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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Get the updated industry standard for a new age of construction!
For more than fifty years, Olin’s Construction has been the cornerstone reference in the field for architecture and construction professionals and students. This new edition is an invaluable resource that will provide in-depth coverage for decades to come. You’ll find the most up-to-date principles, materials, methods, codes, and standards used in the design and construction of contemporary concrete, steel, masonry, and wood buildings for residential, commercial, and institutional use. Organized by the principles of the MasterFormat® 2010 Update, this edition:
- Covers sitework; concrete, steel, masonry, wood, and plastic materials; sound control; mechanical and electrical systems; doors and windows; finishes; industry standards; codes; barrier-free design; and much more
- Offers extensive coverage of the metric system of measurement
- Includes more than 1,800 illustrations, 175 new to this edition and more than 200 others, revised to bring them up to date
- Provides vital descriptive information on how to design buildings, detail components, specify materials and products, and avoid common pitfalls
- Contains new information on sustainability, expanded coverage of the principles of construction management and the place of construction managers in the construction process, and construction of long span structures in concrete, steel, and wood
The most comprehensive text on the subject, Olin’s Construction covers not only the materials and methods of building construction, but also building systems and equipment, utilities, properties of materials, and current design and contracting requirements. Whether you’re a builder, designer, contractor, or manager, join the readers who have relied on the principles of Olin’s Construction for more than two generations to master construction operations.
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Seitenzahl: 3618
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
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Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments for the Ninth Edition
Disclaimer
Chapter 1: Design and Contracting Requirements
Introduction
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
1.1 Building Design
1.2 Industry Standards
1.3 Codes
1.4 Barrier-Free Design
1.5 Sustainable Building Design
1.6 Construction Documents
1.7 Bidding and Negotiation
1.8 Construction Contract Administration
1.9 Construction Management
1.10 Additional Reading
1.11 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 2: Existing Conditions
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
2.1 Land Surveys and Descriptions
2.2 Demolition
2.3 Subsurface Investigation
2.4 Additional Reading
2.5 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 3: Concrete
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
3.1 History
3.2 Concrete Materials
3.3 Formwork
3.4 Reinforcement
3.5 Accessories
3.6 Joints
3.7 Mixtures and Mixing
3.8 Handling, Transporting, Placing, and Consolidating
3.9 Finishing
3.10 Curing and Protection
3.11 Concrete Foundation Systems
3.12 Concrete Slabs on Grade
3.13 Cast-in-Place Structural Concrete
3.14 Precast Concrete
3.15 Specialty Concretes
3.16 Concrete Toppings
3.17 Structural Insulating Roof Decks
3.18 Underlayment
3.19 Additional Reading
3.20 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 4: Masonry
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
4.1 History
4.2 Mortar and Grout
4.3 Reinforcement, Ties, Anchors, and Flashing
4.4 Clay Masonry Units
4.5 Concrete Masonry Units
4.6 Unit Masonry Design
4.7 Unit Masonry Erection
4.8 Stone
4.9 Glass Unit Masonry
4.10 Properties of Selected Masonry Walls
4.11 Additional Reading
4.12 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 5: Metals
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormat TM Sections
5.1 Iron and Steel Materials and Products
5.2 Aluminum Materials and Products
5.3 Joints and Connections in Metal Assemblies
5.4 Structural Steel Framing
5.5 Steel Joists and Joist Girders
5.6 Steel Decking
5.7 Long Spans in Steel Construction
5.8 Steel Stairs
5.9 Cold-Formed Metal Framing
5.10 Other Metals
5.11 Metal Finishes
5.12 Additional Reading
5.13 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 6: Wood, Plastics, and Composites
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
6.1 Properties of Wood
6.2 Lumber
6.3 Engineered Wood Products
6.4 Wood Protection
6.5 Foundations
6.6 General Framing Requirements
6.7 Conventional Framing and Furring
6.8 Structural Panels
6.9 Shop-Fabricated Structural Wood
6.10 Sheathing
6.11 Other Framing Systems
6.12 Long Span Wood Structures
6.13 Finish Carpentry
6.14 Plastics
6.15 Additional Reading
6.16 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 7: Thermal and Moisture Protection
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
7.1 Moisture Control
7.2 Dampproofing and Waterproofing
7.3 Thermal Insulation
7.4 Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems
7.5 Weather and Air Barriers
7.6 Steep-Slope Roofing
7.7 Siding
7.8 Membrane Roofing Systems
7.9 Flashing and Sheet Metal
7.10 Metal Roofing
7.11 Roof Specialties and Accessories
7.12 Fireproofing
7.13 Joint Protection
7.14 Additional Reading
7.15 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 8: Openings
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
8.1 Metal Doors and Frames
8.2 Wood and Plastic Doors
8.3 Specialty Doors
8.4 Entrances and Storefronts
8.5 Glazed Aluminum Curtain Walls
8.6 Metal Windows and Sliding Glass Doors
8.7 Wood and Plastic Windows and Sliding Glass Doors
8.8 Storm and Screen Doors and Windows
8.9 Door Hardware
8.10 Glazing
8.11 Additional Reading
8.12 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 9: Finishes
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
9.1 Supports for Plaster and Gypsum Board
9.2 Materials for Plaster and Gypsum Board
9.3 Gypsum Plaster Mixes and Application
9.4 Portland Cement Plaster Mixes and Application
9.5 Gypsum Board
9.6 Tiling
9.7 Acoustical Treatment
9.8 Brick Flooring and Paving
9.9 Stone Flooring and Paving
9.10 Wood Flooring
9.11 Resilient Flooring
9.12 Terrazzo Flooring
9.13 Fluid-Applied Flooring
9.14 Carpeting
9.15 Vinyl-Coated Fabric Wall Coverings
9.16 Painting
9.17 Special Coatings
9.18 Additional Reading
9.19 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 10: Specialties
Introduction
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
10.1 Fire Protection Specialties
10.2 Additional Reading
10.3 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 11: Furnishings
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
11.1 Wood and Decorative Laminate Casework
11.2 Window Treatment
11.3 Additional Reading
11.4 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 12: Special Construction
Introduction
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
12.1 Sound Control
12.2 Additional Reading
12.3 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 13: Conveying Systems
Introduction
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
13.1 Elevators and Lifts
13.2 Escalators and Moving Walks
13.3 Additional Reading
13.4 References
Chapter 14: Fire Suppression
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
14.1 Fire Suppression Standpipe Systems
14.2 Fire Suppression Sprinkler Systems
14.3 Fire Extinguishing Systems
14.4 Additional Reading
14.5 References
Chapter 15: Plumbing
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
15.1 Codes, Laws, and Industry Standards
15.2 Water Supply
15.3 Drainage
15.4 Plumbing Fixtures
15.5 Sound Control
15.6 Additional Reading
15.7 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 16: Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
16.1 Heat and Comfort
16.2 Building Design Recommendations
16.3 Heat Loss and Heat Gain
