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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive introduction to nano- and biomaterials shining light on the different research disciplines from various perspectives.
The straightforward and well-structured concept is designed to cater for entrants as well as experienced researchers in the field of nanotechnology. The initial chapters introduce nanomaterials, their classification and synthesis techniques, while subsequent chapters discuss the various characterization tools as well as mechanical properties and their applications in biotechnological and biomedical fields. Further understanding of the topic is supported by case studies used for practical purposes. The book concludes with a look at future technology advances.
With its explanation of a wide variety of materials, this is an essential reference for chemists, physicists, materials scientists and biomedical engineers.
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Seitenzahl: 485
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials
1.1 Definition of Nano- and Biomaterials
1.2 History of Nano- and Biomaterials Application
1.3 Methods for Preparing of Nanomaterials
1.4 Main Achievements in Nanotechnology
Case Study 1: Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Environmental Safety Considerations
Case Study 2: Property Control of Nanomaterials by Setting Experimental Conditions during Synthesis
Control Questions:
References
Further Reading
Chapter 2: Classification of Nanomaterials
2.1 Dispersive Systems and Their Classifications
2.2 Fullerenes
2.3 Carbon Nanotubes
Case Study 1: Comparison of Structural Characteristics between Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerenes
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Online Sources
Chapter 3: Nanocomposite Materials and Their Physical Property Features
3.1 Nanocomposite Materials
3.2 Size Dependence as Nanomaterial Property
3.3 Thermodynamical Features of Nanomaterials
3.4 Phase Equilibrium Changes in Nano-sized Systems
3.5 Melting Temperature Changes in Nanomaterials
3.6 Structure of Nano-sized Materials
3.7 Crystal Lattice Defects in Nanomaterials
3.8 Microdistorsions of Crystal Lattice in Nanomaterials
3.9 Consolidation of Nano-sized Powders
Case Study 1: Applications of Composite Nanomaterials Due to Their Improved Mechanical Properties
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Online Source
Chapter 4: Mechanical Characteristics of Dispersive Systems
4.1 Dispersion Characteristics of Nanomaterials
4.2 Electrical Properties of Nanomaterials
4.3 Electrical Conductivity in Nanomaterials
4.4 Electron Work Function in Nanomediums
4.5 Superconductivity Phenomenon in Nanomaterials
Case Study 1: Surfactant Effects on Dispersion Characteristics of Copper-Based Nanomaterials
Case Study 2: Applications of Superconducting Nanomaterials
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Physical Properties of Nanomaterials: Graphene
5.1 Ferromagnetic Characteristics of Nanomaterials
5.2 Thermal Property Features in Nanomaterials
5.3 Optical Characteristics of Nanomediums
5.4 Diffusion in Nanomaterials
5.5 Graphene
Case Study 1: Structural Features of Graphene, Lattice Directions, Edge Location, Crystal Structure, and Energy in Reciprocal Space
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 6: Chemical Properties and Mechanical Characteristics of Nanomaterial Characterization Tools in Nanotechnology
6.1 Chemical Properties of Nanomaterials
6.2 Mechanical Characteristics of Nanomaterials
6.3 Concept Map of Characterization Tools in Nanotechnology
6.4 Diffraction Methods for Nanomaterial Characterization
6.5 Microscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials
6.6 Spectroscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials
Case Study 1: Oxidation of Fe Nanoparticles
Case Study 2: Microscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials and Sample Preparation
Case Study 3: Nanomaterials Strength
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Online Sources
Chapter 7: Introduction to Biomaterials
7.1 Biomaterials: Subject, Purpose, and Problems
7.2 General Requirements for Biomaterials
7.3 Biomaterials in Body Systems
7.4 Types and Classification of Biomaterials
Case Study 1: Mechanical Properties of Bone Cements and Tissue Interface Formation after Implantation
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8: Properties of Biomaterials
8.1 Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials
8.2 Biological Properties of Biomaterials
8.3 Chemical Properties of Biomaterials
Case Study 1: Polymeric Biomaterials Used in Load-Bearing Medical Devices
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 9: Implants and Artificial Organs
9.1 Implants
9.2 Types of Implants
9.3 Processes between Living Tissue and Implant Interface
Case Study 1: Iris-Fixated Phakic Intraocular Lens Implantation after Retinal Detachment Surgery: Long-Term Clinical Results
Case Study 2: Cardiac Pacing Systems and Implantable Cardiac Defibrillators (ICDs): A Radiological Perspective of Equipment, Anatomy, and Complications
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 10: Tissue Engineering, Scaffolds, and 3D Bioprinting
10.1 Definition of Tissue Engineering
10.2 Scaffolds and Scaffolding
10.3 3D Bioprinting
10.4 Foreign Body Reaction
10.5 Wound Healing
Case Study 1: Bioactive Glass and Glass–Ceramic Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering
Case Study 2: Regulatory Considerations in the Design and Manufacturing of Implantable 3D Printed Medical Devices
Control Questions
References
Further Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials
Figure 1.1 Scheme of vibration mill for nanomaterial preparation (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.2 Scheme of attrition milling device for nanomaterial preparation (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.3 Scheme of vortex mill device for nanomaterial preparation (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of deformation by torsion method under high pressure (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.5 Principle of equal-channel angular pressing method for nanomaterial preparation (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.6 Routes for raw material orientation during equal-channel angular pressing: (a) orientation of raw material does not change during all passages; (b) the raw material turns to 90°after each passage; (c) the raw material turns to 180°after each passage (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.7 Scheme for comprehensive forging method (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.8 Scheme of jet melt spraying method: (a) gas flow, directed perpendicular to the melt jet; (b) spraying by subaxial gas flow; (c) gas flow, directed under the angle to melt jet. 1 – breaking gas flow; 2 – dispersing melt flow (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.9 Spraying method of metal melt by liquid jet.
Figure 1.10 Scheme of centrifugal spraying method under centrifugal force or rotating method (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.11 Scheme of equipment for obtaining nanopowder by evaporation–condensation method (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.12 Scheme of equipment for the synthesis of nanopowders by plasma jet (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.13 Scheme of reactor with direct current electric arc plasma torch (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.14 Principal scheme of equipment for obtaining nanopowder by semiconductor detonation method (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.15 Scheme of equipment for obtaining nanopowders by vacuum-sublimation technology (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.16 Scheme for obtaining nanopowders by outer heating of reaction zone: (a) inlet of initial gaseous substances; (b) use of initial solid substances. Number labels are explained in the text (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.17 Scheme for obtaining nanopowders by gas phase chemical reactions (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 1.18 Scheme of equipment for obtaining nanopowders in impulse plasma with condenser-type discharge (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Chapter 2: Classification of Nanomaterials
Figure 2.1 Ratio of aggregates, particles, and coherent scattering regions (CSR): 1 – aggregate; 2 – particle; 3 – coherent scattering region. (Ryzhonkov
et al.
