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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Nuclear Physics 2 explores the applications of various radioisotopes for dating and nuclear medicine imaging. It introduces the theoretical and experimental facts from the observation of the red shift in the spectrum of galaxies (1913), and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (1965) that led to the validation of the Big Bang model, through which all known chemical elements are created via nucleosynthesis processes. This introduction is followed by a description of the nuclear reactions involved in primordial, stellar, and explosive. The principles of carbon-14, potassium-argon, uranium-thorium and uranium-protactinium dating, along with the principles of lead-210, caesium-137 and beryllium-7 radiochronometers applied to dating, are also described. An overview of the birth of nuclear medicine is given, from the first use of radioisotopes as tracers in plant biology in 1913, to the development of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) in 1975. The method of synthesis of radiopharmaceuticals, quality control of radiopharmaceuticals and the experimental methods of the determination of radiochemical purity are presented. The description of the principles of PET and Single-Photon Emission Tomography (SPECT), the presentation of the different radioisotopes used in TEMPS and PET, as well as the presentation of the main scintigraphies and their uses in nuclear medicine conclude the topics studied.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Dedication Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 A Description of the Big Bang Model
1.1. Red-shift phenomenon in the spectrum of stars and galaxies
1.2. Theoretical and experimental facts leading to the validation of the Big Bang model
1.3. Brief description of the chronology of the universe’s evolution after the Big Bang
2 The Nucleosynthesis Process
2.1. Nucleosynthesis
2.2. Other important nucleus-forming processes, radionuclides in the environment
3 Radiochronometer Applications in Dating
3.1. Carbon-14 dating
3.2. Potassium–argon (K–Ar) dating
3.3. Lake dating using
210
Pb,
137
Cs and
7
Be radiochronometers
3.4. Uranium–thorium or uranium–lead dating
3.5. Coral dating
3.6. File on dating archaeological objects
4 General Information on Radiopharmaceuticals Used in Nuclear Medicine Imaging
4.1. Nuclear medicine
4.2. Cancer
4.3. General information on radiopharmaceuticals
4.4. Nuclear medicine imaging techniques: PET and SPECT
4.5. Appendices on dementia diseases
References
Index
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End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1. Frequencies of some musical notes (“#“ symbol for diese and “b” sym...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1. The three proton–proton chains leading to the formation of helium-4...
Table 2.2. Combustibles, fusion temperatures and nuclei formed during stellar. ..
Table 2.3. The four series of reactions known as the CNO cycle. As indicated i...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. The eight elements that make up more than 98% of the composition of...
Table 3.2. Abundance of argon (Ar) and potassium (K) isotopes
Table 3.3.
40
K decay constants
Table 3.4. Main radionuclides constituting the fallout from nuclear weapons te...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1. Most frequent locations according to cancer incidence and prevalenc...
Table 4.2. Recommendations from cancer organizations
Table 4.3. Radioisotopes used in SPECT
Table 4.4. Main radioelements used in PET
Table 4.5. Main scintigraphies and their uses. Source : https://www.vidal.fr/s...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1. French schematic illustration of the Buys-Ballot experiment. Trump...
Figure 1.2. Schematic illustration of the redshift in the spectrum of a light ...
Figure 1.3. A light source S moving at speed emits a wave with the wave vecto...
Figure 1.4. Illustration of the principle of redshift measurement using the sp...
Figure 1.5. Diagram of Hubble’s discovery of the expansion of the universe. Th...
Figure 1.6. Chronology of the universe’s evolution after the Big Bang.
Figure 1.7. Existence of a universe U0 where the Big Bang occurred at time t0 ...
Figure 1.8. Variation of the inverse of the coupling constants of the strong (...
Figure 1.9. Illustration of the grand unification (GU): separation of the grav...
Figure 1.10. Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. Source: https://www.space.fm/astrono...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. The network of nuclear reactions most relevant to primordial nucle...
Figure 2.2. Proton–proton cycle for the Sun.
Figure 2.3. The Sun’s evolution over the last 4.5 billion years. Its death is ...
Figure 2.4. The core of a massive star with an “onion skin” structure before a...
Figure 2.5. Evolution of a contracting star as a function of mass. Rectangles ...
Figure 2.6. Neutron capture processes (s processes) during explosive nucleosyn...
Figure 2.7. Radiative neutron capture process.
Figure 2.8. Natural abundance of chemical elements formed during the three nuc...
Figure 2.9. Triple-alpha reaction. The third helium nucleus fuses with a beryl...
Figure 2.10. Spontaneous decay from the Hoyle state (located at 7,654 MeV) to ...
Figure 2.11. Schematic illustration of the principle of AX + a resonant elasti...
Figure 2.12. CNO (Carbon–Nitrogen–Oxygen) or Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle. It featur...