16.4 Commissioning
16.5 HVAC Controls
16.6 HVAC Delivery Systems
16.7 Central HVAC Equipment
16.8 Decentralized HVAC Equipment
16.9 Additional Reading
16.10 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 17: Electrical
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
17.1 Fundamentals of Electricity
17.2 Service and Distribution
17.3 Lightning Protection
17.4 Lighting
17.5 Additional Reading
17.6 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 18: Communications
Introduction
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
18.1 Communications Systems
18.2 Additional Reading
18.3 References
Chapter 19: Electronic Safety and Security
Introduction
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
19.1 Intrusion Prevention and Detection
19.2 Fire Detection and Alarm
19.3 Additional Reading
19.4 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 20: Earthwork
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
20.1 Soils
20.2 Site Clearing
20.3 Earthwork
20.4 Surface Water and Groundwater Problems
20.5 Special Foundations and Load-Bearing Elements
20.6 Additional Reading
20.7 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 21: Exterior Improvements
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
21.1 Lawns and Landscaping
21.2 Additional Reading
21.3 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 22: Utilities
Introduction
Sustainability Considerations
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
22.1 Water Supply Sources
22.2 Sanitary Sewage Utilities
22.3 Subdrainage Systems and Storm Drainage Utilities
22.4 Electric Power Distribution
22.5 Additional Reading
22.6 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 23: Properties of Materials
Introduction
23.1 Structure of Matter
23.2 Properties of Matter
23.3 Additional Reading
23.4 Acknowledgments and References
Chapter 24: The Metric System of Measurement
Introduction
24.1 The History of Measurement
24.2 The Metric System
24.3 The International System of Units
24.4 SI Units for Design and Construction
24.5 Conversion of Numerical Values
24.6 Preferred Dimensions and Coordination
24.7 Metric Conversions Applicable to This Book
24.8 Additional Reading
24.9 Acknowledgments and References
Glossary
Index
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Simmons, H. Leslie. Simmons, H. Leslie. Olin's construction : principles, materials, and methods / H. Leslie Simmons. – 9th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-54740-3 (cloth); 978-1-118-04360-8 (ebk); 978-1-118-04361-5 (ebk); 978-1-118-06703-1 (ebk); 978-1-118-06704-8 (ebk); 978-1-118-06705-5 (ebk) 1. Building. I. Olin, Harold Bennett. II. Title. TH145.S513 2011 690–dc22 2010050396
Preface
Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods is a widely adopted course textbook in nearly 200 colleges and universities offering architectural and building technology curricula. It is also becoming a standard reference source in professional offices. The seventh edition has been translated into mainland Chinese for distribution in China.
This ninth edition is the result of almost 55 years of research and editorial effort costing several million dollars. During the book's first 26 years, much of this work was carried out in an ongoing membership education program initiated in 1964 by the United States League of Savings Institutions. Therefore, the first five editions were directed primarily to the home construction portion of the construction industry. They included coverage, much of it extensive, of wood construction, masonry, interior and exterior finishes, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning, plumbing, electrical, and many other subjects as they related to small residential construction. The discussions about mechanical and electrical systems were limited to requirements for residential construction.
The sixth edition was the result of the earlier research and a major program carried out during the 3 years prior to its publication by its then publisher, Van Nostrand Reinhold. This program consisted of completely revising the data in the previous edition to reflect the many changes that had occurred in recent years and to bring those data up-to-date with latest industry standards. Furthermore, new data were added to introduce construction materials and methods not in general use when the previous edition was prepared. Materials and construction methods related to most commercial construction, including high-rise buildings, larger residential and institutional buildings were also added. As a result, the sixth edition introduced materials and systems used in most types of building construction. Construction systems covered included those of both precast and cast-in-place concrete, steel, wood, and masonry. The sixth edition also covered doors and windows; glazed curtain walls; glazing; and finishes, including plaster, gypsum board, tile, terrazzo, acoustical ceilings and other acoustical treatment, wood flooring, resilient flooring, carpet, and painting and finishing.
Coverage was given to industry standards, codes, land survey and descriptions, properties of materials, barrier-free design, metrication, siteworks (including excavation, grading, shoring and sheeting, and other earthwork), and sound control in buildings.
The seventh edition further developed the book as a modern teaching and research tool for residential, commercial, and institutional building construction. It contained almost 1200 pages divided into 16 chapters. The organization and names of these chapters were similar to those used in the 1995 edition of MasterFormatTM, which made the seventh edition easier to relate to the specifications and data filing formats then being used in the construction industry.
The seventh edition covered most of the subjects addressed in the sixth edition but supplemented them with much new data. New subjects in the seventh edition included discussions of the architect's role in building design and construction, including the development of construction documents, and the architect's responsibilities during the bidding and negotiation and construction phases of a building construction project. The sections on codes and standards were expanded to include a discussion of their effect on building design. Additional subjects included glass-fiber reinforced concrete, concrete toppings, cement-based underlayment, glass unit masonry, miscellaneous metal fabrications, heavy timber framing, finish carpentry, wood siding, metal roofing, door hardware, stone flooring, resinous flooring, wall coverings, fire protection specialties, residential appliances, unit kitchens, elevators, and fire sprinkler systems. The discussions of mechanical systems were greatly expanded to include information related to buildings other than residences. For example, there was coverage of the different types of HVAC systems, including heating systems (forced air, air-water, steam, water, electrical), components (boiler types, furnaces, controls, finned tube radiators, radiant heaters and panels, heat recovery systems, ducts, pipes, diffusers, grills, and registers), and fuels (coal, gas, electricity). There was also coverage of cooling systems including discussions of the refrigeration cycle, cooling components, heat pumps, direct refrigeration, and delivery systems (fan coil units, unit ventilators). The electrical discussion was expanded to include commercial lighting and cable distribution systems.
The eighth edition continued the book's development as a modern teaching and research tool. It also contained about 1200 pages. It included the same subjects covered in the seventh edition, updating them when necessary. It also included the new subjects discussed earlier and added materials and systems that did not exist when earlier editions were published. To make the book more useful to the teaching profession, an Instructor's Manual was available for use with the eighth edition.