2008 [1]. Reproduced by permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 2.2 Schematic representation of (a) agglomerated and (b) aggregated powder; 1 – agglomerate, 2 – primary particle, 3 – within the agglomerate pore, 4 – between agglomerate pore, 5 – aggregate, 6 – between aggregate pore.
Figure 2.3 Schematic illustration of variations in physical properties of materials upon the decrease of their morphological size. (Ryzhonkov
et al.
2008 [1]. Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 2.4 Classification of dispersive materials according to the size of dispersive phase. (Ryzhonkov
et al.
2008 [1]. Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 2.5 Zero-dimensional (a), two-dimensional (b), and one-dimensional (c) phases. (Ryzhonkov
et al.
2008 [1]. Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 2.6 The most common carbon materials classified based on their bonding (hybridization of orbitals of carbon atoms) and dimensionality (i.e., the number of dimensions not confined to the nanoscale). Graphite, carbon fibers, glassy carbon, activated carbons, carbon black, and diamond are already widely used in industry as fullerenes and fullerides, carbon onions (multishell fullerenes), nanotubes, whiskers, nanofibers, cones, nanohorns, nanorings, nanodiamonds, and other nanoscale carbons that are being explored for future technologies. Note: 0D, zero-dimensional; 1D, one-dimensional; 2D, two-dimensional; 3D, three-dimensional.
Figure 2.7 (a) Luca Pacioli drawing a construction on a board; in the right corner of the table, there is a dodecahedron resting upon a book bearing Pacioli's initials. A rhombicuboctahedron (a convex solid consisting of 18 squares and 8 triangles) suspends at the left of the painting (source: wikipedia); (b) Geometric models illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci in L. Pacioli's book titled
On the Divine Proportion
(Wikipedia source); (c) Computer models of various fullerenes: C
80
(
I
h
), C
36
(
D
6
h
), and C
240
(
I
h
).
Figure 2.8 Basic elements composing the tetrahedral fullerene [5].
Figure 2.9 Three classes of
T
d
fullerenes, namely,
A
m
a
n
,
A
k
b
n
, and
B
k
b
n
, differing in terms of triple of pentagonal orientation, related to the top (or vertices)
A
, mid-edge
B
, and mid-side
C
, for the basic tetrahedron cells of
T
d
fullerenes.
Figure 2.10 Structure of fullerenes according to Table 2.6. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [5].)
Figure 2.11 C
28
fullerene: (a) three nuclear bases
T
,
T
1
, and
T
2
; (b) numbering of atom. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [5].)
Figure 2.12 Basic elements composing the icosahedral fullerene.
Figure 2.13 Structure of icosahedral fullerenes according to topological models as given in Table 2.7. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [5].)
Figure 2.14 Fullerenes with non-central effect
Figure 2.15 Fullerenes with noncentral effect and tetrahedral outer layer. Position of the C
28
in the field of fullerene C
228
retaining potential (a) for interaction between nanoparticle layers energy
E
1
and (b) for energy
E
2
, and (c) for energy
E
3
. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [5].)
Figure 2.16 Fullerenes with non-central effect and icosahedral outer layer. Position of the C
60
in the field of fullerene C
540
retaining potential (a) for interaction between nanoparticles layers energy
E
1
, (b) for energy
E
2
, and (c) for energy
E
3
Figure 2.17 Position of a chiral vector in sp
2
-bonded carbon structures; carbon nanotubes. (Adapted from Kanoun
et al.
[8].)
Figure 2.18 Calculation of coordinates for zigzag-type carbon tubular nanoclusters: (a) location of
H
1
,
H
2
and
H
3
nanocluster radius components; (b) location of atoms in the hexagonal carbon ring segment. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [15].)
Figure 2.19 Calculation of coordinates for armchair-type carbon tubular nanoclusters: (a) location of
H
1
,
H
2
and
H
3
nanocluster radius components; (b) location of atoms in the hexagonal carbon ring segment. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [15].)
Figure 2.20 Classification of achiral-type (zigzag) tubular carbon nanoclusters. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [5].)
Figure 2.21 Classification of achiral-type (armchair) tubular carbon nanoclusters. (Reproduced with permission from Glukhova 2014 [5].)
Chapter 3: Nanocomposite Materials and Their Physical Property Features
Figure 3.1 Pure metal oxide mesocrystals. (a, b) FESEM images of ZnO. Inset of the panel (c) shows the interior particles at the broken part. Scale bars: 1 mm and 100 nm for (a) and (b), respectively. (c) TEM image of ZnO. Scale bar: 500 nm. (d) HRTEM image of ZnO. Scale bar: 5 nm. (e, f) FESEM image of CuO. Inset of the panel (f) shows the interior particles at the broken part. Scale bars: 1 mm and 100 nm for (e) and (f), respectively. (g) TEM image of CuO. Scale bar: 500 nm. (h) HRTEM image of CuO. Scale bar: 5 nm. SAED patterns (insets of TEM images) show the single-crystal diffraction. (Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: [Nature Communications, 5, 3038] Bian 2014 [1]. Reproduced with permission of Nature Publishing Group.)