Figure 2.13. Diagram of the excited levels of the compound nucleus 15O resulti...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. Packard Tri-carb 3170TR/SL liquid scintillation meter
Figure 3.2. Lightning-induced nuclear reaction with the production of carbon-1...
Figure 3.3. Radiocarbon ages versus expected calendar ages. (a) Curve of radio...
Figure 3.4. Normal distribution with mean 0 and standard deviation 1, with nor...
Figure 3.5. Calibration of a conventional age of 2,725 ± 50 years BP by interc...
Figure 3.6. Distributions of a radiocarbon age of 2,450 ± 75 years BP before a...
Figure 3.7. Estimation of calibrated intervals. The top two graphs illustrate ...
Figure 3.8. Potassium-40 decay energy diagram. Here are its three disintegrati...
Figure 3.9(a). Interface corer producing 9 cm diameter cores [DEG 17]
Figure 3.9(b). Core drilling principle based on an interface corer
Figure 3.10. Origins of supported lead-210 (210Pbsup) and excess lead-210 (210...
Figure 3.11. Atmospheric fallout following a nuclear explosion [REN 15]. The t...
Figure 3.12. Cesium-137 decay diagram
Figure 3.13. 137Cs activity profile as a function of core depth and sampling d...
Figure 3.14. Natural uranium-238 series (often referred to as the uranium-radi...
Figure 3.15. Time evolution of isotopic ratios 230Th/238U and 231Pa/235U for s...
Figure 3.16. Time evolution of the isotope ratios (234U/238U) and (230Th/238U)...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1. Evolution of cancer. Image adapted from Béliveau and Gingras [BÉL ...
Figure 4.2. Angiogenesis. Tissue growth gives rise to a new area of tissue tha...
Figure 4.3. Angiogenesis, an essential process in tumor growth. Image adapted ...
Figure 4.4. Schematic representation of possible changes in the incidence of a...
Figure 4.5(a). Experimental set-up for thin-layer chromatography. Note the dep...
Figure 4.5(b). Chromatography tank. Here the solvent front and the deposition ...
Figure 4.5(c). Baseline preparation principle
Figure 4.5(d). Example of chromatogram. Only the components of controls 2 and ...
Figure 4.5(e). Principle for determining the frontal ratio on a chromatogram. ...
Figure 4.6. Process of annihilation of a positron emitted by a radioisotope
Figure 4.7. Principle of positron emission tomography (PET) (see: https://mult...
Figure 4.8. PET scan equipment. See: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/dia...
Figure 4.9. The structure of dopamine
Figure 4.10. Structure of rotenone
Figure 4.11. Structures of MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine)...
Figure 4.12. Structures of heroin and morphine
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Dedication Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
References
Index
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WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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I dedicate this book to my darling baby Mariama
Nuclear Physics 2
Radiochronometers and Radiopharmaceuticals
Ibrahima Sakho
First published 2024 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2024The rights of Ibrahima Sakho to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2024931599
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-733-0
Preface
Nuclear physics is the study of the properties of atomic nuclei. Its aim is to understand the properties of nucleons and the mechanisms of nuclear reactions (spontaneous and induced), with a view to describing the various processes of elastic and inelastic nucleus–nucleus interactions.
Radionuclides are useful in many areas of everyday life: archaeology, biology, agronomy, medicine, industry, etc. Among the most spectacular are applications in radiochronometry (dating of archaeological objects, sediments and soils for the detection of anthropogenic pollutants, etc.) and nuclear medicine (radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine imaging, radiotherapy, etc.). The production of electrical energy in nuclear power plants exploits the properties of nuclear fission reactions. In addition, the study of nuclear physics enables us to understand many astrophysical phenomena, such as nucleosynthesis processes (primordial, stellar, explosive) within the framework of the Big Bang model. The study of these processes allows understanding of the origin of chemical elements and how to model the evolution of stars from their birth to their explosive end, for example, in supernovae and neutron stars [SAK 22].
This book, entitled Nuclear Physics 2: Radiochronometers and Radiopharmaceuticals, is divided into four chapters.