In addition, the eighth edition was extensively revised to bring it essentially into agreement with MasterFormatTM 2004. It contained 25 chapters, with chapter numbers and titles revised where necessary to bring them into conformance with MasterFormatTM 2004, with two exceptions. First, MasterFormatTM 2004 is divided into two groups, the “Procurement and Contracting Requirements Group” and the “Specifications Group.” The eighth edition of Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods did not divide data into these two groups. Rather, Chapter 1, “Design and Contracting Requirements,” addressed some requirements from the “Procurement and Contracting Requirements Group” and many requirements not specifically covered by MasterFormatTM 2004, including building design, industry standards, codes, barrier-free design, sustainable building design, construction documents, bidding and negotiation, construction contract administration, and construction management.
The second exception related to the numbering and naming of chapters within the “Specifications Group.” The names and numbers of Chapters 2 through 14 exactly mirrored those used in MasterFormatTM 2004. With a few exceptions, the subdivision of data in Chapters 2 through 14, the names associated with those data, and the order of presentation of those data were essentially the same as the names and order used in MasterFormatTM 2004. In the interest of continuity, the numbers associated with individual data varied somewhat from those used in MasterFormatTM 2004, and some headings that are separate from each other in MasterFormatTM 2004 were combined in Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods. In addition, some names were altered to more correctly reflect the data contained in a particular section.
Many of MasterFormatTM 2004's divisions 15 through 49 were reserved for future expansion of the system and therefore contained no data. It makes little sense to have book with chapters that contain no data. Therefore, Chapters 15 through 25 of the eighth edition of Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods followed the order used in MasterFormatTM 2004, but the names and numbers used were different. For example: “Fire Suppression,” which was Division 21 in MasterFormatTM 2004, was Chapter 15 in the eighth edition of Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods; Chapter 16, “Plumbing,” was Division 22 in MasterFormatTM 2004; and so forth. The “Applicable MasterFormatTM 2004” section of each chapter indicated the MasterFormatTM 2004 level 2 headings that were applicable to that chapter.
MasterFormatTM 2004 moved subject matter from its location in the 1995 edition of MasterFormatTM to new locations. The eighth edition of Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods also relocated these data to agree with MasterFormatTM 2004. For example, Earthwork was in Division 2 of the 1995 edition of MasterFormatTM and in Chapter 2 of the seventh edition of Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods. In MasterFormatTM 2004, Earthwork was in Division 31. Because there were no unused chapter numbers in the eighth edition for reasons discussed earlier, there was no Chapter 31. Earthwork was, therefore, moved to the corresponding consecutive number, which was Chapter 21.
In addition to the subjects mentioned earlier that were covered in Chapter 1 of the eighth edition of Olin's Construction Principles, Materials, and Methods but not listed in MasterFormatTM 2004, other subjects not included in MasterFormatTM 2004 were also included in the eighth edition. For example, Chapter 2 addressed land survey and description, but MasterFormatTM 2004 did not include them. Several chapters also included discussion of the manufacture of products and systems related to those chapters, and several chapters had a discussion of the background and history associated with the covered materials or systems. Chapter 24, “Properties of Materials,” and Chapter 25, “The Metric System of Measurement,” are not listed in MasterFormatTM 2004.
The version of MasterFormatTM in effect at the time of the writing of the ninth edition of Olin's Construction Principles, Materials, and Methods was MasterFormatTM 2010 Update. The ninth edition updates the eighth edition following the same principles as were used in the eighth edition but follows the intent of MasterFormatTM 2010 Update with some necessary modifications. Except for Chapter 1, the chapters in the ninth edition have the same names as the divisions, and the data they contain are roughly those included in the corresponding division of MasterFormatTM 2010 Update. The numbers of Chapters 2 through 10 are the same as the corresponding division in MasterFormatTM 2010 Update. Division 11 “Equipment” is not used in the ninth edition. The order and the names of the rest of the chapters are the same as those in MasterFormatTM 2010 Update's divisions, but the chapter numbers differ from those of MasterFormat TM 2010 Update's divisions.
In addition, some divisions of MasterFormatTM 2010 Update are beyond the scope of this book and are thus not included here. These include divisions covering integrated automation, transportation, waterway and marine construction, and the entire “Process Equipment Group” of MasterFormatTM 2010 Update.
Furthermore, because the order of sections in MasterFormatTM tends to change slightly from edition to edition, some of the subjects in the ninth edition of this book differ in location from the order used in MasterFormatTM 2010 Update. Moreover, the limited size of the book precludes discussing every section listed in MasterFormatTM 2010 Update.
Construction managers have been associated with large construction projects for many years, but their concerns have been inadequately addressed in most university-level textbooks. Earlier editions of Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods included coverage of most of the technical construction–related subjects that need to be addressed by construction managers. The eighth edition supplemented those data with new Section 1.9, “Construction Management,” to address construction management in far more depth than existed in earlier editions. The ninth edition continues to address these subjects.
Many chapters of the eighth edition contained a section titled “Sustainability Considerations.” These sections supplement the data presented in Section 1.5, “Sustainable Building Design.” The purpose of these sections was to alert the reader to the implications of the covered subjects for the sustainability of the structure and their effects on the natural environment. The ninth edition continues this process.
Extensive rewriting was done in the eighth edition in recognition of the advent of the International Codes and the demise of the previous three major model code groups. References to the earlier codes were largely removed, and references to the International Code® were substituted. The ninth edition reflects the continuing development of the International Codes® referring to the 2009 editions.
The ninth edition continues the book's development as a modern teaching and research tool. It also contains about 1200 pages. To make the book more useful to the teaching profession, an Instructor's Manual is available for use with the ninth edition.
The ninth edition follows the same format used in the eighth edition and covers the same subjects, updating them to correspond with changes in the construction industry since the eighth edition was published. The ninth edition expands the coverage in the eighth edition of sustainability considerations and green building design. Code references in the ninth edition are to the latest codes including the 2009 International Codes. The section covering standards has been updated to reflect current standards-setting organizations. Additional data have been added related to sustainability both in the Chapter 1 section “Sustainable Building Design” and in individual chapters. A new section covers Building Information Modeling (BIM). Sections have been added to address long span concrete, wood, and metal structures; and steel and wood stairs; specialty concrete including synthetic fiber, glass-fiber, and ultra-high-performance fiber reinforced concrete, and micro-concrete. Coverage of epoxy terrazzo has been expanded.
The ninth edition contains more than 170 images new to this edition. Many of them are replacements of outdated images in earlier editions added to better reflect current materials and methods.