Figure 3.2 Phase diagram of a substance: straight line – phase equilibrium boundaries for large crystal material; dotted line – phase equilibrium boundaries for nanomaterials (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.3 TEM image of the cobalt oxide nanoparticles (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.4 Size dependence in the Co nanoparticle lattice parameter (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.5 Coordinate polyhedrons. (a) Cubic octahedron; (b) icosahedron (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.6 Field distribution of internal stress depending on the distance from grain boundary (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.7 Change in atom distance in various crystallographic directions from the center to the edge of 1047th atomic Au (gold) particle (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.8 Microphotography and schematics of Ag nanomaterial, containing one (a) and two (b) surface counterparts (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.9 Microphotographs of silver nanoparticle: (a) containing the multiple-twin planes; (b) containing the multiple joints of its straight counterparts (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.10 Microphotographs: (a) monocrystal Si particle; (b) nanoparticle with block structure (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.11 Change in microdistorsions in nanomaterials, obtained by intensive plastic deformation, depending on the annealing temperature (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.12 Diffractograms of FCC (222) phase Ni, reduced at various temperatures during 1 h: (a) 200 °C; (b) 250 °C; (c) 300 °C; (d) 360 °C; (e) 500 °C; (f) 650 °C; and (g) 650 °C with reduction time of 200 min (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.13 Schematics of the press-form: 1 – upper punch; 2 – matrix; 3 – pressing powder; 4 – lower punch (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.14 Schematic for shaping of nanopowder by hydrostatical pressing: 1 – heater; 2 – insulating layer; 3 – working chamber; 4 – sample of powder shell (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.15 Working chamber equipment for gas static shaping of nanomaterials: 1 – high-pressure pump; 2 – insulating layer; 3 – powder; 4 – elastic shell (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.16 Schematic of isostatic pressing in elastic shell: 1 – pressing punch; 2 – powder; 3 – elastic shell; 4 – matrix of press shape; 5 – lower punch (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.17 Schematic of isostatic pressing in elastic shell: 1 – inductor; 2 – hub; 3 – vacuum chamber; 4 – specimen; 5 – support (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.18 Schematic of powder flatting: 1 – shaft; 2 – powder in loading device; 3 – obtaining billet (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.19 Schematic of nanopowders by mouthpiece pressing: 1 – punch; 2 – steel cup; 3 – powder; 4 – matrix; 5 – obtaining billet. (Reproduced by permission of BKL Publishers).
Figure 3.20 Characterization of nanocomposites based on their applications [4].
Chapter 4: Mechanical Characteristics of Dispersive Systems
Figure 4.1 Micrographs of (a) spherical and (b) needlelike iron hydroxide nanopowder.
Figure 4.2 Maturity of nanoparticle surface: (a) spherical particle with smooth surface; (b) particle with advanced surface and shape close to spherical
Figure 4.3 Graph illustrating normal distribution thickness.
Figure 4.4 Influence of average square deviation on normal distribution curve.
Figure 4.5 Micrograph and particle size distribution histogram for W, obtained by plasma chemical method.
Figure 4.6 Size distribution of Al nanoparticles depending on the thickness of isolated films.
Figure 4.7 SEM image and size distribution of the wolfram nanoparticles.
Figure 4.8 Coherent region distribution curves for Fe nanopowders, obtained by hydroxide reduction: (a) at different temperatures; (b) at 440 °C during different time.
Figure 4.9 Micrographs of Fe nanopowder.
Figure 4.10 Schematic of nanoparticle structure: 1 – unpacked layer; 2 – oxide layer; 3 – crystallite (coherent region distribution).
Figure 4.11 Scheme of nanoparticle.
Figure 4.12 Atomic model of nanomaterial, modeled using the Morse potential. Atoms at the grain boundaries are marked with black.
Figure 4.13 Micrograph of grain boundary in the nanoparticle, obtained by intensive plastic deformation.
Figure 4.14 TEM image of iron nanoparticles.
Figure 4.15 Micrographs of nanoparticles: (a) aluminum; (b) cobalt after ball milling; (c) iron oxide; (d) nickel oxide.
Figure 4.16 Microstructure of aluminum: (a) after passage during equal-channel angular pressing; (b) after four passages during equal-channel angular pressing through way A; (c) after four passages through way B.
Figure 4.17 Micrographs of nanoparticles: (a) wolfram; (b) aluminum oxide.
Figure 4.18 Micrographs of copper nanoparticles reduced at 650 °C during various times: (a) 60 min; (b) 120 min; (c) 200 min.
Figure 4.19 Schematic of electron movement in thin film.
Figure 4.20 Temperature dependence of electrical resistance for nanostructured copper. Data for large crystal copper wire is shown by the straight line.
Figure 4.21 Temperature dependence of electrical resistance for Ni–P nanopowder with various particle sizes: 1 – 14 nm; 2 – 30 nm; 3 – 51 nm; 4 – 102 nm; 5 – large crystal specimen.
Figure 4.22 Dependence of relative specific electrical resistance of nanostructured Cu on average grain sizes. Straight line is indicating calculated curve; denotes specific electrical resistance for monocrystal copper.
Figure 4.23 Influence of (a) thickness, (b) annealing temperature, and (c) grain size on electrical resistance (a, b) and conductivity (c) for TiB
2
films.
Figure 4.24 Calculated work function dependencies on the size of wolfram particles possessing different shapes: 1 – spherical, 2 – rhombododecahedral, 3 – cubic, 4 – cubic octahedral, 5 – truncated octahedral, 6 – octahedral.
Figure 4.25 Experimental dependence of electron work function on Au particle size.
Figure 4.26 Dependence of transition temperature to superconducting state for Sn particle with a radius of 10 nm from its packed thickness.
Figure 4.27 Dependence of relative superconductivity temperature
T
c
on relative diameter of Al particle:
T
c0
– superconducting transition temperature of bulk metal; – some diameter in which ; straight line – calculation result.
Figure 4.28 Dependence of
T
c
on thickness of the indium film.
Figure 4.29 Dependence of
T
c
on thickness of the aluminum film.
Figure 4.30 Size dependence of
T
c
for lead particles;
A
denotes
T
c
for bulk metal.