Chapter 1 is devoted to a description of the Big Bang model, enabling us to understand the origin of all known chemical elements from nucleosynthesis reactions. The chapter begins with a presentation of Christian Doppler’s (1804–1853) theory, which led to his hypothesis of the physical phenomenon known as the Doppler effect in the case of sound waves. This is followed by a description of Christoph Buys-Ballot’s (1817–1890) historic experiment confirming the Doppler effect. The study then turns to Armand Hippolyte Fizeau’s (1819–1896) theory of the Doppler effect as it applies to light waves. This study establishes the formula for the Doppler–Fizeau effect, based on the transformation laws of the wave quadrivector. This is followed by a study of the longitudinal and transverse Doppler effects in the classical approximation for weakly relativistic motions, and the derivation of the Doppler–Fizeau formula used to interpret the redshift phenomenon of light sources in relative motion, and to calculate the radial velocity of a star or galaxy. In addition, the link between the sign of the Doppler shift and the relative motion of a light source is studied in the classical approximation, to highlight the phenomenon of redshift in the spectrum of stars and galaxies in particular. Following these developments, the principle of redshift measurement is illustrated schematically using the spectrum of the galaxy named NGC 3627 (NGC: New General Catalogue). Following this study of the redshift interpreted by the Doppler–Fizeau effect, the chapter then turns to the theoretical and experimental facts that have validated the Big Bang model. These range from the observation of the redshift to the discovery of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). This historical overview begins with the first observations of the redshift phenomenon in the spectral lines of galaxies by de Vesto Melvin Slipher (1875–1969). This is followed by the work of Alexander Friedmann (1888–1925), who first published a theory of the expansion of the universe. The work of Georges Lemaître (1894–1966), linking the expansion of the universe with observations of the escape velocity of extragalactic nebulae, and his formulation of the “primitive atom” hypothesis to explain the origin of the universe by introducing the notion of instant zero, figure prominently in this historical review. The presentation of this work is followed by Edwin Hubble’s (1889–1953) decisive observations showing that the variation of velocity with distance is linear, a relationship known as the Lemaitre–Hubble law. Various attempts to estimate the Hubble constant denoted H0 are then discussed. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background, the decisive argument in favor of the Big Bang theory, ends this historical review. This is followed by a brief description of the chronology of the universe’s evolution after the Big Bang. The various eras that characterize the chronology of the universe are studied: the Planck era, the era of grand unification, the era of inflation, the era of baryogenesis and primordial nucleosynthesis, the era of quark–gluon plasma formation, the era of nucleosynthesis, the dark age of the universe, designating the era beginning with radiation–matter decoupling, the radiative era and finally the era of star and galaxy formation. The chapter is interspersed with corrected application exercises.
Chapter 2 is reserved for the study of the various nucleosynthesis processes that began almost 1 second after the Big Bang and lasted approximately 3 minutes. The chapter begins with an overview of the concept of chemical elements, of which there are 118 known, 90 of which occur naturally on Earth. This is followed by a detailed study of the processes of primordial, stellar and explosive nucleosynthesis. The study of primordial nucleosynthesis describes the formation of light elements such as hydrogen, deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, lithium-6 and lithium-7 in the first instants of the universe. The study of stellar nucleosynthesis enables us to understand the origin of carbon-12, oxygen-16, neon-20, sodium-23, magnesium-24, silicon-28 and 30, sulfur-31 and phosphorus-30 and 31, as well as that of all nuclei up to iron-56. We then study the formation of all elements heavier than iron and isotopes synthesized via the s (slow) and r (rapid) processes during explosive nucleosynthesis. This study enables us to describe the “slow” neutron capture process via the s process, as well as the rapid process of radiative neutron capture followed by decay, which provides about half the abundance of elements beyond iron up to uranium. This chapter also covers the spallation process, corresponding to the formation or destruction of large nuclei by very high-energy particles (such as the nucleosynthesis of Li, Be and B in the interstellar medium), and the photodisintegration process, which reflects the destruction of nuclei by photons. The study then focuses on the description of important nucleus-forming processes, such as the triple-alpha reaction, a set of nuclear fusion reactions simultaneously transforming three α particles (helium-4 nuclei) into carbon-12 nuclei via the unstable beryllium-8 nucleus. We also look at the formation of compound nuclei, in particular, the 14N (p, γ) 15O reaction involved in the CNO (Carbon–Nitrogen–Oxygen) or the Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle studied in astrophysics. Finally, the chapter focuses on the classification of natural and artificial radionuclides in the environment. The chapter is also interspersed with corrected application exercises.