A list of applicable MasterFormatTM 2010 Update sections has been included as a subsection in each chapter. The numbers and titles used in this textbook are from MasterFormatTM 2010 Update, published by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC), and are used with permission from CSI. For those interested in a more in-depth explanation of MasterFormatTM 2010 Update and its use in the construction industry, visit www.csinet.org/masterformat or contact:
The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
110 South Union Street, Suite 100
Alexandria, VA 22314
(800) 689-2900; (703) 684-0300
www.csinet.org
An attempt has been made to cover every principle, material, and method used to design and construct both large and small buildings of most types. The information presented includes the background and history of the materials and systems described. In each case, materials and their manufacture are discussed first, followed by the methods of construction used to erect these materials.
Dual measurements in the metric system are included throughout the book. To avoid changing copyrighted figures, however, metric measures have not been added to them. Instead, Figure 24.7-1 has been added to list all metric conversions that were not made in these figures.
Each chapter has a section called “Additional Reading,” which lists sources of additional information about the subjects discussed in that chapter. Each chapter also contains a section titled, “Acknowledgments and References,” which lists the name and Web site address of the sources of data in that chapter. The ninth edition also includes an extensive glossary of terms used in the book.
Acknowledgments
It takes the help of many people and organizations to produce a book such as this. These include those who prepared previous editions. First and foremost of these are the original authors, Harold B. Olin, John L. Schmidt, and Walter H. Lewis, without whom this book would not exist. The preface for the fifth edition, written by the three authors, acknowledges the contributions of several persons: Research Associate Christina Farnsworth; Architectural Writer Richard Laya; and Production Editor Betsy Pavichevich.
Even though the original authors' material was, in most cases, extensively revised in the sixth edition and has been further revised in the seventh and eighth editions to bring it up-to-date with current materials, methods, and standards, the contribution of these original authors is to be commended.
I am indebted to the professionals, both practicing architects and teachers, who lent their time, energy, and expertise to review the sixth edition manuscript so that it would be more accurate and more useful as a text for students of architecture and allied fields. These include Harold B. Olin, AIA, the original primary editor of previous editions; Daniel W. Halpin, Ph.D., Professor and Head, Division of Construction Engineering and Management, Purdue University; Larry Grosse, Ph.D., Associate Professor, College of Architecture, Texas A&M University; and Terry L. Patterson, AIA, Professor, College of Architecture, University of Oklahoma, whose extensive, well-informed, and detailed comments contributed greatly to making this book as good as it could be. Professor Patterson was also the author of the sixth edition's Student Workbook and Instructor's Manual.
To determine the needs of the readers of Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods for development of the seventh edition, the sixth edition was reviewed by then current users, including teaching professionals and architects in practice. Their comments were of immeasurable help in developing the seventh edition. Among them were the aforementioned Harold B. Olin and Terry Patterson; and Atilla Lawrence, University of Nevada, Department of Architecture; Dana S. Mosher, Professor of Building Construction Technology, NHCTC/Manchester; Robert O. Segner, Jr., Professor of Construction Science, Department of Construction Science, College of Architecture, Texas A&M University; Khalid T. Al-Hamdouni, Rogers University School of Engineering; Maryrose McGowan, AIA, IIDA; and Tim Kirby, consultant to the construction industry.
I am also indebted to the professionals, both practicing architects and teachers, who lent their time, energy, and expertise to review the manuscript for the seventh edition so that it would be more accurate and more useful as a text for students of architecture and allied fields, and as a reference for professionals in practice. Their extensive, well-informed, and detailed comments contributed greatly to making this book a success. They include Harold B. Olin, William C. Mason, Owens Community College, Toledo, OH; Linda Swoboda, University of Nebraska; John Lebduska, Hope, NJ; Harold Tepper, New Jersey Institute of Technology; Felix Rospond, West Orange, NJ; and Anthony Abbate, Florida Atlantic University.
As with earlier editions, the seventh edition was reviewed by current users, including teaching professionals and architects in practice, to help determine the needs of readers for development of the eighth edition. Among these reviewers were Thomas Mills, Virginia Technological Institute and State University; Anthony Ray, R.A., CSI, CDT, Valencia Community College West Campus, Orlando, FL; Terry L. Patterson of University of Oklahoma; Wen Andrews of J. Sargent Reynolds Community College; Richard Clarke of Georgia Southern University; Rives Taylor of the University of Houston; David Gunderson of Colorado State University; T. Michael Toole of Bucknell University; Tim Brockman of Bemidji State University; and James Dahlin of the University of Nebraska.
I gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the many manufacturers, trade and professional associations, standards-setting bodies, government agencies, periodicals, book publishers, and individuals who provided valuable research material and illustrations, as well as text reviews and comments. Without their help, the eighth edition would not have been possible.
Finally, I would like to express my thanks to the professionals at John Wiley & Sons, Inc., who lent their talents to the eighth edition. They include Vice President and Publisher Amanda Miller; Acquisitions Editor Paul Drougas; Assistant Development Editor Lauren LaFrance; Editorial Assistant Raheli Millman; Senior Production Editor Donna Conte, who ably guided the book through production; and Matrix Publishing Services, which typeset the book.
Acknowledgments for the Ninth Edition
To determine the needs of the readers of Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods for development of the ninth edition, the eighth edition was reviewed by current users, including teaching professionals and architects in practice. Their comments were of immeasurable help in developing the eighth edition. Among them were Professor Wen M. Andrews of J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College; Professor Majid H. Akram of Texas Tech University; and James Dahlin of the University of Nebraska.
I gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the many manufacturers, trade and professional associations, standards-setting bodies, government agencies, periodicals, book publishers, and individuals who provided valuable research material and illustrations, as well as text reviews and comments. Without their help, this book would not have been possible. The names of most of them are listed in the “Acknowledgments and References” sections at the end of the chapters. I would especially like to thank Donald Jackson of GAF Materials Corporation; Stanley R. (Rob) Gustafson of the Woodwork Institute; Scott Parsons; Chris Twiford of Trout River Lumber; Kathy Krafka Harkema of the Pella Corporation; Dave Goodwin of TrusSteel, an ITW company; Brian Glass of Newborn Brothers Co., Inc.; Anna Tavlas of Corrugated Metals Inc.; Marilyn LeMoine and Tanya Rosendahl of APA—The Engineered Wood Association; Denise Lane of the Structural Building Components Association; Kelly Vaille of the Cedar Shake & Shingle Bureau; Elizabeth “Betty” Giacobazzi of Caterpillar Inc.; Shara Brooks of the U.S. Green Building Council; Roger Grant and Marie Willett of the Construction Specification Institute; Deborah Galey-Tucker, Rick Carroll, and Colleen Petry-Johnson of the International Code Council, Inc.; and Don Miller of Sherwood Arkansas for their assistance.