Chapter 5: Physical Properties of Nanomaterials: Graphene
Figure 5.1 Binding of Mn–Bi alloy particle diameter with coercive force and schematics of domain structures: (a) multi-domain structure; (b) multi-domain structure without surface-connecting regions; (c) transition form; and (d) single-domain structure. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.2 Magnetization distribution in the cobalt particle. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.3 Mössbauer spectra for iron nanopowder. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.4 Qualitative dependence of coercive force on particle radius: is the single-domain critical size; is the absolute single-domain radius; is the critical radius of superparamagnetism. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.5 Dependence of coercive force on particle size: 1 – Fe at 4.2 K; 2 and 2′ – Co at 4.2 and 300 K, respectively. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.6 Size dependence of saturation magnetization for Ni at 4.2 K. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.7 Size dependences of Curie temperature, calculated by layered model for cubic octahedron (1), octahedron (2), and cube (3) with FCC lattice. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.8 Size dependence of Curie temperature for nickel. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.9 Size dependence of heat conductivity
C
: straight line – Debye theory; horizontal dotted line – limit of the Dulong–Petit law; dotted curve line – binding with quantum effect deviation from the Debye theory. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.10 Specific heat conductivity
C
for silver nanoparticles with a diameter of 10 nm at ; straight line – heat conductivity for bulk silver. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.11 Temperature dependence of heat conductivity for Pd nanoparticles with a diameter of 3.0 nm (1) and 6.6 nm (2) and bulk palladium (3). (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.12 Experimental temperature dependences of lattice conductivity for LiF monocrystals, with cross-section: curve 1 – ; curve 2 – . (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.13 Light scattering by a random particle. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.14 Light scattering by particle conglomeration. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.15 Experiment based on demonstration of scattering and absorption influence on extinction. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.16 Extinction of water drops with various sizes in air. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.17 (a) Calculated extinction spectra for MgO nanoparticles with various diameters and (b) absorption spectra of bulk MgO. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.18 Experimental extinction spectra for polystyrene sphere emulsions with various sizes in water. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.19 (a) Estimated extinction spectra for spherical aluminum nanoparticles and (b) absorption spectra of bulk aluminum. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.20 Estimated extinction to the volume unit for spherical Al nanoparticles with various diameters. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.21 Absorption spectra of Ag, Au, and Cu nanoparticles. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.22 Extinction spectra of Al nanoparticles with various diameters. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.23 Absorption spectra of Al nanoparticles with various diameters. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.24 Influence of size distribution on visible light extinction in water droplets. Standard deviation values for Gaussian size distributions are given near curves. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.25 Absorption spectra for silver colloidal solutions. Particles shape is described by average half-axis ratio . (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.26 Concentration profiles in plane (dotted lines) and spherical (straight lines) specimen at different values of dimensionless time : 1 – 0.005; 2 – 0.03; 3 – 0.08. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.27 Concentration profiles in spherical samples for at different values of dimensionless time : 1 – 0.00128; 2 – 0.00582; 3 – 0.02048; 4 – 0.06192; 5 – 0.32768. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.28 Schematic of location of adsorbed atoms on the crystal surface. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.29 Schematic of contact isthmus profile. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Figure 5.30 Primitive unit cell and the Brillion zone in graphene [7], https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.
Figure 5.31 The energy dispersion variations in graphene [7]. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.
Figure 5.32 Graphene: topology of hexagonal lattice. (Reproduced with permission of Glukhova O.E.)
Figure 5.33 Ionization potential for graphene at
M
= 9. (Reproduced with permission of Glukhova O.E.)
Figure 5.34 Ionization potential for graphene at
N
= 9. (Reproduced with permission of Glukhova O.E.)
Figure 5.35 Schematic of “bottom-up” and “top-down” graphene synthesis. (Edwards
et al
. 2012. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 5.36 (a) Typical low-magnification TEM image of graphene sheets; (b) corresponding electron diffraction pattern of (a); (c) size distribution of graphene sheets; HRTEM images of (d) bilayer, (e) trilayer, and (f) 4–5-layer graphene sheets. (Shang
et al
. 2012 [12]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 5.37 AFM images of nanodots, produced with grinding times of (a) 30 min, (b) 1 h, and (c) 4 h and a ratio of 1 : 2 of graphite (mg) to ionic liquid (ml); (d) height and diameter distributions of nanodots. (Shang
et al
. 2012 [12] [12]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 5.38 Schematic illustration of all-graphene battery and its electrochemical reaction. In the functionalized graphene cathode, Li ions and electrons are stored in the functional groups on the graphene surface at a relatively high potential. On the other hand, Li ions and electrons are stored on the surface of graphene with low potential, in the reduced graphene oxide anode. (Kim
et al
. 2014 [15]. Reprinted with permission from Nature Publishing Group.)
Figure 5.39 Schematic diagram illustrating lattice directions and edges of the graphene lattice (the purple diamond is the graphene unit cell). Because the fast-growth direction remains near a direction, a rotation of the graphene lattice changes the lattice direction along which fast-growth direction occurs. When the lattice of a graphene domain approaches perfect alignment with the Cu(001) surface (i.e., C[6]∥Cu[110] or ; see arrows on the left of unit cell), the fast-growth direction is directly between and directions. Any rotation away from alignment moves the fast-growth direction toward either the or the direction. A graphene edge perpendicular to a direction (blue) has the armchair structure, while an edge perpendicular to a direction (red) has the zigzag structure. The purple edge section is a mix of these two high-symmetry edge structures. (Wofford
et al
. 2015 [16]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Chapter 6: Chemical Properties and Mechanical Characteristics of Nanomaterial Characterization Tools in Nanotechnology
Figure 6.1 Dependence of maximum reaction speed on particle size at fixed nuclei thickness of 0.23. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.2 Dependence of time reaching the maximum speed on particle size. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.3 Oxidation kinetic of Fe and Mo nanopowders while in air. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.4 Dependence of oxidation speed on temperature of Fe nanopowder during linear heating. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.5 Kinetic oxidation curves of zinc nanopowder at heating speed of 10 K min
−1
: (oxidation level); (its speed). (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.6 Kinetic oxidation curves of iron nanopowder at heating speed of 10 K/min. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.7 Determination for type of kinetic law and Arrhenius oxidation parameters for metal nanopowders on separate stages: (a) molybdenum,
T
= 490–920 K, logarithmic law; (b) tin,
T
= 670–920 K, parabolic law; (c) aluminum,
T
= 700–830 K, linear law; and (d) aluminum,
T
= 830–1000 K, logarithmic law.
Figure 6.8 Correlation between oxidation heat and self-heating temperature during oxidation of metal nanopowders. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.9 Influence of Ni and Pd nanoparticle dispersity on specific catalytic activity in hydrogenation reaction of benzene. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.10 Influence of the dispersity of nickel nanoparticles on specific catalytic activity in hydrogenolysis of ethane. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.11 Influence of Pt particle size on specific catalytic activity in hydrogen oxidation reaction. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.12 Schematic of material hardness dependence on grain size: I – region obeying Hall–Petch's law; II – anomalous dependence region. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.13 Dependence of grain hardness on grain size for nanostructured alloy Ni–25 at.% W, obtained by electrosedimentation and further annealing at various temperatures in vacuum (○) or in air (•). (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.14 Dependence of hardness on dispersive phase's grain size, generated in alloys, obtained by crystallization under amorphous condition: 1 – Fe
73.5
CuNb
3
Si
13.5
B
9
, 2 – Fe
81
Si
7
B
12
, 3 – Fe
5
Co
70
Si
15
B
10
, and 4 – Pd
81
Cu
7
Si
12
. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.15 Dependence of hardness ,, strength limit , yield strength , and grain size of nanostructured Ti on annealing temperature. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.16 Real resistance–deformation curves during tests for nanostructured copper specimens at room temperature. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.17 Real deformation curves for various materials. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.18 Computer image of nanostructured copper: (a) at initial state and (b) after plastic deformation with 10% level. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.19 Manifestation of high-speed super-plasticity in nanostructures aluminum alloy during the stretching test. (Reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers.)
