Microwave Plasma Sources and Methods in Processing Technology E-Book

Ladislav Bardos

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 328

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

A practical introduction to microwave plasma for processing applications at a variety of pressures In Microwave Plasma Sources and Methods in Processing Technology, the authors deliver a comprehensive introduction to microwaves and microwave-generated plasmas. Ideal for anyone interested in non-thermal gas discharge plasmas and their applications, the book includes detailed descriptions, explanations, and practical guidance for the study and use of microwave power, microwave components, plasma, and plasma generation. This reference includes over 130 full-color diagrams to illustrate the concepts discussed within. The distinguished authors discuss the plasmas generated at different levels of power, as well as their applications at reduced, atmospheric and higher pressures. They also describe plasmas inside liquids and plasma interactions with combustion flames. Microwave Plasma Sources and Methods in Processing Technology concludes with an incisive exploration of new trends in the study and application of microwave discharges, offering promising new areas of study. The book also includes: * A thorough introduction to the basic principles of microwave techniques and power systems, including a history of the technology, microwave generators, waveguides, and wave propagation * A comprehensive exploration of the fundamentals of the physics of gas discharge plasmas, including plasma generation, Townsend coefficients, and the Paschen curve * Practical discussions of the interaction between plasmas and solid surfaces and gases, including PVD, PE CVD, oxidation, sputtering, evaporation, dry etching, surface activation, and cleaning * In-depth examinations of microwave plasma systems for plasma processing at varied parameters Perfect for researchers and engineers in the microwave community, as well as those who work with plasma applications, Microwave Plasma Sources and Methods in Processing Technology will also earn a place in the libraries of graduate and PhD students studying engineering physics, microwave engineering, and plasmas.

Leseprobe

Microwave Plasma Sources and Methods in Processing Technology

Ladislav Bárdoš and Hana Baránková

Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

This edition first published 2022

Copyright © 2022 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bardos, Ladislav, 1947- author. | Barankova, Hana, 1951- author. Title: Microwave plasma sources and methods in processing technology / Ladislav Bardos, Hana Barankova, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021031913 (print) | LCCN 2021031914 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119826873 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119826880 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119826897 (epub) | ISBN 9781119826903 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Electromagnetism. Classification: LCC QC760 .B267 2022 (print) | LCC QC760 (ebook) | DDC 660/.044--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031913LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031914

Cover image: © Image courtesy of the authors

Cover design by Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwo Text by Integra Software Services, Pondicherry, India

Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Foreword from the Authors

1 Basic Principles and Components in the Microwave Techniques and Power Systems

1.1 History in Brief – From Alternating Current to Electromagnetic Waves and to Microwaves

1.2 Microwave Generators

1.3 Waveguides and Electromagnetic Modes in Wave Propagation

1.3.1 The Cut-off Frequency and the Wavelength in Waveguides

1.3.2 Waveguides Filled by Dielectrics

1.3.3 Wave Impedance and Standing Waves in Waveguides

1.3.4 Coaxial Transmission Lines

1.3.5 Microwave Resonators

1.4 Waveguide Power Lines

1.4.1 Magnetron Tube Microwave Generator

1.4.2 Microwave Insulators

1.4.3 Impedance Tuners

1.4.4 Directional Couplers

1.4.5 Passive Waveguide Components – Bends, Flanges, Vacuum Windows

1.4.6 Tapered Waveguides and Waveguide Transformers

1.4.7 Power Loads and Load Tuners

1.4.8 Waveguide Phase Shifters

1.4.9 Waveguide Shorting Plungers

1.4.10 Coupling from Rectangular to Circular Waveguide: Resonant Cavities for Generation of Plasma

1.5 Microwave Oven – A Most Common Microwave Power Device

References

2 Gas Discharge Plasmas

2.1 Basic Understanding of the Gas Discharge Plasmas

2.2 Generation of the Plasma, Townsend Coefficients, Paschen Curve

2.3 Generation of the Plasma by AC Power, Plasma Frequency, Cut-off Density

2.4 Space-charge Sheaths at Different Frequencies of the Incident Power

2.5 Classification of Gas Discharge Plasmas, Effects of Gas Pressure, Microwave Generation of Plasmas

2.5.1 Classification of Gas Discharge Plasmas

2.5.2 Effects of the Gas Pressure on Particle Collisions in the Plasma

2.5.3 Microwave Generation of Plasmas

References

3 Interactions of Plasmas with Solids and Gases

3.1 Plasma Processing, PVD, and PE CVD

3.2 Sputtering, Evaporation, Dry Etching, Cleaning, and Oxidation of Surfaces

3.3 Particle Transport in Plasma Processing and Effects of Gas Pressure

3.3.1 Movements of Neutral Particles

3.3.2 Movements of Charged Particles

3.3 Effect of the Gas Pressure on the Plasma Processing

3.4 Afterglow and Decaying Plasma Processing

References

4 Microwave Plasma Systems for Plasma Processing at Reduced Pressures

4.1 Waveguide-Generated Isotropic and Magnetoactive Microwave Plasmas

4.1.1 Waveguide-Generated Isotropic Microwave Oxygen Plasma for Silicon Oxidation

4.1.2 ECR and Higher Induction Magnetized Plasma Systems for Silicon Oxidation

4.2 PE CVD of Silicon Nitride Films in the Far Afterglow

4.3 Microwave Plasma Jets for PE CVD of Films

4.3.1 Deposition of Carbon Nitride Films

4.3.2 Surfajet Plasma Parameters and an Arrangement for Expanding the Plasma Diameter

4.4 Hybrid Microwave Plasma System with Magnetized Hollow Cathode

References

5 Microwave Plasma Systems at Atmospheric and Higher Pressures

5.1 Features of the Atmospheric Plasma and Cold Atmospheric Plasma(CAP) Sources

5.2 Atmospheric Microwave Plasma Sources Assisted by Hollow Cathodes

5.2.1 Applications of the H-HEAD Plasma Source in Surface Treatments

5.3 Microwave Treatment of Diesel Exhaust

5.4 Microwave Plasma in Liquids

5.5 Microwave Plasma Interactions with Flames

5.6 Microwave Plasmas at Very High Pressures

References

6 New Applications and Trends in the Microwave Plasmas

References

7 Appendices

7.1 List of Symbols and Abbreviations

7.2 Constants and Numbers

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Figures

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Graphical illustration of the frequencies and wavelengths...

Figure 1.2 Construction of the magnetron tube consists of the anode...

Figure 1.3 The electric and magnetic fields in the waveguides...

Figure 1.4 Schematic description of the reflection of...

Figure 1.5 Formation of the standing waves by waves moving in the waveguide...

Figure 1.6 Typical construction of coaxial cables...

Figure 1.7 Principle of construction of an air-filled coaxial line with possible...

Figure 1.8 Examples of coupling arrangements. (a) A stub...

Figure 1.9 Typical microwave power line for generation of a discharge...

Figure 1.10 Schematic sketch of typical microwave power...

Figure 1.11 Sketch of the ferrite circulator based on the wave deflection....

Figure 1.12 Schematic illustration of the three-stub...

Figure 1.13 Schematic sketch of the E-H tuner. Both arms...

Figure 1.14 Loop-type double directional coupler. Coaxial connectors...

Figure 1.15 Illustrations of typical 90° waveguide bends in...

Figure 1.16 An illustration of a choke-type flange connection...

Figure 1.17 Microwave caused damage of an ordinary Viton...

Figure 1.18 Construction of a sealed ceramic window for...

Figure 1.19 (a) Tapered waveguide. (b) Four sections of...

Figure 1.20 Examples of waveguide attenuators...

Figure 1.21 An illustration of the microwave load with the water tube...

Figure 1.22 An example of the waveguide phase shifter with...

Figure 1.23 Shorting plungers for rectangular waveguides...

Figure 1.24 The simple smooth transition between a rectangular and a...

Figure 1.25 Distributions of the electric and magnetic fields in the cylindrical waveguide...

Figure 1.26 Examples of the coupling between a resonator...

Figure 1.27 Typical service arrangement with multiple mic...

Figure 1.28 Shapes of typical air-cooled microwave magnetron...

Figure 1.29 Schematic illustrations of heating arrangements in the microwave...

Figure 1.30 A view into a typical microwave oven with the power outlet arranged...

Figure 1.31 An illustration of simple circuitry used with magnetron...

Figure 1.32 An illustration of the mercury (Hg) plasma generated by the microwave...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Simple schematic description of the phases of matter and the formation...

Figure 2.2 Idealized scheme of an avalanche process of the gas breakdown...

Figure 2.3 Shape of the Paschen curve showing a minimum breakdown voltage...

Figure 2.4 Idealized description of the plasma oscillations...

Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of a planar RHP electromagnetic...

Figure 2.6 Graphical illustration of the plasma generation...

Figure 2.7 Schematic representation of the electron and ion currents...

Figure 2.8 Schematic representation of the electron and ion currents, space...

Figure 2.9 The sheath thickness in the RF discharge in...

Figure 2.10 Comparisons of typical electron densities and energies in plasmas...

Figure 2.11 Typical microwave systems for the plasma generation at reduced...

Figure 2.12 Optical emission spectra from nitrogen plasma generated by the...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of the particle and energy interactions...

Figure 3.2 The homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions...

Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of possible processes at negative...

Figure 3.4 Effects of the gas pressure on the particle transport...

Figure 3.5 Time-resolved and space-resolved afterglows...

Figure 3.6 The effect of the duty-cycle in a pulsed plasma...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Microwave magnetoactive plasma systems...

Figure 4.2 Comparison of the theoretical model of the plasma oxidation...

Figure 4.3 The optical emission spectra of the microwave-generated...

Figure 4.4 Schematic of the waveguide system for microwave generation of...

Figure 4.5 Detail of the experimental arrangement with 25 mm...

Figure 4.6 The non-uniform oxygen microwave plasma led to a non...

Figure 4.7 Experimental arrangement with the magnetic coil surrounding...

Figure 4.8 An illustration of the effect of auxiliary magnetic field on the geometry...

Figure 4.9 Comparison of the power dependencies of the plasma...

Figure 4.10 The simple test system for generation of the microwave magnetoactive...

Figure 4.11 The plasma density vs radius of the plasma in the discharge tubes...

Figure 4.12 The comparison of dependencies of the plasma density on the incident...

Figure 4.13 Schematic of the experimental system for oxidation of silicon samples...

Figure 4.14 The oxide thickness vs time on 25 mm diameter silicon samples in...

Figure 4.15 Oxides on Si samples vs oxidation time at 2 kW power...

Figure 4.16 The floating potential vs the plasma density....

Figure 4.17 Dependence of the floating potential in the oxygen plasma...

Figure 4.18 A uniform oxide formed on 40 mm diameter Si...

Figure 4.19 Experimental arrangement for the oxidation of silicon and for test...

Figure 4.20 Axial decaying of the saturated ion curren...

Figure 4.21 A divergent geometry of the microwave magnetoactive plasma...

Figure 4.22 Floating potential of the W probe along the decaying magnetic...

Figure 4.23 Floating potential measured in the axis of the plasma...

Figure 4.24 Floating potential measured by a flat electrode plate with diameter...

Figure 4.25 Laboratory arrangement for PE CVD of...

Figure 4.26 Schematic of the experimental...

Figure 4.27 The system (left) operating with the Surfatron-generated...

Figure 4.28 Comparison of the optical emission intensities of the background...

Figure 4.29 Comparison of the power functions of the intensities of...

Figure 4.30 Comparison of the total gas pressure functions of intensities...

Figure 4.31 The comparison of the optical emission intensities...

Figure 4.32 A set of the power thyristors coated by...

Figure 4.33 The time dependency of the far afterglow PE...

Figure 4.34 The 2 mm diameter argon plasma slab generated...

Figure 4.35 The PE CVD system with the plasma antenna generated...

Figure 4.36 Detail of the movable short for the reactor with the central holder of...

Figure 4.37 Adjusting the reactor length L to resonance at two...

Figure 4.38 (a) Diamond film deposited on Mo substrate in the...

Figure 4.39 The Surfajet system with 15 cm inner diameter ...

Figure 4.40 Photographs of the ball plasma generated in...

Figure 4.41 Pressure dependence of the maximum growth rate...

Figure 4.42 Power dependence of the maximum growth rate...

Figure 4.43 An example of thick CNx films grown at 10 W microwave...

Figure 4.44 The SEM images of fibrous structures of the...

Figure 4.45 An aluminum foil substrate coated 10 minute by the...

Figure 4.46 Vibrational temperature of the N2 (C3Πu) emission system...

Figure 4.47 Comparison of the cylindrical antenna (a) and a conical antenna...

Figure 4.48 Comparison of the normalized saturated ion currents in the plasma...

Figure 4.49 Surfajet discharges in N2 + C2H2 at microwave power of 50 W and...

Figure 4.50 A filter-paper substrate coated 10 min by the...

Figure 4.51 Schematic illustration of the hybrid plasma source...