I would also like to thank my wife, Nancy, whose help and support have been invaluable.
I would also like to thank Judith Joseph, who initially contacted me about revising the book.
Finally, I would like to express my thanks to the professionals at John Wiley & Sons, Inc., who lent their talents to this work. They include Vice President and Publisher Amanda Miller; Acquisitions Editor Paul Drougas; Associate Developmental Editor, Lauren Olesky; Editorial Assistant Sadie Abuhoff; Production Editor Doug Salvemini, who ably guided the book through production; and Aptara, which typeset the book.
My sincere thanks to all those, both named and unnamed here, who participated in making this work better than it might otherwise have been.
H. Leslie Simmons, RA, CSI
Disclaimer
The information in this book was derived from data published by trade associations, standards-setting organizations, manufacturers, and government organizations, and from statements made to the author by their representatives; model codes; and related books and periodicals. The author and publisher have exercised their best judgment in selecting data to be presented, have reported the recommendations of the sources consulted in good faith, and have made every reasonable effort to make the data presented accurate and authoritative. However, neither the author nor the publisher warrants the accuracy or completeness of the data nor assumes liability for their fitness for a particular purpose. Users are expected to apply their own professional knowledge and experience or consult with someone who has such knowledge and experience when using the data contained in this book. Users are also expected to consult the original sources of the data, obtain additional and updated information as needed, and seek expert advice when appropriate.
A few manufacturers and products are mentioned in this book. Such mention is intended merely to indicate the existence of such products and manufacturers, not to imply endorsement by the author or the publisher of the mentioned manufacturer or product. Nor is there any implied endorsement of other products made by a mentioned manufacturer, or any statement made by a mentioned manufacturer or associated in any way with any product, its accompanying literature, or advertising copy.
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Chapter 1
Design and Contracting Requirements
Introduction
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
Building Design
Industry Standards
Codes
Barrier-Free Design
Sustainable Building Design
Construction Documents
Bidding and Negotiation
Construction Contract Administration
Construction Management
Additional Reading
Acknowledgments and References
Introduction
Many factors influence an architect's work related to building design and construction contract administration. In addition to architectural design, an architect must be aware of and conversant in site, structural, mechanical, and electrical design. He or she must also be aware of the legal constraints, such as codes, laws, and regulations, and of the many industry standards that influence design and construction. An architect must also be knowledgeable and conversant in the production of construction documents and must understand the means and methods used in constructing buildings. He or she must understand the construction process and be able to render an architect's services during the construction phase of a building project regardless of the construction contract type or employment by the owner of a construction manager. He or she must understand the financial constraints on building construction and be able to design within those constraints. And in all of these, an architect must not be just a jack-of-all-trades; he or she must be a master of them all.
This chapter covers facets of the building design and construction process that a professional must understand to be able to carry out an architect's responsibilities in the design and construction of buildings. The chapter also addresses the function of a construction manager in the construction process and the architect's relationship to a construction manager. Chapters 2 through 22 address construction materials and methods of design and construction of which an architect must be knowledgeable. Chapter 23 addresses the fundamental properties of materials. Chapter 24 describes the metric system of measurement.
The first five parts of this chapter discuss some of the many factors affecting building design.
Sections 1.6, 1.7, and 1.8 discuss the services architects provide related to a building construction project. The American Institute of Architects (AIA) has divided an architect's services into the categories basic and additional.
Basic services are those included in standard services contracts developed by AIA and included in the architect's basic fee for services.
Additional services are optional and are performed only when agreed to by the architect and the owner, with additional compensation to the architect.
Following the flow of a project from conception to the completion of the warranty period (one year after construction completion), an architect's services can be broken down into predesign services, design services, construction services, postconstruction services, and supplemental services.
Predesign services are additional services. They include such acts as programming, existing facilities studies, project budgeting, and site analysis.
Basic services include design and construction services. Design services are further broken down into schematic design, design development (a further refinement of schematic design documents), and construction documents services.
Construction services include services performed during the bidding and negotiation phase and those performed during the construction contract administration phase.
Postconstruction services are additional services performed after substantial completion of the building. They include such acts as maintenance and operational programming, record drawings, start-up assistance, and warranty review.
Supplemental services are additional services. They include such items as renderings, models, life cycle cost analysis, quantity surveys, graphic design, and many others.
Section 1.9 addresses the function of a construction manager related to a construction project and a construction manager's relationships to the owner, the architect, and the contractor.
Applicable MasterFormatTM Sections
The following MasterFormatTM 2010 Update Level 2 sections are applicable to this chapter.
00 11 00 Advertisements and Invitations00 21 00 Instructions00 22 00 Supplementary Instructions00 23 00 Procurement Definitions00 24 00 Procurement Scopes00 25 00 Procurement Meetings00 26 00 Procurement Substitution Procedures00 31 00 Available Project Information00 41 00 Bid Forms00 42 00 Proposal Forms00 43 00 Procurement Form Supplements00 45 00 Representations and Certifications00 51 00 Notice of Award00 52 00 Agreement Forms00 54 00 Agreement Form Supplements00 55 00 Notice to Proceed00 61 00 Bond Forms00 62 00 Certificates and Other Forms00 63 00 Clarification and Modification Forms00 65 00 Closeout Forms00 71 00 Contracting Definitions00 72 00 General Conditions00 73 00 Supplementary Conditions00 91 00 Precontract Revisions00 93 00 Record Clarifications and Proposals00 94 00 Record Modifications01 11 00 Summary of Work01 12 00 Multiple Contract Summary01 14 00 Work Restrictions01 18 00 Project Utility Sources01 21 00 Allowances01 22 00 Unit Prices01 23 00 Alternates01 24 00 Value Analysis01 25 00 Substitution Procedures01 26 00 Contract Modification Procedures01 29 00 Payment Procedures01 31 00 Project Management and Coordination01 32 00 Construction Progress Documentation01 33 00 Submittal Procedures01 35 00 Special Procedures01 41 00 Regulatory Requirements01 42 00 References01 43 00 Quality Assurance01 45 00 Quality Control01 51 00 Temporary Utilities01 52 00 Construction Facilities01 53 00 Temporary Construction01 54 00 Construction Aids01 55 00 Vehicular Access and Parking01 56 00 Temporary Barriers and Enclosures01 57 00 Temporary Controls01 58 00 Project Identification01 61 00 Common Product Requirements01 62 00 Product Options01 64 00 Owner-Furnished Products01 65 00 Product Delivery Requirements01 66 00 Product Storage and Handling Requirements01 71 00 Examination and Preparation01 73 00 Execution01 74 00 Cleaning and Waste Management01 75 00 Starting and Adjusting01 76 00 Protecting Installed Construction01 77 00 Closeout Procedures01 78 00 Closeout Submittals01 79 00 Demonstration and Training01 80 00 Performance Requirements01 91 00 Commissioning01 92 00 Facility Operation01 93 00 Facility Maintenance01 94 00 Facility Decommissioning1.1 Building Design
An architect's first and primary contractual responsibility related to building construction is design. Building design requires training, experience, an aesthetic sense, and an understanding of certain basic principles. Among these principles are (1) the objectives good design should strive for, (2) an architect's responsibilities related to design, (3) basic building use and shape types, and (4) available construction systems and methods.