Figure 6.20 Concept map of characterization tools in nanotechnology.
Figure 6.21 (a) X-ray diffraction pattern of Fe
2
O
3
nanoparticles; (b) and (c) stroke diffraction patterns of constituent phases: (b) α-Fe
2
O
3
(1.6 at.%) and (c) γ-Fe
2
O
3
(98.4 at.%). The inset shows the result of approximation of line (113) by the Voigt function [5] reproduced with permission of Springer.
Figure 6.22 Schematic diagram of a STEM that depicts the main detectors and standard positions of the spectrometers.
Figure 6.23 Illustration of the top–bottom effect according to Golla-Schindler
et al
.
Figure 6.24 TEM image (a), high-resolution TEM image (b), and SAED patterns (c) of the Au–Pd bimetallic NPs. The inset in (a) indicates the size distribution of the NPs.
Figure 6.25 SEM images of representative (a) 300 µm × 100 µm and (b) 70 µm × 30 µm silicon piezoresistive cantilevers used for noise measurements and AFM imaging. (a) The large-sized piezoresistive cantilever has a meander-like patterned heater resistor for thermal actuation (close to the free end, not used in measurements) and two active piezoresistors (close to the fixed end). (b) The small-sized piezoresistive cantilever has two active piezoresistors along its length.
Figure 6.26 The setup of AFM and LM in the environmentally controlled, acoustic isolation chamber. (a) Overview of the integrated LM–AFM system. (b) Close-up view of Dvorak–Stotler controlled-environment culture chamber in place on the BioScope AFM scanner table. (1) DIAFM scanner head; (2) Zeiss Axiovert light microscope; (3) Nevtek airstream incubator; (4) Harvard infusion/withdrawal pump; (5) video monitor; (6) Dvorak–Stotler controlled-environment culture chamber; (7) YSI thermistor temperature probe; (8) fiber-optic illuminator for transmitted LM; (9) medium perfusion tubing 10.
Figure 6.27 SEM micrographs of SiO
2
particles obtained with (a) a high-resolution in-lens detector and (b) the conventional
E–T
detector of the transmitted electrons coming from the same scanned area as in (a).
Figure 6.28 Hierarchical schematics of spectroscopical characterization tools for nanomaterials.
Figure 6.29 FTIR (400–1700 cm
−1
) spectra of “Bisphenol A” along with DFT spectra. Values of some peaks are given near the tip of the respective peak (Ullah
et al
. 2016 [16], https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Figure 6.30 (a) XPS general spectrum of Ca
10−
x
Ag
x
(PO
4
)
6
(OH)
2
powder with
x
Ag
= 0.4 and (b) narrow scan spectra of Ag element. (Ciobanu
et al
. 2013 [17], https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.)
Figure 6.31 Schematic of stress–strain curves for a brittle material (a) and a plastic material (b) showing how the elastic modulus and other mechanical properties of a material can be determined. Experiments measure the displacement caused by an applied load, and these two quantities are then converted into strain and stress via simple relations, respectively. Plastic materials (such as metals) start to deform at the yield stress or strain before eventually failing at higher values of stress/strain, whereas brittle materials (like ceramics) fail without going through a deformation phase. The experiments of Espinosa and coworkers suggest that nanotubes behave like brittle materials, although in many calculations they display some plastic-like behavior.
Chapter 7: Introduction to Biomaterials
Figure 7.1 Size-dependent processes of particle transport in the human body. Particles can pass through biological barriers by a number of different processes. These include passive (diffusive) and active processes ranging from extravasation to transdermal uptake. Most of these processes affect distribution and clearance of micro- and nanoparticles in the human body, and they strongly depend on particle size [2]. (Mitragotri
et al
. 2009 [7]. Reproduced with permission of Nature Publishing Group.)
Figure 7.2 Schematic illustration of biomaterials types used in the human body.
Figure 7.3 Classification of biomaterials. (Vallet-Regí 2001 [12]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 7.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of cross sections of (a) sample made by SLM of Ti–40Nb ball-milled powder and (b) its higher resolution image and (c) sample made by hot pressing of Ti–40Nb ball-milled powder and (d) its higher resolution image. (Zhuravleva
et al
. 2013 [16]. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/6/12/5700/htm. Used under: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.)
Figure 7.5 Hierarchical structure of bone and bamboo: (a) structure of bone; (b) structural components of tubercular bone [27] (http://www.oapublishinglondon.com/article/773. Used Under: CC: BY 3.0.); (c) bamboo is composed of cellulose fibers imbedded in a lignin–hemicellulose matrix shaped into hollow prismatic cells of varying wall thickness. In bamboo and palm, which have a more complex structure than wood, a radial density gradient of parallel fibers in a matrix of honeycomb-like cells increases each material's flexural rigidity. Bamboo increases its flexural rigidity even further by combining a radial density gradient with a hollow-tube cross-sectional shape. (Wegst
et al
. 2015 [26]. Reproduced with permission Nature Publishing Group.)
Figure 7.6 Interconnected porosity of a collagen type I–HAp (1:1 wt) scaffold manufactured by freeze-drying [27]. (http://www.oapublishinglondon.com/article/773. Used Under: CC: BY 3.0.)
Figure 7.7 SEM photographs of surface and fractured surface of BC sheet (a, b), and of 0.6BC/0.4SF composite plate (c, d), respectively. (Choi
et al
. 2013 [30]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.)
Figure 7.8
Case study
: Giemsa surface staining showing an interface between PMMA cement (PC) and bone (B) in the acetabulum at 6 months. There is an intervening connective tissue layer between P and B (X20). (Yamamuro
et al
. 1998 [31]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Chapter 8: Properties of Biomaterials
Figure 8.1 Tensile properties of TNTZ subjected to cold rolling or old swaging as a function of working ratio. (Niinomi and Nakai 2011 [3]. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijbm/2011/836587/abs/. Used under: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.)
Figure 8.2 Schematic of relationship between Young's modulus and spring back. (Niinomi and Nakai 2011 [3]. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijbm/2011/836587/abs/. Used under: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.)