Figure 4.52 The front view of the HYP source for the 2.4 GHz...

Figure 4.53 View on the argon plasma at 6 mTorr (0.8 Pa) pressure...

Figure 4.54 The ion density and electron temperature measured by double...

Figure 4.55 The scanning electron microscope (SEM...

Figure 4.56 The ESCA depth profile in the 1.5 μm thick TiN...

Figure 4.57 Vacuum chamber (horn antenna) of the HYP source...

Figure 4.58 A principal design of an automatic industrial device for coating...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 The Paschen curve data for breakdown voltage...

Figure 5.2 Plasma torches in air at atmospheric pressure at...

Figure 5.3 Examples of the most frequently used cold atmospheric plasma systems...

Figure 5.4 Examples of the high frequency and microwave powered cold...

Figure 5.5 The H-HEAD source with a microwave antenna working...

Figure 5.6 The effect of the pulsed DC hollow cathode...

Figure 5.7 The cold plasma jet at low power generated without a...

Figure 5.8 Comparison of lengths of the atmospheric plasma jets generated...

Figure 5.9 Dependency of the argon plasma plume length at...

Figure 5.10 The test equipment for generation of a brush-shaped atmospheric...

Figure 5.11 The contact angles on the H-HEAD plasma treated DC 01...

Figure 5.12 An increased hydrophobicity on the right part of the carbon...

Figure 5.13 Improvement of the lacquer adhesion on DC 01 steel after...

Figure 5.14 About a 5-second oxidation of the Si sample by H-HEAD...

Figure 5.15 Dependence of the optical emission intensity of the Fe line...

Figure 5.16 The H-HEAD plasma sintering of powders. Parameters on the...

Figure 5.17 Experimental arrangement with the H-HEAD source generating the air...

Figure 5.18 The scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of nanocluster grains...

Figure 5.19 Comparison of the Raman spectrum of the nanocluster diamond...

Figure 5.20 The SEM image of MoO3 formations on both surfaces of the Mo...

Figure 5.21 The SEM image of bizarre creation of the molybdenum trioxide grown...

Figure 5.22 The SEM of the nano-diamonds on the stainless steel substrate...

Figure 5.23 The system with pulsed power of 2.4 GHz, up to 1 kW in 1–20 kHz...

Figure 5.24 The test system for cleaning of the particulate matter from the diesel...

Figure 5.25 Plasma removal of the particulate matter from the diesel genset...

Figure 5.26 Generation of NO and NO2 in the microwave air plasma-treated diesel...

Figure 5.27 Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) devices in contact with liquids, or under...

Figure 5.28 The antenna generated microwave plasma plume in 300 sccm air...

Figure 5.29 Parallel-plate electrode arrangement with the coaxial microwave...

Figure 5.30 Coupling between the microwave power line and the UHV connector...

Figure 5.31 Comparison of three different discharges in treatment of 600 ml...

Figure 5.32 Schematic representation of experimental arrangement for testing...

Figure 5.33 The temperature of the microwave air plasma jet at different distances...

Figure 5.34 The LPG flames with and without the microwave air plasma jet....

Figure 5.35 Temperature profiles across the flames at different distances from the...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Schematic of planar microwave plasma system utilizing...

Figure 6.2 Examples of high-density low-pressure plasma systems based...

Figure 6.3 An illustration of the experimental system for testing the thrust...

Figure 6.4 Illustration of the experimental system for production of hydrogen-...

Figure 6.5 An illustration of the experimental system for the graphene...

List of Table

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Comparison of the loss tangent values of selected materials...

Guide

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Table of Contents

Foreword from the Authors

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Foreword from the Authors

After our long research and development activities in Plasma science we can state that the plasma is a well controlled environmentally-friendly medium utilizing electric power and enabling the very-high temperature processes and low temperature reactions not available in other methods. This book is, therefore, intended to help the readers interested in the non-thermal gas discharge plasmas and their applications. The content is focused on the microwave-generated plasmas, which have specific properties due to relatively high frequency and which can be used in a number of non-conventional applications. Based on our experience, from university teaching and from communications with the industry people, no broad understanding exists of the microwave power and the microwave plasma systems. People know microwave ovens, but mostly for the heating of meals, and without understanding the principles and specifications of the microwave power. Little knowledge exists about different plasma systems and applications related to microwave power, even though there is apparently growing interest in this technology, mainly for new plasma chemical processes. A motivation for writing this book is based on the authors’ long experience with design and applications of several non-conventional systems and applications, which might stimulate readers when furthering their knowledge and when developing new systems.