1.1.1 DESIGN OBJECTIVES
An architect's primary design objective should be to produce buildings that serve their intended purpose and that permit the activities that take place in them to proceed with appropriate dispatch and ease. They should be efficient in their use and operation. In addition, commercial buildings should be capable of producing a profit.
An architect's buildings should be of good-quality construction, and should be able to be built at as low a cost as is practicable. An architect's designs should produce individual buildings that are aesthetically pleasing and that do not diminish the beauty of or reduce the quality of the natural environment around them. They should also produce the most practicable conservation of energy and the least practicable degradation of the environment.
1.1.1.1 Environmental Considerations
In addition to his or her responsibility to the public as defined by law and ethical considerations, an architect bears a responsibility to protect and maintain the environment. One factor in fulfilling this responsibility is to design buildings for sustainability, as discussed in Section 1.5. But protecting the environment goes far beyond designing green buildings. It also entails consideration of how a building works and how it fits into its environment. This concern must be considered not just for the present, but also throughout the life of the building.
A building should be designed so that it fits within its site and does not overpower the environment. Fitting is accomplished by placing and orientating building elements to take the best advantage of sun angles, site features, and prevailing weather patterns such as wind. Where practicable, earth-sheltered design and passive solar design can be used to reduce heating and cooling loads on a building. Refer to Section 16.6 for a discussion of solar heating and cooling.
Whenever possible, buildings should be sited so as to preserve as much of the existing vegetation and land features as is practicable. Means should also be provided to assure the protection of existing preservable vegetation and land features, such as wetlands and waterways, from damage during construction.
Where possible, construction waste should be reduced to the smallest amount possible, which can be aided by selecting materials that have little waste and by employing off-site prefabrication of building elements. Debris and waste should be recycled where possible, preferably on the construction site.
Most jurisdictions require the prevention of storm sewer water and groundwater pollution by prescribed methods of control. This should be accomplished whether or not it is required by law or code.
Designing buildings for energy conservation is discussed in Chapters 16 and 17; for sound reduction, refer to Chapter 12.
1.1.1.2 Occupant Health Considerations
It is important to consider the health of the occupants when designing a building. It is necessary, for instance, to design heating, cooling, and ventilating systems that will not introduce toxic gases into the building or the external environment. Ductwork should be easy to clean internally and maintain. Design of ventilating systems is discussed in Chapter 16.
In creating a healthy environment in a building, it is important to select nontoxic building materials. Emanation of toxic compounds and gases from building materials can create a condition known as “sick building syndrome” and can cause serious conditions such as allergies and even cancer. In addition, products that are known to have high rates of outgassing of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) should be avoided. Even the materials necessary to clean some building products can lead to indoor air pollution.
Another factor in maintaining a healthy building is the control of moisture intrusion and condensation, which can lead to the growth of mold and mildew. Conditions that create condensation problems are discussed in Chapter 16. Control of moisture and free water penetration are discussed in Chapter 7.
1.1.2 THE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TEAM
Many organizations and individuals must work together to produce buildings. These include owners, design professionals, constructors, members of supporting professions and industries, and sometimes construction managers.
Owners are the architect's clients. They are not necessarily the users of a building, but they conceive, finance, and usually own the project.
A design professional is a person or organization that designs a construction project. The prime design professional is the one who is hired by the owner to lead the design team. In building construction projects, the prime professional is usually an architect. An engineer may be the prime design professional on some primarily engineering projects—for example, in the construction of bridges or in the major renovation of an existing heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system. In this section, it is assumed that the project being considered is a building and that the prime design professional is an architect. In other project types, the chores here delineated as the responsibility of the architect may fall to an engineer as the prime design professional for a particular project.
It is ordinarily the architect's responsibility to (1) determine the legal, financial, and other constraints on project design, (2) program and design the project, (3) produce contract documents, (4) provide professional services during the bidding or negotiation phase, and (5) provide construction contract administration services. For a residence or other small building, an architect may carry out these functions alone. Larger and more complicated buildings often present design problems that are beyond the expertise of most architects. For these more complicated building construction projects, an architect functions as a member, usually as the leader, of a team of design professionals that includes structural, mechanical, civil, and electrical engineers, and interior designers, who function as consultants to the architect.
The architect and each of the architect's consultants will design, produce construction documents, and provide construction contract administration for the one portion of a building's components that falls within his or her field of expertise. The architect coordinates the activities of all design team members.
The construction process often also requires input from a second group of design professionals working as consultants, either to the owner directly or to one of the team members. These other professionals include, but are not limited to, those with special knowledge about schools, hospitals, food service facilities, laboratories, industrial complexes, computer systems, communication systems, furniture, specialized equipment, and many other components. The architect usually coordinates the activities of these other professionals.
Constructors, also called builders, are usually a group of organizations that together erect construction projects. They also provide most of the training of construction workers (Fig. 1.1-1). They consist of many types of contractors, including, but not limited to, general contractors, who oversee the work of, and usually hire, the others; and specialty, or trade, contractors, such as those who provide sitework, excavation, concrete, masonry, steel, carpentry, casework, moisture protection, doors, windows, finishes, specialties, equipment, and conveying, plumbing, electrical, and mechanical systems. Supporting these contractors are suppliers, who provide construction equipment, such as cranes, and product suppliers who furnish the materials, products, systems, and equipment that go into a building.
FIGURE 1.1-1 An instructor in a construction firm works with an electrical technician student.
(Courtesy BE&K.)
