).

Figure 4.5.2

S. Ikeda, K. Miura, H. Yamamoto, K. Mizunuma, H. D. Gan, M. Endo, S. Kanai, J. Hayakawa, F. Matsukura, and H. Ohno, A perpendicular‐anisotropy CoFeB‐MgO magnetic tunnel junction, Nat. Mater. 9, 721 (2010).

Figure 4.5.3

S. Ikeda, H. Sato, H. Honjo, E. C. I. Enobio, S. Ishikawa, M. Yamanouchi, S. Fukami, S. Kanai, F. Matsukura, T. Endoh, and H. Ohno, in 2014 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting2014), pp. 33.2.1.

Figure 4.5.6

D. C. Worledge and P. L. Trouilloud, Magnetoresistance measurement of unpatterned magnetic tunnel junction wafers by current‐in‐plane tunneling, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 84 (2003).

Chapter 6

Table/Figure Number

Source

Figure 6.3

Based on Y. K. Kato, R. C. Myers, A. C. Gossard, and D. D. Awschalom, “Observation of the spin Hall effect in semiconductors”, Science Express 1105514 (2004)

Figure 6.5

M.I. Dyakonov, Spin Hall Effects,International Journal of Modern Physics B, 23(12n13), 2556–2565. ©2009, World Scientific Publishing Company

Figure 6.7

Feng et. al. Prospects of spintronics based on 2D materials. WIREs Comput Mol Sci, 7: e1313. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons

Figure 6.8

Based on T. Kimura, J. Hamrle, and Y. Otani, “Spin‐dependent boundary resistance in the lateral spin‐valve structure”, Appl. Physics Lett. VOLUME 85, NUMBER 16 18 OCTOBER (2004)

Figure 6.9

Based on S. O. Valenzuela and M. Tinkham, “Spin‐polarized tunneling in room‐temperature mesoscopic spin valves”, APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS VOLUME 85, NUMBER 24 13 DECEMBER 2004

Figure 6.14

H. Lee, L. Wen, M. Pathak, P. Janssen, P. LeClair, C. Alexander and T. Mewes, “Spin pumping in Co56Fe24B20 multilayer systems”, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, Volume 41, Number 21. © 2008 IOP Publishing

Figure 6.15

Bret Heinrich, Yaroslav Tserkovnyak, GeorgWoltersdorf, Arne Brataas, Radovan Urban, and Gerrit E.W. Bauer “Dynamic Exchange Coupling in Magnetic Bilayers”, Physical review Lett. 90, NUMBER 18. 187601. © 2003 American Physical Society

Figure 6.21

Modified from Chen Wang, Yong‐Tao Cui, Jordan A. Katine, Robert A. Buhrman and Daniel C. Ralph1, “Time‐resolved measurement of spin‐transfer‐driven ferromagnetic resonance and spin torque in magnetic tunnel junctions”, NATURE PHYSICS, VOL 7, p.496, JUNE 2011

Figure 6.23

Based on S. Maekawa, editor. Concepts in spin electronics, Oxford: Oxford University Press current in very thin metallic films,” J. Appl. Phys. 55, 1954 (1984)

Chapter 7

Table/Figure Number

Source

Figure 7.3

From W. H. Butler, Tim Mewes, Claudia K. A. Mewes, P. B. Visscher, William H. Rippard, Stephen E. Russek, and Ranko Heindl, “Switching Distributions for Perpendicular Spin‐Torque Devices Within the Macrospin Approximation,” IEEE Trans. On Magentics, VOL. 48, NO. 12, p.4684, DECEMBER 2012. © 2012 IEEE.

Figure 7.4

From W. H. Butler, Tim Mewes, Claudia K. A. Mewes, P. B. Visscher, William H. Rippard, Stephen E. Russek, and Ranko Heindl, “Switching Distributions for Perpendicular Spin‐Torque Devices Within the Macrospin Approximation,” IEEE Trans. On Magentics, VOL. 48, NO. 12, p.4684, DECEMBER 2012. © 2012 IEEE.

Figure 7.6

From Guenole Jan, et.al, “Achieving Sub‐ns switching of STT‐MRAM for future embedded LLC applications through improvement of nucleation and propagation switching mechanisms”, Symposium on VLSI Technology Digest of Technical Papers, (2016). © 2016 IEEE.

Figure 7.10

From W. H. Butler, Tim Mewes, Claudia K. A. Mewes, P. B. Visscher, William H. Rippard, Stephen E. Russek, and Ranko Heindl, “Switching Distributions for Perpendicular Spin‐Torque Devices Within the Macrospin Approximation,” IEEE Trans. On Magentics, VOL. 48, NO. 12, p.4684, DECEMBER 2012. © 2012 IEEE.