The content of this book is composed of five basic parts, i.e. chapters. Chapter 1 is devoted to the microwave techniques and power systems from introducing their short history to the descriptions of individual parts and components in the microwave power lines, which are used in laboratory experiments and many industrial devices. Besides the microwave communication and the radar techniques, a lot of original systems have been developed for heating the plasma in fusion test reactors (Tokamaks, Stellarators, and Magnetic Mirrors), as well as in particle accelerators. Moreover, in the last two decades, interest has rapidly grown in microwave plasma systems working at atmospheric and higher pressures, in gases and inside liquids. Interesting new applications and trends are described in Chapter 6.

We have no intention to write a textbook and start with explanations of basic microwave theories based on Maxwell equations. Excellent comprehensive monographies have been written about microwave engineering with all theories, simulation models, and details, including use of microwaves for generation of the plasma discharges, see e.g. [Refs. 1–7]. However, to make it easier for the book readers without experience in the field of microwave engineering, we introduce the microwave systems in a simple way. We illustrate and describe the most important microwave components and show at least the most important expressions, which can help in greater understanding of the principles, functions, and applications of the microwave components. For these purposes we have also created a large number of original illustrations. Therefore, the text is frequently accompanied by schematic pictures, diagrams, and photographs. Such an approach was promoted and recommended long ago by the “Teacher of the nations,” Johannes Amos Comenius (Komensky in Czech) in his widely translated book “Orbis Sensualium Pictus,” issued in 1658. A copy of this book is available for example in the Hungarian library at the web address https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/RMK_I_1091-RM_I_8r_0547/?pg=0&layout=s. Moreover, at the end of Chapter 1 we have included Part 1.5 describing the microwave oven. This is because each oven represents a smartly engineered microwave system, which can help in the understanding of the basic principles and components in the microwave technology introduced and described in Chapter 1.

After an explanation of the functions of microwave components in the typical power lines for the microwave plasma generation, in Chapter 2, we describe the fundamentals of the gas discharge plasma and differences between plasmas generated by different kinds of the power, with particular emphasis to the microwave power. Chapter 3 is devoted to explanations of interactions of plasmas with solid surfaces and gases, mainly at reduced and low pressures. Used explanations are simplified and limited to basic expressions and equations necessary for the understanding of the processes in the plasma and those caused by the plasma, as described in later chapters. Parts of the texts and some illustrations in Chapters 2 and 3 are used in the authors’ courses for university students, short tutorials at companies and, since 1997, in annual courses for the Society of Vacuum Coaters (www.svc.org) in the United States.

Chapter 4 focuses on different microwave plasma systems, including novel and non-conventional ones developed and laboratory tested in different processing applications at reduced pressures. Chapter 5 is devoted to the microwave plasma systems at atmospheric and higher pressures, including plasmas inside liquids and plasma interactions with the combustion flames. Chapter 6 describes some new applications and trends in microwave plasmas, with short opinions and expectations on future perspectives of the microwave plasma and its applications. Chapter 7 contains appendices with description of symbols, abbreviations, units and values used in the individual chapters.

As mentioned, this book has no ambition to become a “handbook” or a “textbook”. We have written an “easy” text to inspire the readers and raise their interest in further studies and designs of novel systems, as well as to help readers in their experimental works with the microwave plasma and the microwave plasma-assisted applications.

References

[1] D. M. Pozar: “

Microwave engineering

”, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1996.

[2] J. C. Slater: “

Microwave electronics

”, D. Van Nostrand Company Inc., New York, 1951.

[3] T. Moreno: “

Microwave transmission design data

”, Artech House Microwave Library, Boston, MA, 1989. ISBN 089006346X, 9780890063460.

[4] L.S. Polak and Yu.A. Lebedev, eds.: “

Plasma Chemistry

”, Cambridge International Science Publishing, Cambridge, UK, 1998. ISBN 1898326223, 9781898326229.

[5] M. Moisan and J. Pelletier, eds.: “

Microwave Excited Plasmas Vol. 4

”, 1st Ed., Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1992.

[6] Yu.A. Lebedev, ed.: “

Microwave discharges: fundamentals and applications

”, Yanus-K, Moscow, 2001. ISBN 5-8037-0066–5.

[7] O.A. Popov, ed.: “

High density plasma sources