Supporting professions and industries include, but are not limited to, construction managers (see Section 1.9); legal professionals; accountants; lenders and investors, who provide construction money and long-term loans that permit construction projects to be erected; insurance providers; testing and research agencies, which develop new products and test existing ones; and regulators, including code and law writers and enforcers, who control health and safety issues, aesthetics, environmental issues, zoning, utilities, financial institutions, and design professionals' licensing and practices.
1.1.3 BUILDING USE TYPES
Construction projects can be identified by their use: residential, commercial (stores, office buildings, etc.), institutional (hospitals, schools, jails, etc.), industrial (manufacturing, laboratories, etc.), and nonbuilding types (bridges, towers, etc.). From this point forward, this chapter addresses only those building construction projects for which an architect is the primary professional. In such projects, it is the architect's job to determine the design requirements specific to each use. For example, there is little resemblance between the requirements for a single-family residence and those of a hospital. There may be major differences even within a group. There are great differences, for example, between the requirements for a single-family residence and a high-rise apartment building. A local jail will probably bear little resemblance to a federal prison.
Some buildings are designed for common use, meaning that they have more than one use type in the same structure. Street-front stores may have residential or office spaces above them. High-rise buildings may house commercial uses on the lower floors, office uses on intermediate floors, and apartments on the upper floors.
1.1.4 BUILDING SHAPE TYPES
Buildings take many forms and shapes, depending on their use, the materials used to build them, the needs and desires of the owner, the construction budget, the building's potential operating costs, and the designer's preferences. Buildings other than single-family residences and townhouses are so varied in size and shape as to make simplification of their types difficult (Fig. 1.1-2). However, some basic types and construction methods can be identified (Fig. 1.1-3).
FIGURE 1.1-2 Modern buildings are seldom rectangles.
(Honvest Corporation, Honolulu, Hawaii. Architect Leo A. Daly and Associates. Photo courtesy Bethlehem Steel Corporation.).
FIGURE 1.1-3 Basic building types for other than single-family residential buildings: (a) one-story; (b) one-story with basement; (c) one-story with multiple framing bays; (d–f) typical roof shapes; and (g) multistory.
(Drawing by HLS)
The simplest building is a one-story, single-span, slab-on-grade structure with a flat roof (Fig. 1.1-3a). Similar buildings with basements are also commonly built (Fig. 1.1-3b). Single-story structures with more than one structural span (Fig. 1.1-3c), in which one or more intermediate rows of walls or columns supports the roof structure, enclose more space per unit of exterior wall cladding than do smaller buildings.
Single-story buildings may also have full or partial basements. The structural systems in buildings of this type may be concrete, masonry, steel-framed, or wood-framed bearing walls with steel, concrete, or wood roof framing systems; steel, concrete, or wood interior and exterior columns with steel, concrete, or wood roof framing; or a combination of these systems. Foundations are usually poured concrete, but treated wood foundations are sometimes used (see Section 6.5). The roof of a single-story building may be either flat or any of a wide variety of shapes (Figs. 1.1-3d–f). Roof decks may be of wood, steel, or concrete. Basements may have either poured concrete or reinforced masonry walls, depending on the level of the earth against the wall and the height and hydrostatic head of adjacent underground water. Floors above basements may be steel-framed with a concrete or wood floor, concrete-framed with a concrete floor, steel-framed with a concrete floor, wood-framed with a wood floor, or a combination of these systems.
The same principles apply to multistory structures (Fig. 1.1-3g). The construction materials and structural systems in multistory structures and the height of such buildings are usually dictated by economic factors, such as land cost, but may be affected by codes and laws that restrict building height, land area coverage, or the materials that may be used. Fire codes, for example, may restrict the types of construction systems and the materials that may be left exposed. Many fire codes do not permit wood construction or the exposure of wood finishes on the exterior of buildings in certain locations.
Multistory buildings require less roof surface than single-story buildings with the same floor area. This results in a savings in the cost of roofing materials. In addition, multistory buildings require less land per unit of usable space. Because of their higher ratio of interior space to building shell area, they are also generally more energy efficient than single-story buildings. Except in rare instances, these advantages increase with the number of stories. The lower costs are somewhat offset by the increased costs for maintenance of the exterior surfaces of multistory buildings, the relatively high costs of materials that can be used there, and the increased cost of construction associated with moving materials to high levels and working with them far above ground level.
Low-rise multistory buildings may be of steel or concrete construction or a combination of these. Some even have masonry bearing walls. Steel columns and concrete floors are common. Foundations are usually poured concrete spread footings, although poor soil conditions sometimes dictate the use of piles or caissons.
High-rise buildings are usually framed in steel, with thin concrete floor slabs, because concrete structures of great height have heavier and larger framing members than steel structures, which reduces the amount of usable space and increases the cost of construction. Some recent very high buildings have been designed as a series of steel shells or tubes that extend for the entire height of the building; others have been designed using the same principles as tall radio and television towers. Foundations are either poured concrete footings or pads, piles, or caissons, depending on the soil conditions and the size and load imposed on the soil by the building.
Sometimes the desire to create a statement for ego-enhancing or advertising purposes affects the size, height, and appearance of a building. For example, a corporation may wish to use its headquarters building as a symbol or may just want to own the tallest, largest, or most spectacular building in town.
Multistory buildings need elevators or escalators to make their use practicable. In addition, in most types of uses, federal accessibility laws and rules make elevators or wheelchair lifts a legal requirement in every building that is not inherently accessible to the handicapped (see Section 1.4), which, of course, includes every multistory building. The additional cost of this vertical transportation must be considered in deciding whether to construct a multistory building.
The basic building types used in single-family and townhouse construction are easier to define. Figure 1.1-4 shows some common types. Most of these types are also used for buildings other than single-family homes or townhouses, however, so they should not be thought of for only these restricted applications. The most prevalent of these is a one-story building (Fig. 1.1-4a), because this type provides the most size and shape variations. These buildings may or may not contain a basement. Their roofs may be sloped, as shown, or flat.
FIGURE 1.1-4 Basic single-family residential building types: (a) single-story; (b) one-and-one-half-story; (c) two-story or higher; (d) bilevel; (e) split-level; and (f) bilevel/split-entry.
(Drawing by HLS)
One-and-one-half-story buildings, with or without basements (Fig. 1.1-4b), are sometimes used for housing. They offer more living space than single-story buildings with a minimum of additional cost. The second-floor space varies with the building size and roof slope. Light, ventilation, and a view can be provided by dormers.
One-and-one-half-story buildings are seldom built for other types of uses because their inherently small second-floor rooms, with their sloped ceilings, while adequate for sleeping rooms, often do not make satisfactory work spaces.