Figure 8.3 The TEM photograph of
n
-HA/CS/CMC composite. (Liuyun
et al
. 2009 [4]. http://jbiomedsci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1423-0127-16-65. Used under: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/.)
Figure 8.4 Factors affecting biocompatibility. (Singh
et al
. 2007 [7]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.)
Figure 8.5 Some factors that have influence on the chemical reactivity of substances. (Vallet-Regí 2001 [9]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 8.6 Main features of ceramic materials. (Vallet-Regí 2001 [9]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)
Figure 8.7 Phases of surface reactions. (Stroganova
et al
. 2003 [13]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.)
Figure 8.8 Classification of bioactive glasses: (1, 3, and 4) formation of apatite layer on gel glasses after 7–20 days (class B), 1–3 days (class A) and 7 days (class B), respectively; (2) bioresorption in the process of bone regeneration (class A). Phases of surface reactions. (Stroganova
et al
. 2003 [13]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.)
Figure 8.9 SEM micrographs of the bioglass particles. (Doostmohammadi
et al
. 2011 [15]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 8.10 SEM photographs of hydroxyapatite particles showing the porous structure (a) and variety in crystal shape and size within the particles (b). (Doostmohammadi
et al
. 2011 [15]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 8.11 Illustration of how some material, biological, medical, and engineering properties must be integrated to achieve successful biomaterials for tissue regeneration. (Seal
et al
. 2001 [16]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 8.12 Chemical structures of some commonly used nondegradable polymers in tissue engineering. These polymers include (
1
) polyethylene, (
2
) poly(vinylidene fluoride), (
3
) poly(tetrafluoroethylene), (
4
) poly(vinyl alcohol), (
5
) poly(hydroxyalkanoate), (
6
) poly(ethylene terephthalate), (
7
) poly(butylene terephthalate), (
8
) poly(methyl methacrylate), (
9
) poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (
10
) poly(
N
-isopropylacrylamide), (
11
) poly(dimethylsiloxane), (
12
) polydioxanone, and (
13
) polypyrrole. (Seal
et al
. 2001 [16]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 8.13 FTIR spectra of carbon implant (
I
) surrounded by bone tissue after (a) 1 week; (b) 2 weeks; (c) 3 weeks; (d) 6 weeks of implantation; (e) spectra of rabbit bone. (Blazewicz
et al
. 2001 [18]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Figure 8.14 Case Study 1: Schematic illustration showing relative elastic range of ceramics, metals, and polymers in the realm of the applied physiological stress on the implant. (Pruitt 2009 [19]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Chapter 9: Implants and Artificial Organs
Figure 9.1 Diagram showing some of the implant types.
Figure 9.2 (a) Visian implantable collamer lens (ICL) model (reprinted from Wikimedia under CC BY 3.0 license; (b) Visian ICL phakic intraocular lens intraoperative (reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Hassaballa
et al
. (2011) [7]); (c) intraocular lenses have been used to treat cataracts since the 1940s (Photo: FLickr/Community Eye Health); (d), (e) modern versions of the iris claw lens (Photo: Ophtec) Copyright World Intellectual Property Organization, 2016.
Figure 9.3 Cochlear implant adjusted in the patient (a) and photograph of the internal part of the Cochlear implant (b). (Pauna
et al
. 2014 [9]. http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/Advanced-Bionics-Cochlear-Implants-in-Patients-2161-119X.1000159.php?aid=24462. Used under: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.)
Figure 9.4 Stentrode delivery. (a) Pre-implant lateral projection cerebral venography roadmap of the external jugular vein, confluence of sinuses, and SSS (blue arrows). Scale bar, 20 mm. Circular artifact is a calibration tool. (b) Superior projection of SSS. Lumen diameter (blue arrows) and cortical veins (red arrow) assessed pre- and post-implant. Scale bar, 10 mm. (c) Stentrode with 8 µm × 750 µm electrode discs (yellow arrow) self-expanding during deployment from 4F catheter (green arrow). Scale bar, 3 mm. (d) Post-implantation lateral projection plain X-ray of stentrode in SSS, displaying electrodes (yellow arrow) and delivery catheters (green arrows). Scale bar, 10 mm. (e) Post-implant superior projection contrast study of stentrode (electrodes, yellow arrow). Scale bar, 10 mm. (Oxley
et al
. 2016 [14]. Reproduced with permission of Nature Publishing Group.)
Figure 9.5 (a) Image showing a permanent pacemaker with the alphanumeric code, the name of the manufacturer, and the lead attachment displayed. (Bruney
et al
. 2004 [16]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.) (b) Illustration of implanted cardiac pacemaker showing locations of cardiac pacemaker leads [17]. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker#/media/File:PPM.png. Used under: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.)
Figure 9.6 Transcatheter valves: (a) the balloon-expandable Edwards SAPIEN valve incorporates a stainless steel stent, bovine pericardial leaflets, and a fabric sealing cuff; (b) the self-expanding CoreValve device incorporates a nitinol (nickel titanium) alloy stent with leaflets and a sealing cuff constructed of porcine pericardial tissue [18]. (c) A polymer balloon used in the deployment of a coronary stent [19].
Figure 9.7 (a) (Left) A hip with osteoarthritis. (Right) The head of the femur and the socket have been replaced with an artificial device [24]. (Reproduced with permission of American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons.) (b) Position of a standard Muller hip prosthesis, 10.32.20 in the standard femur; uncemented stem length 50 mm. (Semlitsch and Willert 1980 [23]. Reproduced with permission of Springer.)
Figure 9.8 The implantation of a foreign material in any tissue will create an interface between the material and the biological system [32].
Figure 9.9 Schematic illustration of a “real” metal surface depicting the surface oxide with minor impurities, including surface hydroxyl groups and water, and the adsorbed contamination layer. Structural defects (steps and vacancies) are also indicated [32].
Figure 9.10 Schematic illustration of some molecular processes at the interface between a material and the surrounding biological environment. The top half of the Figure shows processes that modify the material; the lower half shows interactions between the surface and biomolecules [32].
Figure 9.11 Schematic picture of cells close to the material surface, illustrating that the cells interact with the dynamic hydration (water and ions) and protein layers, which cover the material surface in the biological environment [32].
Figure 9.12 Schematic illustration of the material–tissue interaction at different levels. The original surface properties of the material will eventually influence the behavior of the cells and the macroscopic development of the tissue, via interaction with water, ions, and biomolecules such as protein molecules [32].