Chapter 3 is dedicated to the study of radiochronometers applied to dating. It begins with a study of the principle of carbon-14 dating. This introduces the notions of cosmogenic isotopes, cosmic radiation and calendar age. It introduces the notions of the “Bomb” effect and the “Suess” effect, which contribute to modifying the concentration of radiocarbon in the atmosphere. It also introduces the notion of the reservoir effect, reflecting the fact that oceanic and atmospheric concentrations of radioactive 14C are not homogeneous. Next, the study focuses on the principle of potassium–argon (K–Ar) dating. This method establishes the age equation of a volcanic eruption, only taking into account the 40Ar resulting from the decay of the 40K present in the lava (this argon 40 is often referred to as 40Ar*). Next, the age equation is corrected to take account of the 40Ar atmosphere, so that the results obtained with the K–Ar clock can be properly used. This is followed by a description of the principle of dating soils or sediments using the radiochronometers lead-210, cesium-137 and beryllium-7. A description of the principle of lead-210 dating explains the origins of supported lead-210 (210Pbsup) and excess lead-210 (210Pbex) in sediments. Next, the CFCS (Constant Flux and Constant Sedimentation), CRS (Constant Rate of Supply) and CIC (Constant Initial Concentration) models are described, enabling the age of a sediment to be determined experimentally. This chapter features a study of the atmospheric nuclear tests carried out between 1945 and 1980, and of the Chernobyl accident in 1986, the second largest source of cesium-137 in the atmosphere. This is followed by a description of the principle of 137Cs radiochronometer dating. This involves taking core samples from the sediment in question and interpreting the 137Cs activity profile, according to the sampling date. This is followed by a description of the principle of dating using the cosmonuclide 7Be, formed in the troposphere by nuclear spallation. The chapter concludes with a description of the principle of dating using the uranium–thorium radiochronometer to determine the age of certain carbonate formations of animal or sedimentary origin, and the principle of dating using the uranium–thorium and uranium–protactinium radiochronometers for coral dating. As in previous chapters, corrected application exercises are provided at various points in the chapter.
Chapter 4 is devoted to general information on radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine imaging. The chapter begins with a definition of nuclear medicine and the aims of this discipline. This is followed by a description of the various fields of application of nuclear medicine, and then a brief overview of the birth of nuclear medicine, from the first use of radioisotopes as tracers in plant biology in 1913 to the development of positron emission tomography (PET) in 1975. Following this genesis, the different types of diseases diagnosed in nuclear medicine are examined. These include cardiovascular diseases, cancers and neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Lewy body dementia. This is followed by a general introduction to cancer, focusing on cellular organization in the body and the evolution of cancer cells, leading to the notion of tumor and the formation of metastases. This development introduces the notions of carcinogenesis (or oncogenesis). Next, a description of normal and tumor angiogenesis is given, introducing the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). This biological factor plays an essential role in normal and pathological vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Following this description, the development focuses on global cancer epidemiology data between 2018 and 2023, as well as recommendations from cancer agencies. Then, the specific properties of radiopharmaceuticals are studied, in particular, the process of synthesizing radiopharmaceutical drugs. The quality control of radiopharmaceuticals is examined, introducing the concepts of radiochemical purity, radionuclidic purity and abnormal toxicity testing. This is followed by a description of the various experimental methods for determining radiochemical purity, such as thin layer chromatography (TLC), column chromatography (CSC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Following this development, the principles of PET and single-photon emission tomography (SPECT) are described. The chapter then goes on to describe the different radioisotopes used in nuclear medicine imaging, as well as the PET-scan or TEP-scan (Positron Emission Tomography, coupled with a scanner). Finally, the chapter closes with a presentation of the main scintigraphies and their uses in nuclear medicine.
The four chapters are followed by three appendices devoted to a study of neurodegenerative dementia, in relation to the content of section 4.6 of Chapter 4. These examine the properties of the radiopharmaceutical 123I-ioflupane, used for differential diagnosis between essential tremor and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease, Lewy body dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Detailed explanations are given of the causes and effects, risk factors and diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (Appendix 1), which is responsible for cognitive and behavioral disorders in 35 million sufferers according to studies carried out in 2022, Lewy body dementia (Appendix 2), which is very common and accounts for approximately 20% of dementia cases, and Parkinson’s disease (Appendix 3), with a prevalence of over 2% after the age of 65, according to studies carried out in 2020. These appendices are followed by an extensive bibliography, enabling readers to deepen their knowledge of the book, which is rounded off by an index.
We would like to express our gratitude to Prof. Maurice NDEYE, Director of Research and Head of the Carbon-14 Laboratory at the Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar, Senegal, for his valuable review notes on radiocarbon 14 dating. Likewise, our warm thanks to Dr Frédéric Thévenin, Astrophysicist at the Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur – Nice, France, for his invaluable corrections and remarks on nucleosynthesis processes.
This book is written for pupils, physical science teachers, students, teacher-researchers and professionals working in the fields of astrophysics, dating-related environmental sciences and nuclear medicine.
This book is written in clear, concise language, with a typographical structure similar to that of Volume 1. Each chapter begins with a presentation of the general objective, the specific objectives and the prerequisites for understanding the chapter to be studied. In addition, each chapter is interspersed with simple application exercises for a good understanding of the properties of the radioelements studied.
This book does not attempt to cover every aspect of radioelement origins and applications in radiochronometry, nor of the duality between nuclear medicine and radiopharmaceuticals. As human work can be improved, we are always ready to listen to our readers’ suggestions, comments and criticisms, which could help improve the scientific quality of this book.
February 2024