Two-story (Fig. 1.1-4c) or taller buildings, with or without basements, provide the maximum usable area at relatively low cost. Two- and three-story single-family houses and townhouses are common. These types of buildings can reduce construction costs, depending on the value of the land. When they must be accessible to the handicapped (see Section 1.4), buildings of more than one story require elevators, as described earlier for multistory buildings. Bilevel buildings (Fig. 1.1-4d) are well suited for single-family houses, townhouses, or small commercial buildings in hillside locations. They provide habitable space at both grade levels when connected with full flights of stairs. In certain types of uses, accessibility restrictions may require that elevators be included. This configuration can also be used for two different occupancies, such as an apartment on one level and a small store on the other. In this case, both levels can be easily made independently accessible to the handicapped. Roofs may be either sloped, as shown, or flat.
Split-level (Fig. 1.1-4e) and bilevel/split-entry (Fig. 1.1-4f) buildings are used mostly for single-family houses and townhouses. They are infrequently used for other purposes because of the difficulty of making them accessible to the handicapped. Split-level houses offer distinct separation of functions, either on three levels or four, including a basement. These are best suited for sloping lots. They offer numerous design possibilities but can have awkward proportions if not carefully designed.
Bilevel/split-entry buildings are also best suited to sloping lots. They are characterized by a split foyer between two full living levels. This configuration can provide either a sunken two-story (or more) house without a basement or a raised one-story (or more) house with a finished basement.
1.1.5 CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS AND METHODS
The selection of construction methods and systems that produce the basic building types shown in Figures 1.1-3 and 1.1-4 is usually governed by three criteria: functional requirements, cost, and the desired appearance.
These basic criteria may require a consideration of climate, site topography, initial costs, maintenance costs, building codes, zoning ordinances or other laws, availability of materials and labor, builder resourcefulness and size, owner taste, local custom, and other factors.
The selection of methods and systems is further complicated by the thousands of materials, products, and construction system choices available, many of which are interdependent. Sometimes the relationship of these building elements to each other will create situations in which the construction method or system is the major influence on a building's design. For example, the selection of a dome as the means to roof a coliseum may dictate that the shape of the building be circular or near-circular. Conversely, design requirements may dictate the framing system. A dome, for example, may be a poor choice for roofing a theater because of the inherent acoustical difficulties of a dome and because a circular building may not be preferable for the kind of theater that is desired. The cost and availability of very large laminated wood (gluelam) structural elements, as compared with smaller gluelam units, may influence the width or even the shape of a church, or the way in which the gluelam units are fitted together to make a roof structure. The permissible span of the available wood decking may further influence the spacing of these gluelam units or the design of the roof structure and the placement of purlins.
Although there have been experiments with a few revolutionary construction systems since World War II, most new homes and many small commercial and institutional buildings in the United States are still built using conventional light-wood-platform framing (see Chapter 6), often with wood-truss-framed roofs. In many areas, the use of preassembled components, such as those discussed in Chapter 6, is common. In the future, advanced industrialization techniques using new materials and methods may offer new construction forms far different from those typical today.
Other basic systems in use today include wood-post-and-beam framing and wood-pole construction (see Chapter 6); masonry bearing-wall construction (see Chapter 4), sometimes with concrete floors (see Chapter 3), often supported on metal framing or bar joists; concrete-framed construction; and structural steel-framed construction and light-gauge metal framing of walls and roofs (see Chapter 5).
In small construction, conventional wood framing still offers many advantages. As a complete construction system, it still is one of the most economical ways to build. The ease of working and fastening wood together with simple tools provides flexibility, which permits job changes without extensive reengineering. Wood framing is still the basis for most building codes and labor practices and will probably remain so for some time to come. Conventional framing is adaptable to site fabrication by the smallest builder handling each member piece by piece, as well as to off-site fabrication of individual pieces into larger preassembled components that require additional manpower or machinery for erection.
1.1.6 THE FUTURE
Further industrialization, using more and larger prefinished and prefabricated components, appears essential to help offset the rising costs of land, labor, and materials. Off-site fabrication permits maximum utilization of labor and materials under factory-controlled conditions with little loss in on-site time owing to bad weather. Efficiency may be increased with the use of power tools and machinery; volume purchasing of materials and stockpiling of finished parts is possible; greater convenience for workers and better protection for finished materials is provided; and site erection of components can usually be accomplished more economically and in less time by semiskilled or even unskilled labor.
To save costs, mechanical components for small buildings have been developed that combine a furnace, air conditioner, water heater, and electric power panel in one package. Larger mechanical components include completely furnished kitchens and bathrooms. The concept of prefinishing complete rooms has been extended to prefabricating as much as half of a small building, such as a house, so that upon setting and joining two halves, an entire building is completed. Future developments may include assembling an entire building and completely finishing it prior to site placement.
Some future building construction methods will be highly sophisticated and closely integrated systems. For instance, integrated floor and ceiling systems available for use in commercial construction include structure, lighting, acoustical control, heating, cooling, and air distribution in a single system.
Components should be capable of satisfying varying design requirements; should permit simple modifications in the field in case of errors; and should be sized for ease of shipping, storage, and assembly. As component size increases, design and construction problems increase and design flexibility is lessened. The dimensions of large units are restricted to what can be transported physically and legally over the highways, and larger components usually require more manpower and larger erection equipment at the site.
Accordingly, the design, engineering, or selection of preassembled components requires judgments between size and flexibility. The most useful systems will combine the advantages of fully standardized factory-built modular units, which capitalize on the inherent savings resulting from repetitive production, and those that offer the design advantages of custom fabrication in the field.
Unfortunately, there are also certain disadvantages associated with prefabrication that have so far limited its use. For example, to be profitable, large components require a large market willing to accept a standardized design, which has not been forthcoming. In comparison, because they can be adapted to many building sizes, shapes, and designs, there is a huge market for prefabricated roof trusses, making them relatively inexpensive and readily available.
There are also potential disputes among construction trade unions and between trade unions and manufacturers about the right to do certain work. Union-member plumbers, for example, are not likely to be pleased when the plumbing piping and fixtures in a prefabricated building are installed by nonunion factory workers.
Other problems with prefabrication include consumer and builder resistance to prefabricated structures associated with the preconceived notion that prefabricated buildings will be shabbily constructed and look like house trailers. In fact, while the construction may actually be superior to that of stick-built units, the appearance possibilities are somewhat limited, and design variety is difficult to achieve.
A final deterrent to prefabrication is the lack of consistency among building codes. These differences can require slight, but costly, modifications in prefabricated units to comply with the codes in different jurisdictions.