Figure 9.13 Images demonstrating a good ventricular lead position of a passive fixation lead. (a) PA view. (b) Lateral view. (Bruney
et al
. 2004 [16]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)
Chapter 10: Tissue Engineering, Scaffolds, and 3D Bioprinting
Figure 10.1 Cell-based tissue regeneration approach for the repair of bone defects [16].
Figure 10.2 Bioreactor insert and representative DTEHV results. The developed bioreactor insert used to impose and control the heart valve geometry during culture (a). A schematic representation of the positioning of the insert depicted in green, inside the bioreactor setup with the heart valve indicated in red, the nitinol stent in black, and the pulsatile medium flow as a blue arrow (b). Two representative pictures of a human cell-based DTEHVs cultivated by using the insert, from a top (c) and bottom view (d), showing large coaptation areas and an profound belly curvature, matching the shape of the bioreactor insert [23].
Figure 10.3 Roadmap for organ printing.
Figure 10.4 Temporal representation of the host response leading to the encapsulation of an implanted material. The process initiates immediately upon implant contact with host fluids (e.g., blood, lymph, wound fluids) by spontaneous uncontrolled adsorption of host proteins to the implant surface. The resulting protein-conditioned surface is coated with diverse protein species in various conformations and adsorbed states. Host cells responsible for normal wound healing encounter this unusual adsorbed protein layer. Within hours, neutrophils enter the implant tissue site and react by producing cytokines, chemokines, reactive oxygen species, and other enzymes. In the next several days, these neutrophil products recruit tissue resident macrophages and undifferentiated monocytes to the wound site, concomitant with the exit of neutrophils. Macrophages respond to the implant by producing their own set of signaling molecules, which attract fibroblasts. Fibroblasts produce excess collagen. Their presence correlates with formation of foreign body giant cells (FBGCs), whose role in the foreign body response is poorly understood. With time, a dense collagenous fibrotic capsule is created around the implant, isolating it physically and physiologically from the host tissue.
Figure 10.5 Sequence of events involved in inflammatory and wound healing responses leading to foreign body giant cell formation. This shows the potential importance of mast cells in the acute inflammatory phase and Th2 lymphocytes in the transient chronic inflammatory phase with the production of IL-4 and IL-13, which can induce monocyte–macrophage fusion to form foreign body giant cells.
Figure 10.6
In vivo
transition from blood-borne monocyte to biomaterial adherent monocyte/macrophage to foreign body giant cell at the tissue–biomaterial interface. There is ongoing research to elucidate the biological mechanisms that are considered to play important roles in the transition to foreign-body giant cell development.
Figure 10.7 The porous 63s glass scaffolds with 10 wt.% HANw (a) isometric view; (b) top view; (c) side view (Shuai
et al
. 2015 [39], https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/.)
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials
Table 1.1 Significant achievements in the nanotechnology
Chapter 2: Classification of Nanomaterials
Table 2.1 Classification of dispersive systems according to their aggregation state
Table 2.2 Classification of nanomaterials according to their structural features according to Anischik
et al.
2008 [2]
Table 2.3 Classification of consolidated (amalgamted) nanomaterials (according to Gleiter 1997 [3])
Table 2.4 Compositions of the shells of fullerenes of basic symmetry group
Table 2.5 Compositions of the shells of fullerenes of basic symmetry group [4]
.
Table 2.6 Topological models of fullerenes with
T
d
(tetrahedral) symmetry
Table 2.7 Topological models of fullerenes with
I
h
(icosahedral) group symmetry
Table 2.8 Physical parameters of fullerene C
28
Table 2.9 Energy and metric parameters of
I
h
fullerenes of classes
A
n
and
B
n
Table 2.10 Energy and metric parameters of the double-layer centered fullerenes
Table 2.11 Parameters of
A
6
d
u
,
A
6
h
u
,
A
6
d
g
, and
A
6
h
g
armchair topological model nanoclusters
Table 2.12 Parameters of
Z
6
d
u
,
Z
6
h
u
,
Z
6
d
g
, and
Z
6
h
g
zigzag topological model nanoclusters
Chapter 3: Nanocomposite Materials and Their Physical Property Features
Table 3.1 Crystal lattice and average crystallite size for Ni nanopowders [2]
Table 3.2 Results of diffraction profile broadening analysis for metal nanopowders
Chapter 4: Mechanical Characteristics of Dispersive Systems
Table 4.1 Specific surface area and average aggregate size of Fe, Co, Ni, and Cu nanopowders
Table 4.2 Specific surface area, average aggregate size, and CDR particles of Fe, reduced at various temperatures
Table 4.3 Evaluation values for particle radius and portion of surface atoms
Chapter 5: Physical Properties of Nanomaterials: Graphene
Table 5.1 Polynomial for heat conductivity coefficients
C
(
T
) =
aT
+
bT
2
+
cT
3
[1]
Table 5.2 Heat conductivity for amorphous material, nanomaterial, and large-crystal material
Table 5.3 Change in the relative Debye temperature θ
D
(
r
)/θ
D
depending on nanoparticle size. (Reproduced with permission from the BKL Publishers.)
Table 5.4 Physical parameters and ionization potential for graphene at
M
= 9
Table 5.5 Physical parameters and ionization potential for graphene at
N
= 9
Chapter 6: Chemical Properties and Mechanical Characteristics of Nanomaterial Characterization Tools in Nanotechnology
Table 6.1 Temperature of starting oxidation in air for ultra-disperse and large metal powders [1]
Table 6.2 Kinetic oxidation parameters of metal nanopowders in air [1]
Table 6.3 Kinetic oxidation parameters of metal nanopowders in air [1]
Chapter 7: Introduction to Biomaterials
Table 7.1 Typical mechanical property of the recently proposed metals for degradable stents compared with SS316L alloy
Table 7.2 Chemical composition of FeMn alloys
Table 7.3 Chemical composition limits for TMZF™ alloy
Table 7.4 Chemical composition limits of Ti–13Nb–13Zr
Table 7.5 Mechanical properties of BA cement in comparison with PMMA cement
Chapter 8: Properties of Biomaterials
Table 8.1 Comparison of mechanical properties of metallic biomaterials with bone
Table 8.2 Wear studies of metallic biomaterials
Table 8.3 Stiffness, tensile strength, and strain failure for selected biological and synthetic materials
Table 8.4 Comparison of mechanical properties of keratinized materials and other biological and synthetic materials
Table 8.5 Types of biomedical materials and their applications
Table 8.6 Types of oxide form on titanium and titanium alloys
Table 8.7 Types of bioceramics–tissue attachment and bioceramic classification.