Figure 7.11

From Y. Higo, K. Yamane, K. Ohba, H. Narisawa, K. Bessho, M. Hosomi, and H. Kano, “Thermal activation effect on spin transfer switching in magnetic tunnel junctions”, APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 87, 082502 2005. © 2005 AIP Publishing.

Figure 7.12

From Sun, J. Z. et al. High‐bias backhopping in nanosecond time‐domain spin‐torque switches of MgO‐based magnetic tunnel junctions. J. Appl. Phys. 105, 07D109 (2009). © 2009 AIP Publishing.

Figure 7.13

From T. Min, Q. Chen, R. Beach, G. Jan, C. Horng, W. Kula, T. Torng, R. Tong, T. Zhong, D. Tang, P. Wang, M. Chen, J.Z. Sun, J. K. Debrosse, D. C. Worledge, T. M. Maffitt, W. J. Gallagher, “A Study of Write Margin of Spin Torque Transfer Magnetic Random Access Memory Integrated with CMOS Technology”, Joint MMM‐Intermag Conference paper, AA‐05, (2009). © 2009 IEEE.

Figure 7.14

From Guenole Jan, et.al, “Achieving Sub‐ns switching of STT‐MRAM for future embedded LLC applications through improvement of nucleation and propagation switching mechanisms”, Symposium on VLSI Technology Digest of Technical Papers, (2016). © 2016 IEEE.

Figure 7.15

From R. Carboni, S. Ambrogio, W. Chen, M. Siddik, J. Harms, A. Lyle, W. Kula, G. Sandhu, and D. Ielmini, “Understanding cycling endurance in perpendicular spin‐transfer torque (p‐STT) magnetic memory”, Dig. of IEDM, p.516, (2016). © 2016 IEEE.

Figure 7.16

From Guenole Jan, Yu‐Jen Wang, Takahiro Moriyama, Yuan‐Jen Lee, Mark Lin, Tom Zhong, Ru‐Ying Tong, Terry Torng, and Po‐Kang Wang, “High Spin Torque Efficiency of Magnetic Tunnel Junctions with MgO/CoFeB/MgO Free Layer,” Applied Physics Express, 5, (2012) 093008.

Figure 7.17

From Guenole Jan, Yu‐Jen Wang, Takahiro Moriyama, Yuan‐Jen Lee, Mark Lin, Tom Zhong, Ru‐Ying Tong, Terry Torng, and Po‐Kang Wang, “High Spin Torque Efficiency of Magnetic Tunnel Junctions with MgO/CoFeB/MgO Free Layer,” Applied Physics Express, 5, (2012) 093008.

Figure 7.19

From Private communication, Courtesy to Industrial Technology Research Institute

Figure 7.22

From Luc Thomas, Guenole Jan, Santiago Serrano‐Guisan, Huanlong Liu, Jian Zhu, Yuan‐Jen Lee, Son Le, Jodi Iwata‐Harms, Ru‐Ying Tong, Sahil Patel, Vignesh Sundar, Dongna Shen, Yi Yang, Renren He, Jesmin Haq, Zhongjian Teng, Vinh Lam, Paul Liu, Yu‐Jen Wang, Tom Zhong, Hideaki Fukuzawa, and PoKang Wang, “STT‐MRAM devices with low damping and moment optimized for LLC applications at 0x nodes”, IEEE Dig. Of IEDM 2018, paper 27.03. © 2018 IEEE.

Figure 7.23

From private communication, courtesy to Applied Material

Figure 7.25

From Sheng‐Huang Huang, Ding‐Yeong Wang, Kuei‐Hung Shen, Cheng‐Wei Chien, Keng‐Ming Kuo, Shan‐Yi Yang, Yung‐Hung Wang, “Impact of Stray Field on the Switching Properties of Perpendicular MTJ for Scaled MRAM”, IEEE Dig. Of IEDM, p. 29.2.1‐4 (2012). © 2012 IEEE.

Figure 7.26

From Sheng‐Huang Huang, Ding‐Yeong Wang, Kuei‐Hung Shen, Cheng‐Wei Chien, Keng‐Ming Kuo, Shan‐Yi Yang, Yung‐Hung Wang, “Impact of Stray Field on the Switching Properties of Perpendicular MTJ for Scaled MRAM”, IEEE Dig. Of IEDM, p. 29.2.1‐4 (2012). © 2012 IEEE.

Figure 7.27

From Sheng‐Huang Huang, Ding‐Yeong Wang, Kuei‐Hung Shen, Cheng‐Wei Chien, Keng‐Ming Kuo, Shan‐Yi Yang, Yung‐Hung Wang, “Impact of Stray Field on the Switching Properties of Perpendicular MTJ for Scaled MRAM”, IEEE Dig. Of IEDM, p. 29.2.1‐4 (2012). © 2012 IEEE.

Figure 7.28

From Thibaut Devolder, “Scalability of Magnetic Random Access Memory based on an In‐Plane Magnetized Free Layer”, Appl. Phys. Express, 4, 2011 (093001).

Figure 7.29

From S. Ikeda, H. Sato, H. Honjo, E. C. I. Enobio, S. Ishikawa, M. Yamanouchi, S. Fukami, S. Kanai, F. Matsukura, T. Endoh and H. Ohno, “Perpendicular‐anisotropy CoFeB‐MgO based magnetic tunnel junctions scaling down to 1X nm”., IEEE Digest of IEDM paper 32.2, p.796, (2014). © 2014 IEEE.

Figure 7.30

Reproduced from 62. Luc Thomas, Guenole Jan, Jian Zhu, Huanlong Liu, Yuan‐Jen Lee, Son Le, Ru‐Ying Tong, Keyu Pi, Yu‐Jen Lee, Dongna Shen, Renren He, Jesmin Haq, Jeffrey Teng, Vinh Lam, Kenlin Huang, Tom Zhong, Terry Torng, and Po‐Kang Wang, “Perpendicular spin transfer torque magnetic random access memories with high spin torque efficiency and thermal stability for embedded applications (invited),” Journal of Applied Physics 115, 172615 (2014), with the permission of AIP Publishing.

Figure 7.31

From Guenole Jan, Yu‐Jen Wang, Takahiro Moriyama, Yuan‐Jen Lee, Mark Lin, Tom Zhong, Ru‐Ying Tong, Terry Torng, and Po‐Kang Wang, “High Spin Torque Efficiency of Magnetic Tunnel Junctions with MgO/CoFeB/MgO Free Layer,” Applied Physics Express, 5, (2012) 093008 & S. Ikeda, H. Sato, H. Honjo, E. C. I. Enobio, S. Ishikawa, M. Yamanouchi, S. Fukami, S. Kanai, F. Matsukura, T. Endoh and H. Ohno, “Perpendicular‐anisotropy CoFeB‐MgO based magnetic tunnel junctions scaling down to 1X nm”., IEEE Digest of IEDM paper 32.2, p.796, (2014)

Figure 7.33

http://www.eecg.utoronto.ca/~ali/mram.html. © IEEE

Table 7.1

From Guenole Jan, Yu‐Jen Wang, Takahiro Moriyama, Yuan‐Jen Lee, Mark Lin, Tom Zhong, Ru‐Ying Tong, Terry Torng, and Po‐Kang Wang, “High Spin Torque Efficiency of Magnetic Tunnel Junctions with MgO/CoFeB/MgO Free Layer,” Applied Physics Express, 5, (2012) 093008.

Chapter 8

Table/Figure Number

Source

Figure 8.2.2

From S. Fukami, T. Suzuki, K Nakahara, N. Ohashima, Y. Ozaki, “low‐current Perpendicular domain wall motion cell for scalable high‐speed MRAM”, VLSI Symp. Tech., 230‐1, 2009. © 2009 IEEE.

Figure 8.2.4

Based on See‐hun Yang, Kwang‐Su Ryu, Stuart Parkin, “Domain‐wall velocities of up to 750 m s−1 driven by exchange‐coupling torque in synthetic antiferromagnets”, Nature Nanotechnology, PUBLISHED ONLINE: 23 FEBRUARY 2015 | DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2014.324. © 2015 Springer Nature.

Figure 8.3.1

From D.Y. Wang, et al., “A statistical study of the reliability of SOT MRAM cell structures by thermal baking,” Abstract of IEDM 2019, MRAM Poster paper. © 2019 IEEE.

Figure 8.3.2

From Yao‐Jen Chang, et.al, IEDM, MRAM Poster, No.7 (2018)

Figure 8.3.5

From Rahaman Sk A., et.al., IEEE IEDM MRAM Poster Abstract, paper 24 (2018) & D.Y. Wang, et.al., “A statistical study of the reliability of SOT MRAM cell structures by thermal baking,” Abstract of IEDM 2019, MRAM Poster paper.

Figure 8.3.6

Data Summarized from A. Hoffmann, Spin Hall Effects in Metals, IEEE Trans. Magn. 49, 5172 (2013).

Figure 8.3.7

1. Adapted from Wiki 2. Modified from Y. L. Chen, J. G. Analytis, J. H. Chu, Z. K. Liu, S. K. Mo, X. L. Qi, H. J. Zhang, D. H. Lu, X. Dai, Z. Fang, S. C. Zhang, I. R. Fisher, Z. Hussain, and Z. X. Shen, Experimental Realization of a Three‐Dimensional Topological Insulator, Bi2Te3, Science 325, 178 (2009). 3. James G. Analytis, Jiun‐Haw Chu, Yulin Chen, Felipe Corredor, Ross D. McDonald, Z. X. Shen, and Ian R. Fisher, "Bulk Fermi surface coexistence with Dirac surface state in Bi2Se3 : A comparison of photoemission and Shubnikov–de Haas measurements", Phys. Rev. B 81, 205407 (2010)

Figure 8.4.1

Modified from Maruyama, T. et al. “Large voltage‐induced magnetic anisotropy change in a few atomic layers of iron.” Nature Nanotech. 4, 158–161 (2009). © 2009 Springer Nature.