Table 8.8 Composition of bioactive glasses and glass-ceramics (wt%)
Table 8.9 Properties and ceramic biomaterial systems
Table 8.10 Some bone regeneration polymers and their properties
1
Table 8.11 Examples of polymers used in load-bearing medical devices
Chapter 9: Implants and Artificial Organs
Table 9.1 Satisfactory material combinations for wear-stressed moving parts of artificial hip joints
Table 9.2 Lines of CDVA gained and lost at 3 years and 6 years by group
Chapter 10: Tissue Engineering, Scaffolds, and 3D Bioprinting
Table 10.1 Functions of extracellular matrix (ECM) in native tissues and of scaffolds in engineered tissues
Table 10.2 General overview of types of scaffolds
Table 10.3 Synthetic scaffolds used for heart valve
Table 10.4 Comparison of bioprinter types
Table 10.5 Definitions of design control model
Table 10.6 Design control process for the 3D printed tracheobronchial splint
Nano- and Biomaterials
Compounds, Properties, Characterization, and Applications
Zhypargul Abdullaeva
Author
Prof. Zhypargul Abdullaeva
Kumamoto University
Materials Science & Engineering
2-39-1 Kurokami
Engineering Research Bldg.
860-8555 Kumamoto
Japan
Cover
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Preface
If you are the person who is trying to bend the hills of Nano- and Biomaterials science, here is the textbook, carefully designed and addressed to you, students, as well as instructors and to all, who need to master the basic phenomena, terms, determinations and examples of Nano- and Biomaterials course. The main goal of this book is to foster an easy perception and conceptualizing ability in readers. Systematical representation and logical sequence are one of specific aspects, helping in assimilation of obtained knowledge.
Chapter 1 of this textbook starts with introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials, describing definition, history and application of Nano-and Biomaterials. Body of the chapter 1 covers various methods for nanomaterials preparation, and end with the main achievements in Nanotechnology. Chapter 2 is focuses on classification of nanomaterials, including classification of dispersive systems, fullerenes and nanotubes. Chapter 3 presents nanocomposite materials and their physical property features, mainly of size dependence, thermodynamic, phase equilibrium and melting temperature changes, structure of nanomaterials, crystal lattice defects, microdistorsions of crystal lattice and consolidation of nano-sized powders. Chapter 4 covers mechanical characteristics of dispersive systems, electrical properties, electrical conductivity, electrical work function and superconductivity phenomena in nanomaterials. Chapter 5 gives the theory of physical properties for nanomaterials and Graphene, particularly, ferromagnetic characteristics, thermal and optical property features, diffusion in nanomaterials, graphene and its structure, synthesis approaches and characterization of graphene. Chapter 6 presents chemical property and mechanical characteristics of nanomaterials, as well as characterization tools in nanotechnology, diffraction methods, microscopical and spectroscopical characterization tools for nanomaterials. Chapter 7 reviews introduction into biomaterials, subject, purpose and problems of biomaterials science, general requirements for biomaterials, biomaterials in body systems, types and classification of biomaterials, metallic and composite biomaterials. Chapter 8 gives theory of biomaterials properties, such as mechanical, chemical and biological, also describing ceramic and polymeric types of biomaterials. Chapter 9 covers implants and artificial organs, clarifying their definitions, types, explaining the processes between living tissue and implant interface. Chapter 10 focuses on tissue engineering, scaffolds and 3D bioprinting, provides conclusion by foreign body reaction and wound healing.
Each chapter ends with answer-required questions for control of obtained knowledge. Case studies given after control questions are providing additional explanatory support related to the key concepts along the chapter, which are helpful for readers in building of basic knowledge and learning skills.
Chapter 1Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials
Translated materials from the original work of Ryzhonkov, D.I., Levina, V.V., Dzidziguri, E.L. were used in this chapter.
There is no substitute to hard work….
Thomas Edison, inventor (1847–1931)
1.1 Definition of Nano- and Biomaterials
Nano (from Greek, nannos), meaning dwarf, is one billionth of or 10−9 part of a thing, for example, 1 nm = 10−9 m. Nanomaterials consist of nanostructured materials and nanoparticles, which can be defined as nano-sized complexes of interrelated atoms and/or molecules. Nanotechnology is defined as the knowledge and management of processes on a scale from 1 to 100 nm and application of object properties on a nanometer scale. Significant works in nanotechnology started in 1980. Definition for the term nanotechnology was given for the first time by Norio Taniguchi, a professor of Tokyo University, in 1974 in his paper Basic concepts of Nanotechnology, which mentioned “Nanotechnology mainly consists of the processing of separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule.”
Biomaterials can be defined as “materials intended to interface with biological systems to evaluate, treat, or replace any tissue, organ or function of the body” [1] or “any synthetic material which is used to replace part of a living system or to function in intimate contact with the living tissue [2].”
1.2 History of Nano- and Biomaterials Application
Nanomaterials and biomaterials are important because of their primal and initial applications, which date back to ancient times and the Middle Ages, when glassblowers insensibly used nanotechnology. They added gold chloride (AuCl3) to melted glass to change its color to ruby. Thousands of years BC, people knew and used natural fabrics such as cotton, silk and flax, and wool [3]. The Romans had the Lycurgus Cup during the fourth century AD (Anno Domino), which comprises silver and gold nanoparticles at a ratio of roughly 7 : 3, with a diameter size of 70 nm, as disclosed by modern analytic methods. The cup demonstrates a unique color display because of the presence of these metal nanoparticles. It appears green when observed in reflected light, for instance, in daylight, but turns red when light is propagated through it, which is now in the British museum. Historical applications of biomaterials include the use of linen threads by ancient Egyptians to close wounds. Europeans used a fiber made from catgut to close the wounds during the Middle Ages 4000 years ago. Inca surgeons repaired cranial fractures with gold plates in neurosurgery. Mayans used sea shells to create an artificial teeth. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of physicians began to explore the way in which the body reacted to implanted materials. After World War II, observations began to demonstrate the tolerance of the human body to some metals in vivo. Physician Harold Ridley who worked with World War II aviators had noticed that pieces of shattered cockpit canopies inadvertently embedded in the eyes of pilots were well tolerated; thus, he made the 1st formal assessment of “biocompatibility.” Later he created implantable intraocular lenses from polymethylmetacrylate [1].