Figure 8.4.2

From Zhenchao Wen, Hiroaki Sukegawa, Takeshi Seki, Takahide Kubota, Koki Takanashi, and Seiji Mitani, “Voltage control of magnetic anisotropy in epitaxial Ru/Co2FeAl/MgO heterostructures “https://arxiv.org/pdf/1611.02827. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 8.4.5

From H. Yoda, N. Shimomura, Y. Ohsawa, S. Shirotori, Y. Kato, T. Inokuchi, Y. Kamiguchi, B., Altansargai, Y. Saito, K. Koi, H. Sugiyama, S. Oikawa, M. Shimizu, M. Ishikawa, K. Ikegami, and A. Kurobe, “Voltage‐Control Spintronics Memory (VoCSM) Having Potentials of Ultra‐Low Energy‐consumption and High‐Density”, IEEE Dig. Of IEDM 2018, paper 27.6. © 2018 IEEE.

Figure 8.4.6

Modified from Shiota, Y. et al. “Induction of coherent magnetization switching in a few atomic layers of FeCo using voltage pulses.” Nature Mater. 11, 39–43 (2012). © 2012 Springer Nature.

Chapter 9

Table/Figure Number

Source

Figure 9.6

From Luc Thomas, Guenole Jan, Jian Zhu, Huanlong Liu, Yuan‐Jen Lee, Son Le, Ru‐Ying Tong, Keyu Pi, Yu‐Jen Wang, Dongna Shen, Renren He, Jesmin Haq, Jeffrey Teng, Vinh Lam, Kenlin Huang, Tom Zhong, Terry Torng, and Po‐Kang Wang, “Perpendicular spin transfer torque magnetic random access memories with high spin torque efficiency and thermal stability for embedded applications”, (invited) J. of Appl. Phys. 115, 172615 (2014). © 2014 AIP Publishing.

Figure 9.7

From IEEE 2018 Global MRAM innovation Forum, Bernard Dieny (2018). © 2018 IEEE.

Figure 9.9

Modified from H. Noguchi et al., “Highly Reliable and Low‐Power Nonvolatile Cache Memory with Advanced Perpendicular STT‐MRAM for High‐Performance CPU”, IEEE Symp. VLSI Circuits Dig. Tech. Papers, June 2014. © 2014 IEEE.

Figure 9.10

From S.‐W. Chung, T. Kishi, J.W. Park, M. Yoshikawa, K. S. Park, T. Nagase, K. Sunouchi, H. Kanaya, G.C. Kim, K. Noma, M. S. Lee, A. Yamamoto, K. M. Rho, K. Tsuchida, S. J. Chung, J. Y. Yi, H. S. Kim, Y.S. Chun, H. Oyamatsu, and S. J. Hong, “4Gb bit density STT‐MRAM using perpendicular MTJ realized with compact cell structure”, IEEE IEDM 2016 Technical Digest, 27.1, 2016. © 2016 IEEE.

Figure 9.17

From Yu‐Sheng Chen, Ding‐Yeong Wang, Yu‐Chen Hsin, Kai‐Yu Lee, Guan‐Long Chen, Shan‐Yi Yang, Hsin‐Han Lee, Yao‐Jen Chang, I‐Jung Wang, Pei‐Hua Wang, Chih‐I Wu, and D. D. Tang, “On the Hardware Implementation of MRAM Physically Unclonable Function”, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices (Volume: 64, Issue: 11, Nov. 2017). © 2017 IEEE.

Figure 9.18

From Yu‐Sheng Chen, Ding‐Yeong Wang, Yu‐Chen Hsin, Kai‐Yu Lee, Guan‐Long Chen, Shan‐Yi Yang, Hsin‐Han Lee, Yao‐Jen Chang, I‐Jung Wang, Pei‐Hua Wang, Chih‐I Wu, and D. D. Tang, “On the Hardware Implementation of MRAM Physically Unclonable Function”, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices (Volume: 64, Issue: 11, Nov. 2017). © 2017 IEEE.

Figure 9.19

From Baohua Sun, Daniel Liu, Leo Yu, Jay Li, Helen Liu, Wenhan Zhang, Terry Torng, “MRAM Co‐designed Processing‐in‐Memory CNN Accelerator for Mobile and IoT Applications” arXiv:1811.12179v1 [eess.SP] 26 Nov 2018